that be full far. The sight is shapen in this manner. In the middle of
the eye, that is, the black thereof, is a certain humour most pure and
clear. The philosophers call it crystalloid, for it taketh suddenly
divers forms and shapes of colours as crystal doth. The sight is a wit
of perceiving and knowing of colours, figures, and shapes, and outer
properties. Then to make the sight perfect, these things are needful,
that is to wit, the cause efficient, the limb of the eye convenient to
the thing that shall be seen, the air that bringeth the likeness to
the eye, and taking heed, and easy moving. The cause efficient is that
virtue that is called animal. The instrument and limb is the humour
like crystal in either eye clear and round. It is clear that by the
clearness thereof the eye may beshine the spirit, and air; it is round
that it be stronger to withstand griefs. The outer thing helping to
work, is the air, without which being a means, the sight may not be
perfect. It needeth to take heed, for if the soul be occupied about
other things than longeth to the sight, the sight is the less perfect.
For it deemeth not of the thing that is seen. And easy moving is
needful, for if the thing that is seen moveth too swiftly, the sight
is cumbered and disparcled with too swift and continual moving: as it
is in an oar that seemeth broken in the water, through the swift
moving of the water. In three manners the sight is made. One manner by
straight lines, upon the which the likeness of the thing that is seen,
cometh to the sight. Another manner, upon lines rebounded again: when
the likeness of a thing cometh therefrom to a shewer, and is bent, and
re-boundeth from the shewer to the sight. The third manner is by
lines, the which though they be not bent and rebounded, but stretched
between the thing that is seen and the sight: yet they pass not always
forthright, but other whiles they blench some whether, aside from the
straight way. And that is when divers manners spaces of divers
clearness and thickness be put between the sight and the thing that is
seen.
Aristotle rehearseth these five mean colours [between white and black]
by name, and calleth the first yellow, and the second citrine, and the
third red, the fourth purple, and the fifth green.
In the book Meteorics, a little before the end, Aristotle saith that
gold, as other metals, hath other matter of subtle brimstone and red,
and of quicksilver subtle and white. In the composition thereof is
more sadness of brimstone than of air and moisture of quicksilver, and
therefore gold is more sad and heavy than silver. In composition of
silver is more commonly quicksilver than white brimstone. Then among
metals nothing is more sad in substance, or more better compact than
gold. And therefore though it be put in fire, it wasteth not by
smoking and vapours, nor lesseth not the weight, and so it is not
wasted in fire, but if it be melted with strong heat, then if any
filth be therein, it is cleansed thereof. And that maketh the gold
more pure and shining. No metal stretcheth more with hammer work than
gold, for it stretcheth so, that between the anvil and the hammer
without breaking and rending in pieces it stretcheth to gold foil. And
among metals there is none fairer in sight than gold, and therefore
among painters gold is chief and fairest in sight, and so it
embellisheth colour and shape, and colour of other metals. Also among
metals is nothing so effectual in virtue as gold. Plato describeth the
virtue thereof and saith that it is more temperate and pure than other
metals. For it hath virtue to comfort and for to cleanse superfluities
gathered in bodies. And therefore it helpeth against leprosy and
meselry. The filings of gold taken in meat or in drink or in medicine,
preserve and let breeding of leperhood, or namely hideth it and maketh
it unknown.
Orpiment is a vein of the earth, or a manner of free stone that
cleaveth and breaketh, and it is like to gold in colour: and this is
called Arsenic by another name, and is double, red and citron. It hath
kind of brimstone, of burning and drying. And if it be laid to brass,
it maketh the brass white, and burneth and wasteth all bodies of
metal, out take gold.
Though silver be white yet it maketh black lines and strakes in the
body that is scored therewith. In composition thereof is quicksilver
and white brimstone, and therefore it is not so heavy as gold. There
are two manner of silvers, simple and compound. The simple is
fleeting, and is called quicksilver; the silver compounded is massy
and sad, and is compounded of quicksilver pure and clean, and of white
brimstone, not burning, as Aristotle saith.
Quicksilver is a watery substance medlied strongly with subtle earthly
things, and may not be dissolved: and that is for great dryness of
earth that melteth not on a plain thing. Therefore it cleaveth not to
thing that it toucheth, as doth the thing that is watery. The
substance thereof is white: and that is for clearness of clear water,
and for whiteness of subtle earth that is well digested. Also it hath
whiteness of medlying of air with the aforesaid things. Also
quicksilver hath the property that it curdeth not by itself kindly
without brimstone: but with brimstone, and with substance of lead, it
is congealed and fastened together. And therefore it is said, that
quicksilver and brimstone is the element, that is to wit matter, of
which all melting metal is made. Quicksilver is matter of all metal,
and therefore in respect of them it is a simple element. Isidore saith
it is fleeting, for it runneth and is specially found in silver forges
as it were drops of silver molten. And it is oft found in old dirt of
sinks, and in slime of pits. And also it is made of minium done in
caverns of iron, and a patent or a shell done thereunder; and the
vessel that is anointed therewith, shall be be-clipped with burning
coals, and then the quicksilver shall drop. Without this silver nor
gold nor latten nor copper may be overgilt. And it is of so great
virtue and strength, that though thou do a stone of an hundred pound
weight upon quicksilver of the weight of two pounds, the quicksilver
anon withstandeth the weight. And if thou doest thereon a scruple of
gold, it ravisheth unto itself the lightness thereof. And so it
appeareth it is not weight, but nature to which it obeyeth. It is best
kept in glass vessels, for it pierceth, boreth, and fretteth other
matters.
If an adamant be set by iron, it suffereth not the iron to come to the
magnet, but it draweth it by a manner of violence from the magnet, so
that though the magnet draweth iron to itself, the adamant draweth it
away from the magnet. It is called a precious stone of reconciliation
and of love. For if a woman be away from her housebond, or trespasseth
against him: by virtue of this stone, she is the sooner reconciled to
have grace of her husband.
Crystal is a bright stone and clear, with watery colour. Men trowe
that it is of snow or ice made hard in space of many years. This stone
set in the sun taketh fire, insomuch if dry tow be put thereto, it
setteth the tow on fire. That crystal materially is made of water,
Gregory on Ezekiel i. saith: water, saith he, is of itself fleeting,
but by strength of cold it is turned and made stedfast crystal. And
hereof Aristotle telleth the cause in his Meteorics: there he saith
that stony things of substance of ore are water in matter. Ricardus
Rufus saith: stone ore is of water: but for it hath more of dryness of
earth than things that melt, therefore they were not frozen only with
coldness of water, but also by dryness of earth that is mingled
therewith, when the watery part of the earth and glassy hath mastery
on the water, and the aforesaid cold hath the victory and mastery. And
so Saint Gregory his reason is true, that saith, that crystal may be
gendered of water.
In old time or the use of iron was known, men eared land with brass,
and fought therewith in war and battle. That time gold and silver were
forsaken, and gold is now in the most worship, so age that passeth and
vadeth changeth times of things. Brass and copper are made in this
manner as other metals be, of brimstone and quicksilver, and that
happeneth when there is more of brimstone than of quicksilver, and the
brimstone is earthy and not pure, with red colour and burning, and
quicksilver is mean and not subtle. Of such medlying brass is
gendered.
Electrum is a metal and hath that name, for in the sunbeam it shineth
more clear than gold or silver. And this metal is more noble than
other metals. And hereof are three manners of kinds. The third manner
is made of three parts of gold, and of the fourth of silver: and kind
electrum is of that kind, for in twinkling and in light it shineth
more clear than all other metal, and warneth of venom, for if one dip
it therein, it maketh a great chinking noise, and changeth oft into
divers colours as the rainbow, and that suddenly.
Heliotrope is a precious stone, and is green, and sprinkled with red
drops, and veins of the colour of blood. If it be put in water before
the sunbeams, it maketh the water seethe in the vessel that it is in,
and resolveth it as it were into mist, and soon after it is resolved
into rain-drops. Also it seemeth that this same stone may do wonders,
for if it be put in a basin with clear water, it changeth the sunbeams
by rebounding of the air, and seemeth to shadow them, and breedeth in
the air red and sanguine colour, as though the sun were in eclypse and
darkened. An herb of the same name, with certain enchantments, doth
beguile the sight of men that look thereon, and maketh a man that
beareth it not to be seen.
Though iron cometh of the earth, yet it is most hard and sad, and
therefore with beating and smiting it suppresseth and dilateth all
other metal, and maketh it stretch on length and on breadth. Iron is
gendered of quicksilver thick and not clean, full of earthy holes, and
of brimstone, great and boisterous and not pure. In composition of
iron is more of the aforesaid brimstone than of quicksilver, and so
for mastery of cold and dry and of earthy matter, iron is dry and cold
and full well hard, and is compact together in its parts. And for iron
hath less of airy and watery moisture than other metals: therefore it
is hard to resolve and make it again to be nesh in fire. Use of iron
is more needful to men in many things than use of gold: though
covetous men love more gold than iron. Without iron the commonalty be
not sure against enemies, without dread of iron the common right is
not governed; with iron innocent men are defended: and fool-hardiness
of wicked men is chastised with dread of iron. And well nigh no
handiwork is wrought without iron: no field is eared without iron,
neither tilling craft used, nor building builded without iron. And
therefore Isidore saith that iron hath its name _ferrum_, for
that thereby _farra_, that is corn and seed, is tilled and sown.
For, without iron, bread is not won of the earth, nor bread is not
departed when it is ready without iron convenably to man's use.
Of lead are two manner of kinds, white and black, and the white is the
better, and was first found in the islands of the Atlantic Sea in old
time, and is now found in many places. For in France and in Portugal
is a manner of black earth found full of gravel and of small stones,
and is washed and blown, and so of that matter cometh the substance of
lead. Also in gold quarries with matter of gold are small stones
found, and are gathered with the gold, and blown by themselves, and
turn all to lead, and therefore gold is as heavy as lead. But of black
lead is double kind. For black lead cometh alone of a vein, or is
gendered of silver in medlied veins, and is blown, and in blowing
first cometh tin, and then silver, and then what leaveth is blown and
turneth into black lead. Aristotle saith that of brimstone that is
boisterous and not swiftly pured, but troublous and thick, and of
quicksilver, the substance of lead is gendered, and is gendered in
mineral places; so of uncleanness of impure brimstone lead hath a
manner of neshness, and smircheth his hand that toucheth it. And with
wiping and cleansing, this uncleanness of lead may be taken away for a
time, but never for always; a man may wipe off the uncleanness but
alway it is lead although it seemeth silver. But strange qualities
have mastery therein and beguile men, and make them err therein. Some
men take Sal Ammoniac (to cleanse it) as Aristotle saith, and
assigneth the cause of this uncleanness and saith, that in boisterous
lead is evil quicksilver heavy and fenny. Also that brimstone thereof
is evil vapour and stinking. Therefore it freezeth not well at full.
Hermes saith that lead in boiling undoeth the hardness of all sad and
hard bodies, and also of the stone adamant. Aristotle speaketh of lead
in the Meteorics and saith that lead without doubt when it is molten
is as quicksilver, but it melteth not without heat, and then all that
is molten seemeth red. Wonder it is that though lead be pale or brown,
yet by burning or by refudation of vinegar oft it gendereth seemly
colour and fair, as tewly, red, and such other; therewith women paint
themselves for to seem fair of colour.
The sapphire is a precious stone, and is blue in colour, most like to
heaven in fair weather, and clear, and is best among precious stones,
and most apt and able to fingers of kings. Its virtue is contrary to
venom and quencheth it every deal. And if thou put an addercop in a
box, and hold a very sapphire of Ind at the mouth of the box any
while, by virtue thereof the addercop is overcome and dieth, as it
were suddenly. And this same I have seen proved oft in many and divers
places.
Tin in fire departeth metals of divers kind, and it departeth lead and
brass from gold and silver, and defendeth other metals in hot fire.
And though brass and iron be most hard in kind, yet if they be in
strong fire without tin, they burn and waste away. If brazen vessels
be tinned, the tin abateth the venom of rust, and amendeth the savour.
Also mirrors be tempered with tin, and white colour that is called
Ceruse is made of tin, as it is made of lead. Aristotle saith that tin
is compounded of good quicksilver and of evil brimstone. And these
twain be not well medlied but in small parts compounded, therefore tin
hath colour of silver but not the sadness thereof. In the book of
Alchemy Hermes saith, that tin breaketh all metals and bodies that it
is medlied with, and that for the great dryness of tin. And destroyeth
in metal the kind that is obedient to hammer work. And if thou
medliest quicksilver therewith, it withstandeth the crassing thereof
and maketh it white, but afterward it maketh it black and defileth it.
Also there it is said that burnt tin gendereth red colour, as lead
doth; and if the fire be strong, the first matter of tin cometh soon
again. Also though tin be more nesh than silver, and more hard than
lead, yet lead may not be soon soldered to lead nor to brass nor to
iron without tin. Neither may these be soldered without grease or
tallow.
Brimstone is a vein of the earth and hath much air and fire in its
composition. Of brimstone there are four kinds. One is called
_vivum_, the which when it is digged, shineth and flourisheth,
the which only among all the kinds thereof physicians use. Avicenna
means that brimstone is hot and dry in the fourth degree, and is
turned into kind of brimstone in part of water, of earth, and of fire,
and that brimstone is sometimes great and boisterous and full of
drausts, and sometimes pure white, clear and subtle, and sometimes
mean between both. And by this diverse disposition, divers metals are
gendered of brimstone and of quicksilver.
Glass, as Avicen saith, is among stones as a fool among men, for it
taketh all manner of colour and painting. Glass was first found beside
Ptolomeida in the cliff beside the river that is called Vellus, that
springeth out of the foot of Mount Carmel, at which shipmen arrived.
For upon the gravel of that river shipmen made fire of clods medlied
with bright gravel, and thereof ran streams of new liquor, that was
the beginning of glass. It is so pliant that it taketh anon divers and
contrary shapes by blast of the glazier, and is sometimes beaten, and
sometimes graven as silver. And no matter is more apt to make mirrors
than is glass, or to receive painting; and if it be broken it may not
be amended without melting again. But long time past, there was one
that made glass pliant, which might be amended and wrought with an
hammer, and brought a vial made of such glass tofore Tiberius the
Emperor, and threw it down on the ground, and it was not broken but
bent and folded. And he made it right and amended it with an hammer.
Then the emperor commanded to smite off his head anon, lest that his
craft were known. For then gold should be no better than fen, and all
other metal should be of little worth, for certain if glass vessels
were not brittle, they should be accounted of more value than vessels
of gold.
All the planets move by double moving; by their own kind moving out of
the west into the east, against the moving of the firmament; and by
other moving out of the east into the west, and that by ravishing of
the firmament. By violence of the firmament they are ravished every
day out of the east into the west. And by their kindly moving, by the
which they labour to move against the firmament, some of them fulfil
their course in shorter time, and some in longer time. And that is for
their courses are some more and some less. For Saturn abideth in every
sign xxx months, and full endeth its course in xxx years. Jupiter
dwelleth in every sign one year, and full endeth its course in xii
years. Mars abideth in every sign xlv days, and full endeth its course
in two years. The sun abideth in every sign xxx days and ten hours and
a half, and full endeth its course in ccclxv days and vi hours.
Mercury abideth in every sign xxviii days and vi hours, and full
endeth its course in cccxxxviii days. Venus abideth in every sign 29
days, and full endeth its course in 348 days. The moon abideth in
every sign two days and a half, and six hours and one bisse less, and
full endeth its course from point to point in 27 days and 8 hours. And
by entering and out passing of these 7 stars into the 12 signs and out
thereof everything that is bred and corrupt in this nether world is
varied and disposed, and therefore in the philosopher's book Mesalath
it is read in this manner: "The Highest made the world to the likeness
of a sphere, and made the highest circle above it moveable in the
earth, pight and stedfast in the middle thereof; not withdrawing
toward the left side, nor toward the right side, and set the other
elements moveable, and made them move by the moving of 7 planets, and
all other stars help the planets in their working and kind." Every
creature upon Earth hath a manner inclination by the moving of the
planets, and destruction cometh by moving and working of planets. The
working of them varieth and is diverse by diversity of climates and
countries. For they work one manner of thing about the land of blue
men, and another about the land and country of Slavens.... In the
signs the planets move and abate with double moving, and move by
accidental ravishing of the firmament out of the East into the West;
and by kindly moving, the which is double, the first and the second.
The first moving is the round moving that a planet maketh in its own
circle, and passeth never the marks and bounds of the circle. The
second moving is that he maketh under the Zodiac, and passeth alway
like great space in a like space of time. And the first moving of a
planet is made in its own circle that is called Eccentric, and it is
called so for the earth is not the middle thereof, as it is the middle
of the circle that is called Zodiac. Epicycle is a little circle that
a planet describeth, and goeth about therein by the moving of its
body, and the body of the planet goeth about the roundness thereof.
And therefore it sheweth, that the sun and other planets move in their
own circles; and first alike swift, though they move diversely in
divers circles. Also in these circles the manner moving of planets is
full wisely found of astronomers, that are called Direct, Stationary,
and Retrograde Motion. Forthright moving is in the over part of the
circle that is called Epicycle, backward is in the nether part, and
stinting and abiding or hoving is in the middle.
II
MEDIAEVAL MANNERS
The sixth book of our author deals with the conditions of man, passing
in review youth and age, male and female, serf and lord. Our extracts
from it fall into three groups. The first deals in great measure with
the relations of family life. We have an account of the boy and the
girl (as they appeared to a friar "of orders grey"), the infant and
its nurse. However we may suspect Bartholomew of wishing to provide a
text in his account of the bad boy, it is consoling to find that the
"enfant terrible" had his counterpart in the thirteenth century, as
well as the maiden known to us all, who is "demure and soft of speech,
but well ware of what she says."
The second group presents mediaeval society to us under the influence
of chivalry. Suitably enough, we have beside each other most lifelike
pictures of the base and superstructure of the system. This, the man--
free, generous; that, the serf--vile, ungrateful, kept in order by
fear alone, but the necessary counterpart of the splendid figure of
his master. One of our writers today has regretted the absence of a
chapter in praise of the good man to set beside Solomon's picture of
the virtuous woman. Bartholomew has certainly endeavoured in the two
chapters quoted here, "Of a Man," and "Of a Good Lord," to picture the
ideal good man of chivalrous times. It may, however, be permitted
those of us who look at the system from underneath, to sympathise with
our fellows who struggled to free themselves from bondage under Tyler
and John Ball at least as much as with their splendid oppressors, and
to recognise that the feudal system, however necessary in the
thirteenth century, lost its value when its lords had ceased to be
such good lords as our author describes.
The third group would naturally consist of passages illustrating the
daily life of our ancestors, but the editor has found some difficulty
in getting together passages enough for the purpose without trenching
on the confines of other chapters. He has accordingly left them
scattered over the book, persuaded that the reader will feel their
import better when they are seen in their context. Such a book as this
is not open to the objections urged against pictures of mediaeval life
drawn from romances, that the situations are invented and the manners
suited to the situation. Here all is true, and written with no other
aim than that of utilising knowledge common to all. Everywhere through
these extracts little statements--a few words in most cases--crop up
giving us information of this kind; but it would be impossible to do
more than allude to them. Leaving our reader to notice them as they
are met with, the description of a mediaeval dinner concludes the
chapter. The chapter describing a supper which follows it in the
original is too long for quotation, and is vitiated by a desire to
draw analogies. But one feature is noteworthy: Among the properties of
a good supper, "the ninth is plenty of light of candles, and of
prickets, and of torches. For it is shame to sup in darkness, and
perillous also for flies and other filth. Therefore candles and
prickets are set on candlesticks and chandeliers, lanterns and lamps
are necessary to burn." This little touch gives us the reverse of the
picture, and reminds us of the Knight of the Tower's caution to his
daughters about their behaviour at a feast.