PIERRE AS A TEACHER
It appalled Pierre to see how much of the little fortune received from
the Bretton homestead had to be expended in reaching America. The money
which had seemed such a fabulous sum in Bellerivre evaporated in the new
land like the dew before the sun. Madame Bretton was too independent to
consent to live with her brother's family and be a burden to them longer
than was absolutely necessary, and therefore the renting and furnishing
of a simple apartment became unavoidable. After this expenditure but a
small bank account remained, and this the family agreed must not be cut
in upon; something must be left in case of illness or disaster. In
consequence the only way left to meet the expenses of daily living was
for all three of them to take positions in the great silk mills, where
so many hundreds of others were employed.
This was a great mortification to Pierre. Not that he was ashamed to
have his family rated as working people. Every one in the world, at
least those who were useful, worked in one way or another. His
humiliation lay in the fact that he who had thought himself able to be
the breadwinner for both mother and sister, was in reality nothing but
an unskilled laborer, whose services for the present commanded but
slight remuneration. The discovery was not only disconcerting but
galling. It was bad enough to have Marie enter the mill. But his
mother----! To think of his mother, at her age, becoming a mill
operative!
If the step was as repugnant to Madame Bretton as to Pierre she at least
made light of it. They must all live, she cheerily explained, and living
in America was a far different problem from what it had been in the
green valley of Bellerivre. And after all they were but doing what many
another household in Paterson was doing. Why should it be any less
dignified for her to labor in a mill than at raising silkworms? Besides,
it might not be for long. When Marie and Pierre learned and became more
expert maybe they would earn enough so that she could retire and stay
within doors like a lady of fortune, keeping the home and--she jestingly
added--dressing in some of the very silk she had helped to make. Thus
with affectionate banter Pierre's objections were quieted if not
overcome, and through the influence of Mr. Gautier, Madame Bretton's
brother, who was a superintendent in one of the larger mills of the
plant, good positions were found for the entire family.
Fortunately both Marie and Pierre were of an age to pass the Child Labor
Laws of the State, an important detail of which Pierre had previously
been in ignorance. Many children who applied for places, he learned,
were constantly being turned away because they were too young; and
because much of the work formerly done by them was now performed by
women or girls.
Among the toilers in the vast manufactory almost every country was
represented. There were more Italians than any other nationality; and
ranking after them came Germans, Irish, and Dutch, with a scattering of
French and Poles. It made the Brettons feel quite at home to find
themselves among some of their own countrymen.
But what a different place Paterson was from the fertile valley they had
left behind them! There were the great blackened factories--a city in
themselves--with their tall chimneys and whirring wheels, which one came
to hear almost in one's sleep. And there were the homes huddled closely
together into which humanity was herded. Even the blue of the sky was
dimmed by a veil of heavy smoke. What wonder that it took all the
Brettons' courage to be cheerful under such conditions; or what marvel
that many a time they sighed in secret for that far-away land where they
had been born? But there must be no looking backward. Resolutely they
crushed the homesickness that surged up within them, and began to learn
all they could of this strange new country which in future was to be
their home.
Paterson, their Uncle Adolph explained, had become the greatest silk
centre of the United States, because it was so near New York, the city
where most of the raw silk from European ports was received.
"But I do not understand why the factories are not built in New York
itself," remarked Pierre.
"Taxes are too high and land is too expensive to afford the necessary
area for such great mills as these," explained his uncle. "Small silk
goods which can be made in little space are manufactured in New York; in
fact, the headquarters for American laces, fringes, trimmings, and
tassels is there. To have an ideal location factories must be so
situated as to be near a large city which will assure the selling of
goods, their shipment, and the chance to secure plenty of labor for the
mills. Moreover, they must be built where, as I said, land is
comparatively low priced and plentiful, and the taxes moderate. Such a
combination is not easy to find. It explains why so many cities have in
them the kinds of manufactures they have. It is an interesting study to
follow out. Here in New Jersey, for example, we have throwing and
spinning mills, large dyeing establishments, and we weave the finest of
ribbons as well as broad goods."
"What do you mean by broad goods?"
"The term applies to dress materials and the silks that are sold in the
shops by the yard," answered his uncle.
"Pennsylvania, too, is a large silk-making community," went on Mr.
Gautier, "because fuel is cheap in that State; and because, since so
many of the Polish, Irish, and German men work in the mines silk mills
afford a livelihood for the great numbers of unemployed women, girls,
and young boys in their families. In fact the State of Pennsylvania
often gives to companies that will come into the mining districts and
put up silk mills not only the land for their factories, but also sites
for the homes of their employees. That is one thing that has brought so
many silk mills into Pennsylvania. Quantities of ribbons and broad silks
are made there, as well as velvets and upholstery goods. It is a great
throwing and spinning centre."
"Tell me something about the other States," demanded Pierre, his eyes
wide open with interest.
"Well, there is Connecticut--that is a large silk-making district. About
two-thirds of the machine twist is manufactured there; and they turn out
both narrow and broad goods--silks, velvets, plushes. At South
Manchester some of the finest and most artistic American silks are made.
Massachusetts stands at the front in the manufacture of sewing-silks,
which require finely equipped plants and much heavy machinery;
embroidery silks, wash-silks, and trimmings are made there, too."
Mr. Gautier paused a moment.
"Then there is Rhode Island," he continued. "That is a silk
manufacturing State also, although it does not turn out anywhere near so
much material as do the others that I have mentioned. If you want to be
in the largest silk-making spot in America Paterson is the right place,"
he added, smiling down at his nephew. "There is no end of chance for a
bright boy to rise in these mills. But you must be quick and work hard.
You seem to be able to do both those things, Pierre. Just go to it, my
boy, and you need not fear but you will be earning good wages soon."
In spite of his French ancestry Monsieur Gautier had caught the American
slang.
Pierre glanced up into his face.
"I shall do my best for my mother's sake, if for no other," he replied.
"Well, you'll certainly have your chance to work here," laughed his
uncle. "There is variety enough to please you, too. We have throwing
mills; a place where we dye silk in the skein; a winding and weaving
plant; another plant for dyeing goods in the piece; and a big printing
and finishing plant. If you do not find something to suit you by the
time you have worked through all these it will be your own fault. Of
course women have the monopoly of certain parts of the work; but there
is plenty left to go 'round, so do not worry."
[Illustration: "I SHALL DO MY BEST"]
With a twinkle in his eye Monsieur Gautier went into his office.
During the weeks that followed many new experiences did the Bretton
family have, and much did they learn of silk-making. From every source
available they gleaned information, for being versed in silk-raising
they were eager to know all they could of the rest of the process,
especially Pierre. He found there were hand-looms for the making of
finer varieties of silks which were manufactured in smaller quantities
and were of individual design. On American power-looms, which were
surprisingly light of construction and were handled with great ease,
most of the other goods were made. It was remarkable that a machine
costing comparatively little and so simple to operate should be so
accurate in weave, and turn out so much work. As for the old Jacquard
loom that in a former day had transformed the industrial world--it had
been so altered and improved as to be hardly recognizable. Formerly, he
learned, looms of Swiss and German manufacture had been employed in
America; but these had speedily given place to the American high-power
automatic loom, especially for the making of ribbons which were woven
the same way as were broad goods, except that the shuttle was not a
flying but a fixed one, that moved from side to side like a
sewing-machine. So clever was the construction of these looms that they
seemed to be little short of thinking creatures; when plain ribbon was
to be turned out the operatives who were paid so much for the _cut_ or
ten yard piece, had little to do beyond seeing that there was plenty of
thread on the spools, and that the ends were tied when broken.
For the more expensive and elaborate ribbons, however, more involved
machinery was required. One device after another had been added to
eliminate human labor, but even then these machines needed more persons
to operate them. As a result of their complexity the speed of these
intricate machines was less, and in consequence the price of making the
goods was increased. Nevertheless there was a vast improvement over past
conditions, when all overshot and embroidered effects had to be worked
out on hand-looms. It enabled Americans to turn now to home manufacture
for their ribbons. It was nevertheless true, Mr. Gautier explained, that
much of the home market was created by the high tariff on the French
ribbons still manufactured on hand-looms; these continued to be of
choice design and of greater variety of pattern than were the American
goods that had to be turned out in larger quantities on power-looms.
Were it not that the American ribbons could be bought cheaper the French
ones would probably, in many cases, be preferred.
About one half of the total silk output of America, Pierre was told, was
in dress goods. Many of these were rich in quality, but many were not.
The American women eagerly followed the fashions and were, as a class,
far more concerned about having silk of a fashionable color than
possessing that which would wear a long time. In fact, they did not wish
materials to wear too long. Most of them were fairly well-to-do and were
able to discard a garment when a passing fancy had been gratified, and
after a thing was passe they would rather toss it aside than wear it
out. In consequence shopkeepers, who studied the market as if it were a
thermometer, refused to cumber their counters with expensive goods which
must only be shelved after their color or design was out of date. Such
conditions had created an American market for cheap silks such as was
unknown in Europe where quality was a far greater factor in the sale of
silk materials. In the United States these flimsy dress goods could be
turned out with little expense on American power-looms by unskilled
workmen, whereas in other countries experienced men were needed to make
them.
As for the soft satins or messalines, they were made almost entirely in
Europe because the cost of American labor was too great for them to be
produced here. The operatives making them were paid by the piece and the
process of weaving was a slow one. The heavy brocades and tapestries for
upholstery were usually of such elaborate design and so interwoven with
gold thread that to manufacture them on power-looms was practically
impossible; and as hand-looms were required European hand-loom work was
cheaper than American.
"The flaw in our power-loom is that double threads cannot be handled,"
explained Mr. Gautier to Pierre. "Any goods requiring such treatment
must of necessity be made on hand-looms."
So little by little Pierre's knowledge grew.
Military and upholstery trimmings, he ascertained, could be turned out
in large quantities on power-looms; but dress and cloak trimmings, which
were more elaborate, were made in America only in comparatively small
quantities and again because of their intricate patterns and gold
threads Europe could produce them cheaper on hand-looms. If, however,
the pattern desired was sufficiently simple, and a large enough quantity
of it was ordered to make it pay the manufacturer to bother with setting
it up it could be made on the American power-loom. Fancy braids were
made chiefly in Europe from the floss or spun silk taken from the
outside of the cocoon; but plain braids, Pierre was interested to know,
were made in America as cheaply and well as in Europe, most of them
being manufactured from artificial silk.
It was a great surprise to Pierre to find there was such a thing as
artificial silk.
"I knew there were artificial flowers and artificial--well, almost
everything," laughed Pierre to his mother. "But artificial silk!"
He gasped.
"What is it made of, Pierre?" questioned Madame Bretton, who had come to
regard with wonder the fund of information her big son was acquiring.
"The man who told me about it said that cotton and the pulp from soft
wood were used for one sort," he answered. "Another kind comes from
dissolving cellulose in chemicals, and forcing this mixture through long
tubes into some sort of a bath that makes the material come out in
threads; these threads can then be wound, spun, washed, soaked, and
dyed. Here in America most of the artificial silk which, by the way, is
known as viscose, has cellulose in some form as its base, afterward
being treated with different combinations of chemicals."
"What shall we do with you, Pierre, if you learn so much?" questioned
Madame Bretton mischievously.
Pierre smiled.
"I'm going to learn every bit I can, so that I may soon work up to
earning lots of money," he said. "Then you and Marie can leave the
mills, and I can take care of you."
"You are a good son," his mother answered with an odd little catch in
her voice. "But do not be distressed because we are in the mills. Indeed
we are very happy there."
"You would make the best of anything you had to do, Mother; you're that
sort," replied the boy, taking her hand in his. "But I know well it is
hard for you to work at a machine all day when you have never been
accustomed to it, and I do not mean you shall do it one moment longer
than I can help."
"There, there, son----" his mother's eyes filled, and to change the
subject she said briskly:
"And these artificial silks of which you were telling me--are they good
for anything else but for making braids?"
"Yes, indeed. Nitro and viscose silks are more brilliant and lustrous
than are real silks. They have no such soft feeling, however. They feel
more like the harsh, loaded silks made from thread which has been
chemically weighted. But they are coming into demand more and more for
such purposes as the warp and filling of various sorts of fabrics, rugs,
silk stockings, and upholstery materials. Here in this country, where
electricity is in general use, artificial silk is a blessing, for it
serves as a substitute in the insulating of electric light wires, and
the manufacture of mantles for lights."
"How clever people were to find anything that could be used instead of
the real, carefully nurtured cocoon silk," mused his mother.
"I know it. I suppose chemists worked at the problem a long time before
they solved it. That is the way most of the great discoveries were made.
Still, the wild silk made by the moths of India is not carefully grown.
From it the Oriental Tussah silk is made; then there is Eria silk, also
an uncultivated product from India; the Fagara silk from China; and the
Yamamai silk from Japan, which is next to domestic silk in value. All
these are manufactured from silk spun by silkworms that have had no
care. The foreman was telling me about it the other day."
There was a pause.
"What did you mean, Pierre, when you spoke of loaded silk?" questioned
his mother. "I have heard the term used many times, but I have never
understood it."
Pierre looked at her with amusement.
"Anybody would think that I was your schoolteacher, Mother mine!" he
returned. "I feel very silly telling you things when you are so much
older and wiser than I."
"I certainly am older; and I used to be a little wiser," replied his
mother humorously, "but I shall not be so long. You see, dear, I never
had much education and I am now too old to learn. But you are
accumulating knowledge every day. You are like a sponge, Pierre. You
seem to soak up every bit of information that you hear."
"I must get my schooling this way, Mother, since I can secure it in no
other," answered the boy soberly. "And perhaps it is a good way after
all, for since I am eager to know something I try and remember every
scrap I hear. I may want to use it later."
"Your father used to say that no knowledge comes amiss," was his
mother's soft answer. "How proud your father would be of you, Pierre!"
"But I must know more, and more, and still more, Mother, before I can
get to the top!" exclaimed the boy eagerly. "And now to tell you of
weighted silks. You see, in dyeing silk the material shrinks and loses
about a quarter of its weight. Manufacturers found that by adding
chemicals, or sugar and glucose during the boiling off, they could make
up for this loss. That is how the custom started. Black silks, which
shrunk the most, were treated first. Later the practice spread to
colored, and even to white silks. Now, alas, the evil seems to have come
to stay. Salts of tin in varying degrees are used in the dyeing of most
silks, and the result is that the material becomes crisp and harsh so
that it cracks when folded, and does not wear long."
"What a pity!"
"Yes. And yet perhaps the Americans, who are none too anxious to wear
out their old clothes, are quite as well satisfied," chuckled Pierre.
"In what an endless number of ways silk is used!" reflected Madame
Bretton.
"Yes. And when you have done with the ribbons, and trimmings, and
braids, and silks, and upholstery brocades, and satins, think of the
velvets and plushes that can now be made in this country in all sorts of
fancy designs on power-looms instead of on hand-looms as formerly. Of
course it is still cheaper to import certain kinds of velvets and
plushes; but a great many of them are made here, as are the larger
proportion of the velvet ribbons which are easily turned out on
high-power machines."
"What about silk hosiery and underwear?" questioned his mother, much
interested.
"Silk stockings and silk gloves, Uncle Adolph says, are a big American
product. There is little finishing to them except putting the buttons on
the gloves. In fact I read the other day that the silk used for them was
only slightly adulterated, and that they were made even better than in
Europe. But making underwear seems to be another story. Each garment
manufactured has to be shaped as it is made, and therefore the process
is a special one and the knitting is slow. This results in expensive
labor, and a very limited output. After the seams are finished, the
buttons on, the fancy braid and facings in place, and the final
trimmings stitched where they belong, the profit is small. All this can
be done much cheaper in Europe, and were it not for the protection of a
high tariff, Uncle Adolph says, Americans would buy all such goods
abroad. The tariff protects the American silk industry at every turn. I
don't know where the United States would be without it! Then you must
remember that after this silk underwear is done it is not sold to
individual customers in any considerable quantity. Instead it retails
piece by piece, and therefore every piece has to be folded and packed
separately. No wonder such things are expensive here!"
"I never realized before how interesting the problems of making things
were," said Madame Bretton, glancing up at Pierre.
"It is all fascinating when you take it as a whole. But if you just do
one part of the work over and over and never connect it with the entire
process, it is tiresome enough. Every workman should consider himself a
link in the big chain, and try to make himself familiar with the other
links. Then he will feel as if he is really doing something, and not
just pegging away day after day as if he were a machine. That is why I
want to learn all I can about silk as a complete industry. It makes
winding bobbins and reeling thread a more important matter. Some firms,
Uncle Adolph says, have moving picture lectures and by means of them
explain to their employees the entire process of their particular
industry so they will be more intelligent about what they are doing. I
think that is a fine thing. Nobody likes to do some uninteresting thing
over and over, week after week and year after year, unless he
understands what he is doing. Even the money you earn doesn't help to
make your work less monotonous. How can employers expect their men to
have any ambition, or any desire to turn out flawless products unless
they realize that each detail of a process makes the perfect whole? I
mean to know every step of the road I am traveling so when I get to the
top----"
"So when you get to the top you can make silk all by yourself,"
interrupted his mother, completing the sentence with a smile.
"Well, I'm going to know how, anyway," nodded Pierre. "And I wish to
learn not only of silks and velvets, but laces, too. Laces are fussy,
difficult, and expensive to make. I want to find out all about them. I
know they have to have the strongest and most perfect thread. In Europe
such goods are made either by hand, or on hand-looms. It is a slow
process at best. But the power machines here, slowly as they are forced
to work, can of course turn out lace much faster than it can be made in
Europe on hand-looms. Consequently the commoner kinds of laces are made
in this country, used, and worn out while they are in fashion; for the
Americans shift their fashions in laces quite as fast as they do their
fashions in silks. Before a certain design can be sent to Europe,
manufactured, and sent back again the vogue for that particular pattern
will have ceased and Americans will be wearing something else. That is
what saves the lace trade for America. It is the same with the making of
lace veils."
"There seems to be no keeping up with these Americans," laughed Madame
Bretton. "Certainly there is no keeping up with their cost of living!"
[Illustration]