Transcriber’s Notes.
The spelling, punctuation and hyphenation from the original has been
retained except for apparent typographical errors.
Italic text is marked _thus_.
Bold text is marked =thus=.
In Chapter ‘FORMULAS AND TABLES’,
‘7. WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS....’
[square] represents a square symbol in the original and
[round] represents a circular symbol.
[Illustration: A MANUAL TRAINING FORGE SHOP]
FORGE WORK
BY
WILLIAM L. ILGEN
FORGING INSTRUCTOR, CRANE TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
WITH EDITORIAL REVISION BY
CHARLES F. MOORE
HEAD OF MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT, CENTRAL HIGH
SCHOOL, NEWARK, NEW JERSEY
NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY
WILLIAM L. ILGEN.
FORGE WORK.
W. P. I
PREFACE
Teachers of forge work generally supply their own course of instruction
and arrange the exercises for practice. The necessary explanations and
information are given orally, and hence often with very unsatisfactory
results, as the average student is not able to retain all the essential
points of the course. It was the desire to put this instruction in some
permanent form for the use of forge students that led the author to
undertake this work.
The author wishes to express his thanks for the advice and
encouragement of his fellow-teachers, Dr. H. C. Peterson, Mr. Frank
A. Fucik, and Mr. Richard Hartenberg. Special obligations are due to
Mr. Charles F. Moore, Head of the Mechanical Department in the Central
Commercial and Manual Training High School of Newark, New Jersey, for
his valuable editorial service.
Figures 146, 147, 150, 153, 157, and 158 have been reproduced,
by permission of the publishers, from “Manufacture of Iron” and
“Manufacture of Steel,” copyrighted 1902, by the International Textbook
Company. Acknowledgments are due also to the Inland Steel Company for
the privilege of using Figures 145, 148, 149, 159-163, 166; and to the
Columbia Tool Steel Company for the use of Figures 151, 152, 154-156.
WILLIAM L. ILGEN.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER I. TOOLS AND APPLIANCES.--1. The Forge; 2.
Fire Tools; 3. Fuels; 4. The Anvil; 5. The Hammers; 6.
The ball peen hammer; 7. The cross peen hammer; 8. The
straight peen hammer; 9. The sledges; 10. The Tongs;
11. The flat-jawed tongs; 12. The hollow bit tongs;
13. The pick-up tongs; 14. The side tongs; 15. The
chisel tongs; 16. The link tongs; 17. The tool or box
tongs; 18. Anvil and Forging Tools; 19. The hardy; 20.
The cold and hot cutters; 21. The hot cutter; 22. The
flatter; 23. The square- and round-edged set hammers;
24. The punches; 25. The top and bottom swages; 26.
The top and bottom fullers; 27. The button head set or
snap; 28. The heading tool; 29. The swage block; 30.
The surface plate; 31. The tapered mandrels; 32. Bench
and Measuring Tools; 33. The bench or box vise; 34. The
chisels; 35. The center punch; 36. The rule; 37. The
dividers; 38. The calipers; 39. The scriber or scratch
awl; 40. The square; 41. The bevel; 42. The hack saw;
43. The files 1
CHAPTER II. FORGING OPERATIONS.--44. The Hammer Blows;
45. The upright blow; 46. The edge-to-edge blow; 47.
The overhanging blow; 48. The beveling or angle blows;
49. The leverage blows; 50. The backing-up blows;
51. The shearing blow; 52. Forging; 53. Drawing; 54.
Bending; 55. Upsetting; 56. Forming; 57. Straightening;
58. Twisting; 59. Welding; 60. The Material for
Welding; 61. Heating; 62. Scarfing; 63. The lap weld;
64. The cleft weld; 65. The butt weld; 66. The jump
weld; 67. The V weld 30
CHAPTER III. PRACTICE EXERCISES.--68. Staple; 69. Draw
Spike; 70. S Hook; 71. Pipe Hook; 72. Gate Hook; 73.
Door Hasp; 74. Hexagonal Head Bolt; 75. Square-cornered
Angle; 76. Fagot Welding; 77. Round Weld; 78. Flat
Right-angled Weld; 79. T Weld; 80. Chain Making; 81.
Welded Ring; 82. Chain Swivel; 83. Chain Swivel; 84.
Chain Grabhook 58
CHAPTER IV. TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL.--85. Selecting and
Working Steel; 86. Uses of Different Grades of Steel;
87. Injuries; 88. Annealing; 89. Hardening and
Tempering; 90. Casehardening 83
CHAPTER V. TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION.--91. Tongs;
92. Heavy Flat Tongs; 93. Light Chain Tongs; 94. Lathe
Tools; 95. Brass Tool; 96. Cutting-off or Parting Tool;
97. Heavy Boring Tool; 98. Light Boring or Threading
Tool; 99. Diamond Point Tool; 100. Right Side Tool;
101. Forging Tools; 102. Cold Chisel; 103. Hot Cutter;
104. Cold Cutter; 105. Square-edged Set; 106. Hardy;
107. Flatter; 108. Small Crowbar; 109. Eye or Ring
Bolts; 110. Calipers; 111. Stock Calculation for Bending 96
CHAPTER VI. STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES.--112. A
Forging; 113. The Drop Hammer; 114. Presses; 115. The
Steam Hammer; 116. Steam Hammer Tools; 117. The hack
or cutter; 118. The circular cutter; 119. The trimming
chisel; 120. The cold cutter; 121. The checking tool or
side fuller; 122. The fuller; 123. The combined spring
fullers; 124. The combination fuller and set; 125. The
combined top and bottom swages; 126. The top and bottom
swages; 127. The bevel or taper tool; 128. The V block;
129. The yoke or saddle; 130. Bolsters or collars; 131.
Punches; 132. Steam Hammer Work; 133. Crank Shaft; 134.
Connecting Rod; 135. Rod Strap; 136. Eccentric Jaw;
137. Hand Lever; 138. Connecting Lever; 139. Solid
Forged Ring; 140. Double and Single Offsets 123
CHAPTER VII. ART SMITHING AND SCROLL WORK.--141. Art
Smithing; 142. Scroll Fastenings; 143. Scroll Former;
144. Bending or Twisting Fork; 145. Bending or Twisting
Wrench; 146. Clip Former; 147. Clip Holder; 148.
Clip Tightener or Clincher; 149. Jardinière Stand or
Taboret; 150. Umbrella Stand; 151. Reading Lamp; 152.
Andirons and Bar; 153. Fire Set; 154. Fire Set
Separated 146
CHAPTER VIII. IRON ORE, PREPARATION AND SMELTING.--155.
Iron Ore; 156. Magnetite; 157. Red hematite; 158.
Limonite or brown hematite; 159. Ferrous carbonate;
160. The Value of Ores; 161. Preparation of Ores;
162. Weathering; 163. Washing; 164. Crushing; 165.
Roasting or calcination; 166. Fuels; 167. Fluxes; 168.
The Blast; 169. The Reduction or Blast Furnace; 170.
Classification of Pig Iron; 171. Bessemer iron; 172.
Basic iron; 173. Mill iron; 174. Malleable iron; 175.
Charcoal iron; 176. Foundry iron; 177. Grading Iron 161
CHAPTER IX. THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL.--178.
Refining Pig Iron; 179. The Open-hearth or Finery
Process; 180. The Puddling Process; 181. Steel; 182.
The Crucible Process; 183. The Bessemer Process; 184.
The Open-hearth Process 177
FORMULAS AND TABLES 197
INDEX 207
DEDICATED
TO THE MEMORY OF
MR. DAVID GORRIE
[Illustration: FIG. 1.—THE FORGE.]
FORGE WORK
CHAPTER I
TOOLS AND APPLIANCES
=1. The Forge.=—The forge is an open hearth or fireplace used by
the blacksmith for heating his metals. The kind most commonly used by
the general smiths is such as can be seen in small villages or where
the ordinary class of blacksmithing is done. (See Fig. 1.)
Forges are usually built of brick; in form they are square or
rectangular, and generally extend out from a side wall of the shop. The
chimney is built up from the middle of the left side and is provided
with a hood _B_, which projects over the fire sufficiently to catch the
smoke and convey it to the flue.
The fire is kindled on the hearth _A_ under the hood and over the
tuyère iron. This iron, the terminal of the blast pipe that leads from
the bellows _E_, is made in various forms and of cast iron; sometimes
it has a large opening at the bottom, but often it has none.
The bellows are operated by the lever _F_, which expands the sides and
forces air through the tuyère iron, thereby causing the fire to burn
freely and creating a temperature sufficient for heating the metals.
The coal box _C_ is to the right, where it is convenient. The coal
should always be dampened with water to prevent the fire from
spreading. This will produce a more intense and more concentrated heat,
so that a certain part of the metal can be heated without danger of
affecting the rest.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.—A MANUAL TRAINING FORGE.]
The water tub, or slack tub _D_, as it is more properly called, stands
at the right of the forge near the coal box, where the water for
dampening the coal can be most readily obtained. It is used for cooling
the iron or tongs and for tempering tools.
Modern forges are made of cast iron or sheet steel. There are various
kinds designed mostly for special purposes. They are generally used
with the fan blast instead of the bellows and have a suction fan for
withdrawing the smoke.
The forge illustrated in Fig. 2 was designed for manual training use
and is excellent for such a purpose. The bottom or base has six drawers
which provide convenient places for keeping exercises and individual
tools. As each drawer is provided with a special lock, much of the
trouble resulting from having the tools or the work mislaid or lost is
prevented.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.—SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE FORGE SHOWN IN FIG.
2.]
The hearth _A_ where the fire is built is provided with a cast-iron
fire pot or tuyère. This is constructed with an opening at the bottom
where there is a triangular tumbler which is cast upon a rod projecting
through the front of the forge; by revolving the rod and tumbler the
cinders or ashes can be dropped into the ash drawer at the bottom of
the forge without disturbing the fire. A sectional view of these parts
is shown in Fig. 3, also the valve which regulates the blast.
Suspended on the upper edge surrounding the hearth, and located to the
right and left of the operator, two boxes _C_ and _D_ are located,
which are used for storing an adequate supply of coal and water, where
they may be conveniently obtained.
In front are two handles; the upper one operates the clinker or ash
valve, the lower one regulates the blast.
The front and back edges surrounding the hearth are cut out, so that
long pieces of metal can be laid down in the fire. These openings can
be closed, when desired, with the hinged slides shown at _G_.
The hood _B_ projects over the fire sufficiently to catch the smoke and
convey it to the opening of the down-draft pipe _E_. When necessary
the hood can be raised out of the way with the lever _F_, which is
constructed with cogs and provided with a locking pin to keep the hood
in position.
=2. Fire Tools.=—The necessary tools required for maintaining the fire
and keeping it in good working condition are shown in Fig. 4. _A_ is
the poker with which the coke can be broken loose from the sides. _B_
is the rake with which the coke can be moved over the fire on top of
the metal to prevent the air from retarding the heating. The shovel _C_
is used for adding fresh coal, which should always be placed around the
fire and not on top. In this way unnecessary smoke will be prevented,
and the coal will slowly form into coke. The dipper _D_ is used for
cooling parts of the work that cannot be cooled in the water box. The
sprinkler _E_ is used for applying water to the coal, or around the
fire to prevent its spreading.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.—FIRE TOOLS.
_A_, poker; _B_, rake; _C_, shovel; _D_, dipper; _E_, sprinkler.]
=3. Fuels.=—The fuels used for blacksmithing are coal, coke, and
charcoal. Most commonly a bituminous coal of superior quality is used.
It should be free from sulphur and phosphorus, because the metals will
absorb a certain amount of these impurities if they are in the fuel.
The best grade of bituminous coal has a very glossy appearance when
broken.
Coke is used mostly in furnaces or when heavy pieces of metal are to be
heated. It is a solid fuel made by subjecting bituminous coal to heat
in an oven until the gases are all driven out.
Charcoal is the best fuel, because it is almost free from impurities.
The most satisfactory charcoal for forging purposes is made from
maple or other hard woods. It is a very desirable fuel for heating
carbon steel, because it has a tendency to impart carbon instead of
withdrawing it as the other fuels do to a small extent. It is the most
expensive fuel, and on that account, and because the heating progresses
much more slowly, it is not used so generally as it should be for
heating carbon steel.
=4. The Anvil.=—The anvil (Fig. 5) is indispensable to the smith, for
upon it the various shapes and forms of metal can be forged or bent
by the skilled workman. Except for a few that have been designed for
special purposes, it has a peculiar shape which has remained unchanged
for hundreds of years. That the ancient smiths should have designed one
to meet all requirements is interesting to note, especially as most
other tools have undergone extensive improvements.
Anvils are made of wrought iron or a special quality of cast iron. In
the latter case the face is sometimes chilled to harden it, or is made
of steel which is secured to the base when the anvil is cast. Those
that are made of wrought iron are composed of three pieces: the first
is the base _B_ which is forged to the required dimensions; the second
is the top which includes the horn _C_ and the heel; the third is the
face _A_ of tool steel which is welded to the top at the place shown by
the upper broken line. The top and base are then welded together at the
lower broken line.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.—THE ANVIL.]
After the anvil has been finished, the face is hardened with a constant
flow of water, then it is ground true and smooth and perfectly straight
lengthwise, but slightly convex crosswise, and both edges for about
four inches toward the horn are ground to a quarter round, thus
providing a convenient place for bending right angles. This round edge
prevents galling, which is liable to occur in material bent over a
perfectly square corner.
The round hole in the face is called the pritchel hole, over which
small holes can be punched in the material. When larger ones are to be
punched, they can be made on a nut or collar placed over the square
hole or hardy hole. This hardy hole is used mostly for holding all
bottom tools, which are made with a square shank fitted loosely to
prevent their becoming lodged.
The flat portion _D_ at the base of the horn, and a little below the
level of the face, is not steel, consequently not hardened, and is
therefore a suitable place for cutting or splitting, because there
is not much liability of injuring the cutter if the latter comes in
contact with the anvil.
The horn _C_ is drawn to a point and provides a suitable place for
bending and forming, also for welding rings, links, or bands.
The anvil is usually mounted on a wooden block and is securely held by
bands of iron as shown in the illustration, or it may be fastened by
iron pins driven around the concave sides of the base. It is sometimes
mounted on a cast-iron base made with a projecting flange which holds
the anvil in place.
A convenient height for the mounting is with the top of the face just
high enough to touch the finger joints of the clenched hand when one
stands erect. It is generally tipped forward slightly, but the angle
depends considerably upon the opinion of the workman who arranges it in
position.
For some time most of the anvils were made in Europe, but at present
the majority that are purchased here are made by American manufacturers.
=5. The Hammers.=—Of the multitude of tools used by mechanics, the
hammer is undoubtedly the most important one. There was a time when man
had only his hands to work with, and from them he must have received
his ideas for tools. Three prominent ones which are used extensively
at present were most probably imitations of the human hand. From the
act of grasping, man could easily have originated the vise or tongs for
holding materials that he could not hold with the hand. Scratching with
the finger nails undoubtedly impressed him with the need of something
that would be effective on hard substances, and so he devised such
tools as picks, chisels, and numerous other cutting instruments.
The clenched fist must have suggested the need of a hammer. The first
thing to be substituted for the fist was a stone held in the hand. Next
a thong of fiber or leather was wound around the stone, and used as a
handle. From these beginnings we have progressed until we have hammers
of all sizes and shapes, from the tiny hammer of the jeweler to the
ponderous sledge. Workmen have adapted various shapes of hammers to
their individual needs.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.—HAND HAMMERS.
_A_, ball peen hammer; _B_, cross peen hammer; _C_, straight peen
hammer.]
=6. The ball peen hammer= (_A_, Fig. 6), sometimes called a machinist’s
hammer, is very conveniently shaped for forging, as the ball end is
handy for drawing out points of scarfs or smoothing concave surfaces.
A suitable weight of this kind of hammer is one and a half pounds, but
lighter ones can be used to good advantage for fastening small rivets.
=7. The cross peen hammer= (_B_, Fig. 6) is one of the older styles and
is mostly employed in rough, heavy work or for spreading metal.
=8. The straight peen hammer= (_C_, Fig. 6) is shaped similarly to the
ball peen hammer, except that the peen is flattened straight with the
eye. It is convenient for drawing metal lengthwise rapidly.
=9. The sledges= (_A_, _B_, and _C_, Fig. 7) are used for striking on
cutters, swages, fullers, or other top tools; when they are used by the
helper, the blacksmith can be assisted in rapidly drawing out metal.
The only difference between these two sledges is in the peen--one is
crosswise with the eye and the other lengthwise. The double-faced
sledge _C_ is sometimes called a swing sledge, because it is used
mostly for a full swing blow.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.—THE SLEDGES.]
=10. The Tongs.=—There is an old saying that “a good mechanic can do
good work with poor tools,” which may be true; but every mechanic
surely should have good tools, on which he can rely and thereby have
more confidence in himself. Among the good tools that are essential for
acceptable smith work are the tongs.
Very few shops have a sufficient variety of tongs to meet all
requirements, and it is often necessary to fit a pair to the work to be
handled. Sometimes quite serious accidents happen because the tongs are
not properly fitted. They should always hold the iron securely and, if
necessary, a link should be slipped over the handles as shown in _B_,
Fig. 8. The workman is thus relieved from gripping the tongs tightly
and is allowed considerable freedom in handling his work.
=11. The flat-jawed tongs= are shown at _A_, Fig. 8. They are made in
various sizes to hold different thicknesses of material. Tongs of this
kind hold the work more securely if there is a groove lengthwise on the
inside of the jaw; the full length of the jaw always should grip the
iron.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.—THE TONGS.
_A_, flat-jawed tongs; _B_, hollow bit tongs; _C_, pick-up tongs;
_D_, side tongs; _E_, chisel tongs; _F_, link tongs; _G_, tool or box
tongs.]
=12. The hollow bit tongs=, shown at _B_, Fig. 8, are very handy for
holding round iron or octagonal steel. They can be used also for
holding square material, in which case the depressions in the jaws
should be V-shaped.
=13. The pick-up tongs= (_C_, Fig. 8) are useful for picking up large
or small pieces, as the points of the jaws are fitted closely together,
and the two circular openings back of the point will securely grip
larger pieces when seized from the side.
=14. The side tongs= (_D_, Fig. 8) are used for holding flat iron from
the side. Tongs for holding round iron from the side can be made in
this form with circular jaws.
=15. The chisel tongs= are shown at _E_, Fig. 8. One or more pairs of
these are necessary in all forge shops. As the hot and cold cutters
frequently get dull or broken, it will be necessary to draw them out
and retemper them; and, as the heads of these cutters become battered
considerably, they are difficult to hold without chisel tongs. The
two projecting lugs at the ends of the jaws fit into the eye, and the
circular bows back of them surround the battered head of the cutter, so
that it can be held without any difficulty.
=16. The link tongs= (_F_, Fig. 8) are as essential as anything else
required in making chains or rings of round material. They can be made
to fit any size of stock.
=17. The tool or box tongs= (_G_, Fig. 8) should be made to fit the
various sizes of lathe tool stock that are used. They should be made
substantially and fit the steel perfectly so that it can be held
securely and without danger of stinging the hand, while the tool
is being forged. Another style of tool tongs is made with one jaw
perfectly flat; on the other jaw, lugs are provided to hold the steel
firmly. These are not illustrated.
Almost an unlimited number of different tongs could be explained and
illustrated, but, from those given, any one should be able to add to or
change the tongs he has so that his material can be securely held.
=18. Anvil and Forging Tools.=—If a complete set of these tools were to
be illustrated and explained, a volume would be required. Even then,
the worker would very often be compelled to devise some new tool to
suit the particular work at hand. One advantage that the blacksmith has
over all other mechanics is that when a special tool is required, if he
is a thorough mechanic he can make it.
An almost unlimited number of tools might be required in a general
smith shop; but only such tools as are essential in manual training or
elementary smith work will be considered here.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.
_A_, hardy; _B_, cold cutter; _C_, hot cutter.]
=19. The hardy= (_A_, Fig. 9) should fit the hardy hole of the anvil
loosely enough so that it will not stick or wedge fast. It is made of
cast steel and should be tempered so that it will not chip or batter
from severe use. It is an indispensable tool, especially to one who
has to work without a helper, for with it iron can be cut either hot
or cold, and steel when it is heated. The material should be held on
the cutting edge of the hardy, then struck with the hammer. A deep cut
should be made entirely around the material, round, square, or flat,
so that it can be broken off by being held over the outer edge of the
anvil and struck a few downward blows with the hammer.
Material should not be cut through from one side, for the cut would
then be angular instead of square; furthermore, there would be the
effect of dulling the hardy if the hammer should come in contact with
it. The hardy is frequently used to mark iron where it is to be bent or
forged, but it is not advisable to use it for such purposes, unless the
subsequent operations would entirely remove the marks, for they might
be made deep enough to weaken the metal, especially at a bending point.
=20. The cold and hot cutters= (_B_ and _C_, Fig. 9) are made, as are
all other top tools, with an eye for inserting a handle, and should
be held by the workman while some one acting as his helper strikes
on them with the sledge. The handles can be of any convenient length
from eighteen inches to two feet. Cast steel should be used for making
both these cutters, but their shapes differ somewhat. The cold cutter
_B_ is forged considerably heavier on the cutting end than is the hot
cutter, in order to give it plenty of backing to withstand the heavy
blows that it receives. The cutting edge is ground convex to prevent
the possibility of the corners breaking off easily, and is ground more
blunt than the hot cutter. It should be used only to nick the metal,
which should then be broken off with the hammer or sledge, as described
in cutting iron with the hardy.
=21. The hot cutter= (_C_, Fig. 9) is drawn down, tapering from two
depressions or shoulders near the eye to an edge about 1/8 inch thick,
which is ground equally from both sides to form a cutting edge parallel
with the eye. It should be used exclusively for cutting hot metal,
because the shape and temper will not stand the cutting of cold iron.
In order to avoid dulling the cutter and the possibility of injuring
some one with the piece of hot metal that is being cut off, the cut
should be held over the outside edge of the anvil when the final blows
are being struck; the operation will then have a shearing action, and
the piece of metal will drop downward instead of flying upward.
Great care should be taken in hardening and tempering each of these
cutters to prevent possible injury from small particles of steel that
might fly from them if they were tempered too hard. The cold cutter
should be hard enough to cut steel or iron without being broken or
battered on its cutting edge. The hot cutter should not be quite so
hard and should be dipped in water frequently when it is being used to
prevent the temper from being drawn.
=22. The flatter= (_A_, Fig. 10) is as useful and as essential for the
production of smooth and nicely finished work as the finishing coat of
varnish on a beautiful piece of furniture. Any work that is worth doing
is certainly worth doing well, and in order to make forge work present
a finished appearance the smith should use the flatter freely. With
it the rough markings of the various forging tools or hammer can be
entirely removed. By using it while the work is at a dull red heat, and
by occasionally dipping the flatter in water before it is applied, all
the rough scale can be removed, thus leaving the work with a smooth,
finished appearance.
There are various sizes of this tool, but one with a 2-inch face is
convenient for use on light forgings. The edges of the face may be made
slightly round, so that markings will not be left on the work, but
frequently the edges are left perfectly square.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.
_A_, flatter; _B_, square-edged set hammer; _C_, round-edged set
hammer.]
It is not necessary to temper this tool; in fact, the constant
hammering on it has a tendency to crystallize the steel, often causing
it to break off at the eye. As the constant hammering on the head of
the flatter will also cause the head to become battered, it is good
practice frequently to draw out the head and lay the flatter aside to
cool. This will anneal the steel and prevent crystallization, at least
for some time.
=23. The square-and round-edged set hammers= (_B_ and _C_, Fig. 10)
are employed for various purposes. The former is used for making
square shoulders or depressions such as could not be produced with
the hand hammer alone, or for drawing metal between two shoulders
or projections. The latter is used for the same purposes, with the
exception that it produces a rounded fillet instead of a square corner.
It is also convenient for use in small places where the flatter cannot
be employed.
The sizes of these tools vary according to the requirements of the
work, but it is advisable to have about three sizes of the square-edged
one. A good outfit of set hammers consists of one 5/8-inch, one
3/4-inch, one 1-inch, all square-edged; and one round-edged set with a
1-1/4-inch face. These four should fulfill all requirements for light
forgings. These tools need not be tempered, for the reason explained in
connection with the flatter.
=24. The punches= (_A_, _B_, and _C_, Fig. 11) are merely samples
of the multitude of such tools that may be required. They may be of
various sizes, depending upon the requirements of the work, and either
round, square, or oval in shape at the end. The hand punch _A_ is
held with one hand while blows are delivered with the other. It is
convenient for punching holes in light pieces; but when the work is
heavy the intense heat from the metal makes it impossible to hold a
punch of this kind.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.—THE PUNCHES.]
In such cases the handle punches _B_ and _C_ are employed. They
eliminate the danger of burning the hand, but it is necessary to
have some one act as helper and do the striking. The proper way to
use a punch on hot metal is to drive it partly through, or until an
impression can be seen on the opposite side after the punch has been
removed; then the punch is placed on the impression and driven through
the metal while it is held over the pritchel hole, the hardy hole, or
anything that will allow the punch to project through without causing
the end to be battered. If heavy pieces of metal are to be punched, it
is a great advantage to withdraw the tool, drop a small piece of coal
into the hole, and cool the punch before again inserting it. The coal
prevents the tool from sticking fast, and the operation can be repeated
as often as necessary.
Punches need not be tempered, because the strength of the steel from
which they should be made will withstand the force of the blows, and
also because the metal is generally hot when the punches are used;
therefore the temper would be quickly drawn out of them. If sheet metal
or light material is to be punched cold, it is advisable to harden the
punch slightly; then the hole may be punched through from one side,
while the metal is held on something containing a hole slightly larger
than the punch. This method has the effect of producing a smoothly cut
hole, provided the metal is properly placed.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.—THE TOP AND BOTTOM SWAGES.]
=25. The top and bottom swages= (Fig. 12) are made with semicircular
grooves of different sizes to fit the various diameters of round
material. The former has an eye for the insertion of a handle by which
it is held when in use. The eye should be crosswise to the groove in
the face. The bottom swage is made with a square projecting shank to
fit loosely into the hardy hole of the anvil. It should be placed
in position for use with the groove crosswise to the length of the
anvil, unless the form of the forging should require otherwise. Swages
are conveniently used for smoothing round material after it has been
welded, or for swaging parts of a forging after they have been roughly
hammered out. By dipping the top swage in water occasionally while in
use, the work can be made much smoother and the scale of oxide removed;
this is called water swaging.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.—THE TOP AND BOTTOM FULLERS.]
=26. The top and bottom fullers= (Fig. 13) are made in pairs with
convex semicircular projections or working faces, whose diameters
should correspond, if intended to be used together. As the former is
quite frequently used alone, it may be made of any desired size. The
top fuller, like the top swage, is made to be used with a handle; the
bottom fuller, fitted to the anvil like a bottom swage, generally is
placed for use with the length of its face parallel to the length of
the anvil.
They are used together for forming depressions or shoulders on opposite
sides of the material; from the shoulders thus formed, the metal may
be forged without disturbing them. They are used also for rapidly
drawing out metal between shoulders or projections which may have been
previously made and are to be left undisturbed. The top fuller is used
singly in making scarfs for welding, in forming grooves, in smoothing
fillets and semicircular depressions, or in forming shoulders on only
one side of metal.
=27. The button head set or snap= (_A_, Fig. 14) as it is sometimes
called, has a hemispherical depression on its face. It is used for
making heads of rivets or finishing the heads of bolts. Only a few
different sizes are required, unless considerable riveting or bolt
making is to be done.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.
_A_, the button head set; _B_, the heading tool.]
=28. The heading tool= (_B_, Fig. 14) is used exclusively for forming
the heads of bolts or rivets. Formerly a very large assortment of these
tools was required in a general shop; but as bolts can now be made so
cheaply by modern machinery, there are not many made by hand. It would
be advisable to have a few general sizes, however, because they are
sometimes convenient in making other forgings, and bolt making affords
an instructive exercise.
=29. The swage block= (_A_, Fig. 15) rests on a cast-iron base _B_.
It is a very useful tool in any smith shop and does away with the
necessity of having a large assortment of bottom swages, as only top
swages will be required for large-sized material. The block is made of
cast iron and of different thicknesses. The depressions on the edges
include a graduated series of semicircular grooves that can be used in
place of bottom swages; a large segment of a circle, which is handy
in bending hoops or bands; graduated grooves for forming hexagonal
boltheads or nuts; and sometimes a V-shaped and a right-angled space
used for forming forgings.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.—THE SWAGE BLOCK.]
The holes through the blocks are round, square, or oblong. The round
ones can be used in place of heading tools for large sized bolts, or
in breaking off octagon or round steel after it has been nicked with
the cold cutter. The square holes may be used either for making and
shaping the face of a flatter or a round-edged set hammer, or in place
of a heading tool, when a square shoulder is required under the head.
They may be used, also, for breaking square steel. The oblong holes are
convenient for breaking lathe tool material. Some swage blocks have in
addition a hemispherical depression on the side, convenient for forming
dippers or melting ladles.
The base upon which the swage block rests is constructed with lugs on
the inner side, as indicated by the broken lines on the sketch. Upon
these it is supported, either flat or on any of its four edges. These
lugs prevent the swage block from tipping sidewise.
=30. The surface plate= (_C_, Fig. 16) is generally made of cast iron
about 1-1/2 to 2 inches thick, from 20 to 24 inches wide, and from 3
to 4 feet long. It should be planed perfectly smooth and straight on
its face, the edges slightly round. It should be supported on a strong
wooden bench _D_ and placed somewhere in the middle of the shop so
that it is accessible to all the workmen. On it work is tested to see
whether it is straight, perpendicular, or if projections are parallel.
The anvil is sometimes used for this purpose, but as it is subjected
to such severe use, the face becomes untrue and therefore cannot be
depended upon. A true surface plate is always reliable and convenient
for testing work.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.—THE SURFACE PLATE.]
=31. The tapered mandrels= (Fig. 17) are made of cast iron, and are
used for truing rings, hoops, bands, or anything that is supposed to
have a perfectly circular form. The height ranges from 2-1/2 to 5 feet;
the largest diameter varies from 8 to 18 inches. They are cone-shaped
with a smooth surface, and should be used with caution. The blows
should be delivered on the metal where it does not come in contact with
the mandrel; when bands of flat material are to be trued, the best
method is to place them on the mandrel from each side alternately.
Unless this precaution is observed, the band will be found tapered the
same as the mandrel. Alternating is not so necessary when bands or
rings of round material are handled.
Mandrels are sometimes made in two sections, as shown at _B_ and
_C_. As _B_ is made to fit into the top of _C_, the two parts become
continuous; the smaller one can also be held in the vise or swage
block and thus used separately. They are frequently made with a groove
running lengthwise, which allows work to be held with tongs and
provides a recess for any eyebolt or chain that may be attached to the
ring.
[Illustration: FIG. 17.—THE TAPERED MANDRELS.]
It should not be supposed that all mandrels are of this particular
form; any shape of bar, block, or rod of iron that is used for the
purpose of forming or welding a special shape is called a mandrel.
=32. Bench and Measuring Tools.=—Another set of blacksmith appliances
includes the bench vise, chisels, center punch, rule, dividers,
calipers, scriber, square, bevel, hack saw, and files.
[Illustration: FIG. 18.—THE BENCH VISE.]
=33. The bench or box vise= (Fig. 18) is not ordinarily used in general
blacksmithing. The back jaw of a general smith’s vise extends to the
floor, forming a leg, and is held in position on the floor by a
gudgeon on its end. This vise is not illustrated, because the bench or
box vise is preferable for manual training work.
The vise should be set so that the tops of the jaws are at the height
of the elbows,—a position convenient in filing. It is used for holding
the work for filing, chipping, twisting, and sometimes for bending. But
when it is used for bending, especially when bending a right angle, the
operation should be performed cautiously, for the sharp edges of the
jaws are very liable to cut the inner corner of the angle and cause a
gall which will weaken the metal at the bend.
=34. The chisels= (_A_ and _B_, Fig. 19) are very familiar, yet, though
they are so common, they are the most abused tools used by both skilled
and unskilled workmen. The mere name “cold chisel” seems to convey the
impression to most people that with it they ought to be able to cut
anything. But that impression is wrong; chisels ought to be made of
a certain grade of steel and drawn for either rough or smooth work,
as may be required. Then they should be properly tempered to cut the
material for which they are intended.
A chisel for rough, heavy work should not be drawn too thin or too
broad at the cutting edge. If it is flattened out into a fan-shaped
cutting edge, there should be no surprise if it breaks, for, in order
to make a chisel stand rough usage, it should have sufficient metal to
back up the corners. On the other hand, a chisel for smooth finishing
work can safely be drawn thin but not fan-shaped, as the cuts that
ought to be required of such a chisel should not be heavy. _A_ chisel
for ordinary work ought to be ground so that the two faces form an
angle of 60 degrees; if the work is heavy, it should be ground even
more blunt.
[Illustration: FIG. 19.
_A_, cold chisel; _B_, cape chisel; _C_, center punch; _D_, rule.]
The chisel illustrated at _A_ represents a common cold chisel, which
can be used for various purposes. The chisel _B_ is called a cape
chisel and is used for cutting and trimming narrow grooves and slots.
It is indispensable for cutting key seats in shafting or work of
that kind. On account of its being used in such narrow places it is
necessary to make the cutting edge somewhat fan-shaped to prevent the
chisel from sticking fast; but for additional strength the metal is
allowed to spread, as shown. When using the cape chisel, it is a good
practice occasionally to dip the cutting edge in some oily waste, which
will tend to prevent its wearing away or sticking.
=35. The center punch= (_C_, Fig. 19) should be made of the same
quality of material as the cold chisel. It can be made of steel from
1/4 to 5/8 of an inch in diameter; octagon steel is preferable. After
it has been roughly drawn out, it is ground to a smooth round point,
then it is tempered as hard as it will stand without breaking. It is
used for marking centers of holes to be drilled, or for marking metal
where it is to be bent, twisted, or forged. When used for marking hot
metal, it is frequently made with an eyehole in the body, so that a
small handle can be inserted; this will prevent burning the hands.
=36. The rule= (_D_, Fig. 19) should be of good quality. The one best
adapted for forge work is the 2-foot rule, which is jointed in the
center. It is 3/4 inch wide and is made of either tempered spring steel
or hard rolled brass.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.
_A_, dividers; _B_, calipers; _C_, scriber; _D_, square; _E_, bevel.]
=37. The dividers= (_A_, Fig. 20) are used for measuring distances and
for describing circles. The points are clamped in a rigid position with
the small thumbscrew, which comes in contact with the segmental arc.
Close adjustments can be made with the milled-edge nut on the end of
the segmental arc. When metal is to be bent to a circular form, a good
method is to rub chalk on the surface plate and describe the desired
curve on this chalk. As the markings thus made are not easily removed,
this plan is much better than drawing upon a board.
=38. The calipers= (_B_, Fig. 20) are used for measuring diameters,
widths, and thicknesses. Those illustrated are the kind generally
used in forge work. They are called double calipers and are the most
convenient because two dimensions can be determined by them. As the
accuracy of the work depends on them, they should be well made. In the
illustration here given, each bow is held securely by an individual
rivet. Sometimes they are secured with one; if so, the rivet should be
square in the straight central part and tightly fitted. The projecting
ends of the rivet should be filed round, and the holes in the bowed
sides should be made to fit the round ends of the rivet; then the sides
should be riveted on tight so that each bow may be moved independently
of the other.
=39. The scriber or scratch awl= (_C_, Fig. 20) is used in marking
holes, sawing, chipping, or in laying out distances, which can
afterward be marked with a center punch if required. It should
be made of a good quality of steel, and the point should be well
hardened so that it will cut through the surface scale of the metal. A
suitable-sized steel for making a scriber is 3/16 inch round and the
length over all about 6 inches.
=40. The square= (_D_, Fig. 20) is another indispensable tool when
accurate work is to be produced. Convenient sizes for manual training
work are the 8 × 12-inch, with a 16 × 24-inch for general use.
=41. The bevel= (_E_, Fig. 20) should be used when bending and laying
out angles of various degrees. When metal is to be bent to a given
angle, the pupil should set and use the bevel.
=42. The hack saw= (Fig. 21) is at present considered a necessary part
of any forge shop equipment. It is used for sawing iron or untempered
steel, and when a power shear is not included in the equipment,
considerable filing can be saved by sawing. The frame illustrated is
adjustable so that the blades can be made of different lengths and be
set at right angles to the frame, which is sometimes convenient.
When using the hack saw, make slow, full-swing strokes; when drawing
back for another stroke, it will prolong the efficiency of the blades
if the saw is raised up to prevent the teeth from bearing on the
metal, as the backward stroke is more destructive to the teeth than
the forward or cutting stroke. The blades are made from 8 to 12 inches
in length, 1/2 inch in width, and with from 14 to 25 teeth to the
inch. They are tempered so hard that they cannot be filed, but are so
inexpensive that when they cease to be efficient they may be thrown
away.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.—THE HACK SAW AND FILES.]
=43. The files= (Fig. 21) are illustrated merely to show that they are
to be used for special purposes. As finishing or filing is almost a
trade in itself, the file should not be used in blacksmithing, unless
it is especially necessary. A piece of smith’s work that has been
roughly forged is much more admirable than a highly polished piece that
has been filed into elegance.
Files are round, flat, square, half round, and of numerous other
shapes, and vary in lengths and cuts for rough or smooth filing. Any of
them may be used as required, but it should be remembered that filing
is not blacksmithing.
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
What is the main difference between the old type of smithing forge
and a modern one? How is the air supplied for each? What is a tuyère
iron? Describe the hearth. What kind of coal is used for forging?
Is coal the best fuel for heating all metals? Why is charcoal the
best fuel for heating carbon steel? How should the fire be built to
prevent making excess smoke? What other fuel is used in forging?
What kind of work is it used for? Describe the different parts of
the anvil. How is a cast-iron anvil hardened? How is a wrought-iron
anvil hardened? Name and describe the different kinds of hammers.
Why should the tongs fit properly the iron to be handled? Name and
describe the different tongs you have been made familiar with. How
would you secure the tongs to relieve the hand?
What is a hardy? What is it used for? Explain the proper method of
using it. Is it always good practice to use a hardy for marking the
iron? Why? What is the difference between a cold and a hot cutter?
What is the general use for a flatter? Should it be tempered?
Why? What are set hammers? What is a punch used for? Explain the
difference between a hand punch and a handle punch. When punching a
heavy piece of metal, how is the tool prevented from sticking fast?
Are all punches tempered? Why? Describe and explain the use of top
and bottom swages. How should the bottom swage be placed for use?
What is meant by water swaging? State the effect it has on the iron.
What are top and bottom fullers used for? Are they always used in
pairs? How is the bottom one placed for use? What are the button
head set and heading tool used for? What is the special advantage
of having a swage block? Explain some of the different uses of that
tool. What is the special use of the surface plate? What is the
tapered mandrel used for? Are all mandrels of this particular kind?
Explain others. Is it good practice to use the vise for bending? Why?
Describe the cold chisel. Should all cold chisels be made alike? What
is the center punch used for? Describe the other bench and measuring
tools mentioned. What is the special objection to using the files?