CHAPTER XIX_A critical history of Greek philosophy

THE NEO-PLATONISTS

The word Neo-Platonism is a misnomer. It does not stand for a genuine

revival of Platonism. The Neo-Platonists were no doubt the offspring

of Plato, but they were the illegitimate offspring. The true greatness

of Plato lay in his rationalistic idealism; his defects were mostly

connected with his tendency to myth and mysticism. The Neo-Platonists

hailed his defects as the true and inner secret of his doctrine,

developed them out of all recognition, and combined them with the hazy

dream-philosophies of the East. The reputed founder was Ammonius

Saccas, but we may pass him over and come at once to his disciple

Plotinus, who was the first to develop Neo-Platonism into a system,

was the greatest of all its exponents, and may be regarded as its real

founder. He was born in 205 A.D. at Lycopolis in Egypt, went to Rome

in 245, founded his School there, and remained at the head of it till

his death in 270. He left extensive writings which have been

preserved.

Plato had shown that the idea of the One, exclusive of all

multiplicity, was an impossible abstraction. Even to say "the One is,"

involves the duality of the One. The Absolute Being can be no abstract

unity, but only a unity in multiplicity. Plotinus begins by ignoring

this {373} supremely important philosophical principle. He falls back

upon the lower level of oriental monism. God, he thinks, is absolutely

One. He is the unity which lies beyond all multiplicity. There is in

him no plurality, no movement, no distinction. Thought involves the

distinction between object and subject; therefore the One is above and

beyond thought. Nor is the One describable in terms of volition or

activity. For volition involves the distinction between the willer and

the willed, activity between the actor and that upon which he acts.

God, therefore, is neither thought, nor volition, nor activity. He is

beyond all thought and all being. As absolutely infinite, He is also

absolutely indeterminate. All predicates limit their subject, and

hence nothing can be predicated of the One. He is unthinkable, for all

thought limits and confines that which is thought. He is the ineffable

and inconceivable. The sole predicates which Plotinus applies to Him

are the One and the Good. He sees, however, that these predicates, as

much as any others, limit the infinite. He regards them, therefore,

not as literally expressing the nature of the infinite, but as

figuratively shadowing it forth. They are applied by analogy only. We

can, in truth, know nothing of the One, except that it _is_.

Now it is impossible to derive the world from a first principle of

this kind. As being utterly exalted above the world, God cannot enter

into the world. As absolutely infinite, He can never limit Himself to

become finite, and so give rise to the world of objects. As absolutely

One, the many can never issue out of Him. The One cannot create the

world, for creation is an activity, and the One is immutable and

excludes all {374} activity. As the infinite first principle of all

things, the One must be regarded as in some sense the source of all

being. And yet how it can give rise to being is inconceivable, since

any such act destroys its unity and infinity. We saw once for all, in

the case of the Eleatics, that it is fatal to define the Absolute as

unity exclusive of all multiplicity, as immutable essence exclusive of

all process, and that if we do so we cut off all hope of showing how

the world has issued from the Absolute. It is just the same with

Plotinus. There is in his system the absolute contradiction that the

One is regarded, on the one hand, as source of the world, and on the

other as so exalted above the world that all relationship to the world

is impossible. We come, therefore, to a complete deadlock at this

point. We can get no further. We can find no way to pass from God to

the world. We are involved in a hopeless, logical contradiction. But

Plotinus was a mystic, and logical absurdities do not trouble mystics.

Being unable to explain how the world can possibly arise out of the

vacuum of the One, he has recourse, in the oriental style, to poetry

and metaphors. God, by reason of His super-perfection, "overflows"

Himself, and this overflow becomes the world. He "sends forth a beam"

from Himself. As flame emits light, as snow cold, so do all lower

beings issue from the One. Thus, without solving the difficulty,

Plotinus deftly smothers it in flowery phrases, and quietly passes on

his way.

The first emanation from the One is called the Nous. This Nous is

thought, mind, reason. We have seen that Plato regarded the Absolute

itself as thought. For Plotinus, however, thought is derivative. The

One is beyond thought, and thought issues forth from the One {375} as

first emanation. The Nous is not discursive thought, however. It is

not in time. It is immediate apprehension, or intuition. Its object is

twofold. Firstly, it thinks the One, though its thought thereof is

necessarily inadequate. Secondly, it thinks itself. It is the thought

of thought, like Aristotle's God. It corresponds to Plato's world of

Ideas. The Ideas of all things exist in the Nous, and not only the

Ideas of classes, but of every individual thing.

From the Nous, as second emanation, proceeds the world-soul. This is,

in Erdmann's phrase, a sort of faded-out copy of the Nous, and it is

outside time, incorporeal, and indivisible. It works rationally, but

yet is not conscious. It has a two-fold aspect, inclining upwards to

the Nous on the one hand, and downwards to the world of nature on the

other. It produces out of itself the individual souls which inhabit

the world.

The idea of emanation is essentially a poetical metaphor, and not a

rational concept. It is conceived poetically by Plotinus as resembling

light which radiates from a bright centre, and grows dimmer as it

passes outwards, till it shades off at last into total darkness. This

total darkness is matter. Matter, as negation of light, as the limit

of being, is in itself not-being. Thus the crucial difficulty of all

Greek philosophy, the problem of the whence of matter, the dualism of

matter and thought, which we have seen Plato and Aristotle struggling

in vain to subjugate, is loosely and lightly slurred over by Plotinus

with poetic metaphors and roseate phrases.

Matter Plotinus considers to be the ground of plurality and the cause

of all evil. Hence the object of life can {376} only be, as with

Plato, to escape from the material world of the senses. The first step

in this process of liberation is _"katharsis,"_ purification, the

freeing of oneself from the dominion of the body and the senses. This

includes all the ordinary ethical virtues. The second step is thought,

reason, and philosophy. In the third stage the soul rises above

thought to an intuition of the Nous. But all these are merely

preparatory for the supreme and final stage of exaltation into the

Absolute One, by means of trance, rapture, ecstasy. Here all thought

is transcended, and the soul passes into a state of unconscious swoon,

during which it is mystically united with God. It is not a thought of

God, it is not even that the soul sees God, for all such conscious

activities involve the separation of the subject from its object. In

the ecstasy all such disunion and separation are annihilated. The soul

does not look upon God from the outside. It becomes one with God. It

is God. Such mystical raptures can, in the nature of the case, only be

momentary, and the soul sinks back exhausted to the levels of ordinary

consciousness. Plotinus claimed to have been exalted in this divine

ecstasy several times during his life.

After Plotinus Neo-Platonism continues with modifications in his

successors, Porphyry, Iamblicus, Syrianus, Proclus, and others.

The essential character of Neo-Platonism comes out in its theory of

the mystical exaltation of the subject to God. It is the extremity of

subjectivism, the forcing of the individual subject to the centre of

the universe, to the position of the Absolute Being. And it follows

naturally upon the heels of Scepticism. In the Sceptics all faith in

the power of thought and reason had finally died out. They {377} took

as their watchword the utter impotence of reason to reach the truth.

From this it was but a step to the position that, if we cannot attain

truth by the natural means of thought, we will do so by a miracle. If

ordinary consciousness will not suffice, we will pass beyond ordinary

consciousness altogether. Neo-Platonism is founded upon despair, the

despair of reason. It is the last frantic struggle of the Greek spirit

to reach, by desperate means, by force, the point which it felt it had

failed to reach by reason. It seeks to take the Absolute by storm. It

feels that where sobriety has failed, the violence of spiritual

intoxication may succeed.

It was natural that philosophy should end here. For philosophy is

founded upon reason. It is the effort to comprehend, to understand, to

grasp the reality of things intellectually. Therefore it cannot admit

anything higher than reason. To exalt intuition, ecstasy, or rapture,

above thought--this is death to philosophy. Philosophy in making such

an admission, lets out its own life-blood, which is thought. In

Neo-Platonism, therefore, ancient philosophy commits suicide. This is

the end. The place of philosophy is taken henceforth by religion.

Christianity triumphs, and sweeps away all independent thought from

its path. There is no more philosophy now till a new spirit of enquiry

and wonder is breathed into man at the Renaissance and the

Reformation. Then the new era begins, and gives birth to a new

philosophic impulse, under the influence of which we are still living.

But to reach that new era of philosophy, the human spirit had first to

pass through the arid wastes of Scholasticism.

SUBJECT INDEX

Abortions, 291.

Absolute, The;

as many in one, 70-71, 197;

as reason, 240-1, 307;

as knowable, 299;

as form, 307.

Actuality, 279.

Air, as first principle, 28.

Antinomy, 54.

Appearance, 61.

Aristocracy, 324.

Asceticism, defect of, 317.

_Ataraxia_, 363.

Atoms, 88 et seq, 356.

Aufklaerung, 119-120.

Becoming;

Parmenides on, 44;

Heracleitus on, 73;

Empedocles on, 82;

Plato on, 192;

Aristotle on, 279-280

Being;

Parmenides on, 44 et seq;

Plato on, 191, 197.

Causation, 6-7;

as explanation, 64;

Aristotle's doctrine of, 267-73.

Classification, 199.

Comedy, 330-1.

Concepts;

defined, 143;

identified with definitions, 145;

Socrates's doctrine of, 143-6;

objectivity of, 183;

Stoics on, 345.

Condensation, 28.

Contract, the social, 323.

Cosmopolitanism, 353.

Counter-earth, 38.

Criterion, The Stoic, 345-6.

Darwinism, 293.

Death, problem of, 76-7.

Democracy, 123, 325.

Dialectic, 55, 183, 199, 204.

Dichotomy, 200.

Division, 199.

Dualism;

defined, 63;

of Eleatics, 68-70;

of Anaxagoras, 105;

of Plato, 238;

of Aristotle, 334-5.

Eclipses, 103.

Ecstasy, 376-7.

Efficient cause, 269;

identified with final cause, 273-4.

Elements, The Four, 83.

Emanation, 371, 374-5.

Empty Space, 47, 89, 291-2

Eros, 204.

Evolution;

Anaximander and, 27;

Aristotle's doctrine of, 293-9, 307-12, 333, 336-7;

Spencer's doctrine of, 308 et seq.

{379}

Evil, problem of, 240-1.

Explanation, scientific, 64-5.

External goods, value of, 159, 31-6, 350, 359.

Faith, age of, 151.

Family, The; Aristotle on, 324.

Final cause, 269;

identified with formal cause, 273.

Fire, as first principle, 78, 347.

First Cause, 66.

First Mover, 284-5.

Form, Aristotle's doctrine of, 267, 274-8.

Formal cause, 269;

identified with final cause, 273.

Free Will, 320, 348, 355.

Friendship, 225, 359.

Genius, artistic, 231.

Geocentric hypothesis, 38, 211, 305.

Geometry, 3-5, 275.

God;

Xenophanes on, 41-2;

Socrates on, 132;

Plato on, 202-4;

Aristotle on, 283-8;

as first mover, 284-5;

as thought of thought, 285-6;

relation of, to the world, 282;

Plotinus on, 373.

Gods, The;

Democritus on, 92;

Protagoras on, 112;

Socrates on, 132;

Epicurus on, 357.

Good,

The Idea of, 198, 200-1, 244;

as God, 203.

Gravitation, 294-5.

Habit, 7.

Happiness;

Antisthenes on, 159;

Plato on, 220-1;

Aristotle on, 314-15;

Stoics on, 351;

Epicurus on, 358, 361;

distinguished from pleasure, 221.

Heavenly bodies, The;

Anaximander on, 26;

Pythagoreans on, 38;

Xenophanes on, 43;

Anaxagoras on, 103;

Plato on, 211;

Aristotle on, 305-6.

Heliocentric hypothesis, 38.

Hinduism, 71, 197, 308, 312-13.

Idealism;

of Parmenides, 47 et seq;

essentials of, 48, 49, 235;

Plato as founder of, 235.

Ideas,

Theory of, 174, 183-207;

Aristotle on, 262-5.

Imagination, 300.

Immortality;

Atomists on, 92;

Plato on, 175, 212;

Aristotle on, 302-3;

Epicurus on, 357.

Indian Thought, 14-16; see also Hinduism.

Individualism, 323.

Induction, 144, 146, 190, 206, 260.

Infinite divisibility;

Zeno on, 56;

Anaxagoras on, 96;

Aristotle on, 292-3;

Hume on, 57-8;

Kant on, 57;

Hegel on, 58-60.

Inorganic matter, 294-6.

Insight, moral, 318.

Intuition, 153, 375, 377.

Irony, of Socrates, 130.

Judaism, 71.

Justice;

Pythagoreans on, 37;

Plato on, 224;

Aristotle on, 319-20.

{380}

Knowledge;

of the Infinite, 7-8;

of the Absolute, 299;

through concepts, 146, 182;

Plato on, 177-82;

as recollection, 212-17;

necessary knowledge, 213-15.

Life; Aristotle's doctrine of, 296.

Limit, The, 36.

Love, Platonic, 204-6.

Marriage, 224.

Material cause, 268.

Materialism;

origin of, 9-11;

of Ionics, 23;

defect of, 66.

Matter;

indestructibility of, 50;

Platonic, 208;

Aristotle's doctrine of, 275-9;

Plotinus on, 375.

Mechanical theories, 88.

Memory, 300.

Monarchy, 324.

Monism, 62-7.

Monstrosities,29l.

Morality;

founded on reason, 118.

Motion;

Zeno on, 54;

Aristotle on, 29l.

Multiplicity;

Zeno on, 53.

Mysticism, 12, 171, 371, 372, 374, 376.

Myths, of Plato, 170-71, 208, 209, 210, 211.

Necessary Knowledge, 213-15;

necessary concepts, 242.

Non-sensuous thought, 8-13.

Not-being, 44, 75, 76, 77, 89, 191, 208, 279, 280.

Nous;

of Anaxagoras, 97-105;

of Plotinus, 375.

Numbers, as first principle, 36.

Object, the right of the, 122.

Objectivity;

defined, 113;

of concepts, 183.

Oligarchy, 324.

Opinion, 181-2.

Organic matter, organism, 294-6.

Pantheism, 312.

Participation, 194, 236.

Personality, 286.

Pleasure, 161-2, 218-19, 350, 358;

distinguished from happiness, 221.

Potentiality, 279.

Pragmatism, 121.

Protestantism, 123.

Quality, mechanical explanation of, 87-8.

Rarefaction, 28.

Reality;

distinguished from appearance, 61;

distinguished from existence, 60-1, 246-7.

Reason;

distinguished from sense, 45, 79, 112, 113, 115, 239, 290;

distinguished from cause, 64, 76;

as universal, 113;

as concepts, 144;

supremacy of, 153-4;

as basis of love, 205-6;

as Absolute, 240-1;

passive and active, 300;

as basis of morals, 118, 317, 349-50.

{381}

Recollection;

knowledge as, 212-17;

Aristotle on, 300.

Reincarnation; see Transmigration.

Religion;

relation to philosophy, 14-15, 207;

Xenophanes on, 41-2;

Heracleitus on, 79;

Democritus on, 92;

decay of Greek, 107-8.

Rhetoric, 111, 122.

Scepticism, 343, 361.

Sensation;

particularism of, 113;

distinguished from reason, 45, 79, 112, 113, 115, 239, 290.

Slavery, 225, 321.

Soul;

Heracleitus on, 78-9;

Atomists on, 92;

Plato on, 211-17;

Aristotle on, 296 et seq;

Stoics on, 348;

Epicureans on, 357.

Space, 3-4, 56; see also Empty space.

Sphere, of Empedocles, 84.

State, The;

Sophists on, 119;

Plato's, 201-2, 225-29;

Aristotle on, 320-5.

Subject, the right of the, 122, 152.

Subjectivism, Preface, 340-3, 361, 376.

Subjectivity, defined, 113.

Substance;

defined, 186-7;

Ideas as, 186-8;

Aristotle's doctrine of 265-7.

Suicide, 160, 350.

_Summum Bonum_, 222, 314.

Symbolism, 12.

Teleology;

defined,101;

of Anaxagoras, 104, 105;

of Plato, 201-2;

of Aristotle, 289.

Theosophists, 153-4.

Time, 282, 292.

Timocracy, 324.

Tragedy, 330-1.

Transmigration, 17, 32, 85, 212, 217, 301.

Tyranny, 324.

Universals, 188.

Utilitarianism, 220-21, 315.

Virtue;

as knowledge, 147, 157;

teachable, 149;

unity of, 149, 223, 351;

as sole good, 159-60, 350;

relation to pleasure, 161, 218-19;

customary and philosophic, 220;

dianoetic, 316, 317;

as the mean, 317.

Void, The, 90.

Vortex, 90, 102.

Water, as first principle, 21.

Wise Man, The;

of the Cynics, 160;

of the Cyrenaics, 162;

of the Stoics, 351.

Women, status of, 224.

World-Soul, The, 210, 211, 375.

{382}

INDEX OF NAMES

Abdera, 86, 112.

Academy, The, 167, 249, 250;

The New, 364-6.

Aegean, The, 18.

Aenesidemus, 366-7.

AEsculapius, 141.

Agrigentum, 81.

Alcibiades, 132, 133.

Alexander the Great, 251, 252, 339, 340, 362.

Alexandria, 368, 370.

Ammonius Saccas, 372.

Amyntas, 249.

Anaxagoras, 22, 30, 82, 86, 91, 94-105, 106, 120, 137, 166,

271, 272, 273, 340

Anaximander, 20, 22, 23, 24-7, 28, 29.

Anaximenes, 20, 22, 23, 27-30, 82, 83, 102, 271.

Andronicus, 262.

Anniceris, 162, 167.

Antiochis, 134.

Antisthenes, 156, 158, 159.

Anytus, 133.

Appolonia, 30.

Apollodorus, 140.

_Apology, The_, 129, 133, 134, 172, 173.

Arcesilaus, 364, 365.

Arginusae, 134.

Aristippus, 156, 161, 358.

Aristophanes, 135, 152.

Aristotle, 14, 17, 18, 19,23, 38, 42 (footnote), 55, 95, 98, 99,

106, 122, 148, 150, 191, 193, 231, 233, 248, 249-338,

339, 340, 341, 342, 345, 346, 350, 370;

on Thales, 21-2;

on Anaxagoras, 104, 105;

on Socrates, 147,317,320;

on Plato, 193, 262-5, 323-4.

Asia Minor, 18, 20, 72, 94, 95, 250.

Assyria, 13.

Atarneus, 250.

Athens, 94, 95, 112, 127, 128, 129, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136,

137, 165, 166, 167, 169, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 344.

Atomists, The, 82, 86-93, 95, 96, 97, 103, 104.

Aurelius, Marcus, 14, 344.

Babylon, 252.

Babylonia, 86.

Bacon, Francis, 257-8.

_Banquet, The_, 132. See also _Symposium, The_.

Bentham, 220.

_Bhagavat Gita, The,_ 15.

Brahman, 15, 64, 170, 197.

Buddha, The, 213.

Burnet Prof., Preface, 25, 28, 46, 91, 98.

{383}

Carneades, 365.

Chairephon, 129.

Chalcis, 252.

_Charmides, The_, 172, 173.

China, 13.

Christianity, 69, 70, 71, 101, 369, 377.

Chrysippus, 344.

Cicero, 366.

Clazomenae, 94.

Cleanthes, 344.

_Clouds, The_, of Aristophanes, 135.

Coleridge, S. T., 263.

Colophon, 41.

Copernicus, 38.

Crates, 344.

Cratylus, 166.

Critias, 118.

Crito, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141.

_Crito, The_, 172, 173.

Croesus, 20, 21.

Crotona, 31, 33.

Cynics, The, 156, 158-60, 163, 316, 342, 351, 353, 358.

Cyprus, 344.

Cyrenaics, The, 156, 160-2, 163, 218, 342, 358.

Cyrene, 167.

Darwin, 308.

Delium, 131.

Delphi, 129.

Democritus, 22, 49, 50, 52, 86, 93, 104, 108, 112, 234, 342,

354, 356.

Diogenes of Apollonia, 30.

Diogenes the Cynic, 159, 351, 352.

Dionysius the Elder, 167, 168.

Dionysius the Younger, 168, 169.

Echechrates, 139, 141.

Egypt, 13, 16, 17, 31, 86, 125, 167, 372.

Elea, 40, 41, 43, 52, 60.

Eleatics, The, 22, 23, 40-71, 72, 73, 75, 79, 89, 109, 112, 117,

162, 164, 166, 173, 174, 175, 193, 195, 196, 197,

234, 235, 246, 272, 279, 374.

Eleusinian mysteries, 72.

Empedocles, 17, 22, 49, 52, 81-5, 86, 87-8, 89, 95, 96,

97, 103, 271, 272, 329.

Empiricus, Sextus, 366.

England, 121.

Ephesus, 72, 73.

Epictetus, 14, 344.

Epicureans, The, 89, 90, 91, 342, 343, 354-60, 362, 368, 369.

Epicurus, 342, 345-60.

Erdmann, 46, 98, 368, 375.

_Ethics, The_, of Aristotle, 319.

Euboea, 252.

Euclid, the geometrician, 33, 113.

Euclid of Megara, 156, 162-3, 166, 167.

Euripides, 94.

_Euthyphro, The_, 172.

France, 121.

Gorgias, 110, 111, 116-18, 361.

_Gorgias, The_, 174, 177.

Grant, Sir A., 295 (footnote).

Greece, 13, 16, 17, 18, 33, 41, 107, 109, 112, 122, 168, 220,

252, 339, 344, 368.

Grote, 98.

{384}

Halys, 21.

Hegel, 38, 46, 55, 58-60, 312 (footnote), 333.

Hegesias, 162.

Hellas, 41.

Heracleitus, 22, 72-80, 82, 86, 108, 112, 116, 164, 166, 192,

193, 234, 271, 333, 342, 347.

Hermeias, 250.

Herpyllis, 251.

Hesiod, 41, 72, 77.

Hippias, 110.

_Hippias Minor, The_, 172.

Hippo, 30.

Homer, 41, 72.

Hume, David, 57, 58, 361.

Hylicists, The, 24.

Iamblicus, 376.

Idaeus, 30.

India, 14, 16, 17.

Ionia, 20, 41, 137.

Ionics, The, 20-30, 61, 62, 82, 83, 271, 272.

Islam, 71.

Italy, 18, 31, 40, 167.

Japan, 125.

+Jatakas, The+, 213.

Judaea, 370.

Kant, 55, 57, 213, 215.

Kepler, 65.

Krishna, 15.

_Laches, The_, 172, 173.

Lampsacus, 95.

Leon, 134-5.

Leucippus, 86, 88, 89, 91, 104.

London, 189.

Lucretius, 14.

Lyceum, The, 251.

Lycon, 133.

Lycopolis, 372.

_Lysis, The_, 172, 173.

Macedonia, 249, 252, 339.

Macran, H. S., 312 (footnote).

Megara, 166, 167, 172, 173.

Megarics, The, 156, 162-3.

Melissus, 46.

Melitus, 133.

_Memorabilia, The_, 142.

_Meno, The_, 216.

Meru, 15, 16.

_Metaphysics, The_, of Aristotle, 19, 42, 105, 253, 254, 261, 271.

Metchnikoff, 76.

Miletus, 20, 24, 27.

Mill, J. S., 220, 221, 269.

Milton, 330.

Moses, 370.

Mytilene, 251.

Napoleon, 252.

Neo-Platonists, The, 342, 343, 368, 369, 372-377.

Newton, 65.

Nichomachus, 249, 251

Nietzsche, 156.

Orphics, The, 17, 32.

Paramatman, 15.

Parmenides, 13,40,41, 42, 43, 52, 53, 57, 72, 81, 82, 86, 117,

162, 163, 164, 167, 234.

_Parmenides, The_, 169, 175, 176, 177, 195, 244.

Peloponnese, The, 103.

{385}

Peloponnesian War, The, 131, 165.

Pericles, 94, 95, 137.

Peripatetics, The, 251, 369.

Persians, The, 251.

_Phaedo, The_, 137, 175, 177.

_Phaedrus, The_, 172, 175, 177.

_Philebus, The_, 175, 203.

Philip of Macedonia, 251.

Philo the Jew, 370-1.

Philolaus, 37.

Phlius, 262.

Plato, 1, 13, 17, 19, 23, 38, 50, 51, 52, 55, 95, 99, 101, 104,

106, 122, 129, 132, 133, 137, 141, 142, 150, 156, 164-248,

249, 250, 253, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 262-5, 267, 269,

271, 272, 273, 275, 281, 282, 286, 287, 288, 290, 291, 298,

299, 301, 303, 304, 314, 319, 321, 323, 324, 325, 327, 329,

331, 332, 334, 335, 336, 338, 341, 342, 345, 346, 350, 364,

370, 372, 374, 375.

Plotinus, 368, 372-6.

Porphyry, 376.

Proclus, 376.

_Poetics, The_, of Aristotle, 326.

Polus, 118-9.

Polemo, 344.

Prodicus, 110, 121.

Protagoras, 110, 112-6, 118, 121, 153, 154, 161, 178, 179,

181, 217, 361.

_Protagoras, The_, 172.

Proxenus, 249.

Pyrrho, 343, 362-4, 365, 366.

Pythagoras, 31, 32, 33, 34, 72, 81, 301.

Pythagoreans, The, 17, 22, 31-9, 43, 44, 61, 62, 109, 164,

167, 169, 191, 209, 217, 272, 291, 370.

Pythias, 251.

_Republic, The_, Preface, 168, 175, 177, 201-2, 225-9, 230, 231.

Rome, 14, 344, 372.

Rotunda, The, 134, 135.

Salamis, 134, 135.

Satan, Milton's, 330.

Sceptics, The, 7 (footnote), 342, 361-7, 368, 376.

Schopenhauer,72.

Schwegler, 46, 353.

Seneca, 14, 344.

Seven Sages, The, 21.

Shaw, Bernard, 126, 156.

Sicily, 18, 81, 112, 176, 168.

Simplicius, 366.

Socrates, 18, 19, 51, 73, 95, 110, 122, 127-54, 155, 156, 157,

158, 159, 160, 161, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 172,

173, 182, 183, 193, 223, 234, 252, 317, 320, 351, 352.

Solon, 20.

_Sophist, The_, 175, 176, 177, 195.

Sophists, The, 18, 19, 24, 106-26, 127, 128, 135, 142, 144,

145, 150, 151, 152, 153, 161, 166, 174, 178,

182, 185, 218, 219, 221, 234, 343, 361.

Sparta, 339.

Spencer, Herbert, 2, 308-12.

Speusippus, 250.

Spinoza, 66, 71, 197.

Stagirus, 249.

_Statesman, The_, 175, 176.

Stilpo, 344.

Stoa, The, 344.

Stoics, The, 341, 342, 343, 344-53, 358, 359, 362, 365, 366,

368, 369, 370.

Swinburne, A. C., 357.

{386}

_Symposium, The_, 175, 205-6, 231. See also _Banquet, The_.

Syracuse, 42, 167, 168, 169.

Syrianus, 376.

Thales 20-4, 27, 28, 29, 30, 36, 44, 82, 120, 271, 368.

Thebes, 252.

Thessaly, 137.

Thirty Tyrants, The, 134, 165.

Thrace, 86, 249.

Thrasymachus, 118-9.

_Timaeus, The_, 38, 171, 175, 177, 190, 208, 210.

Timon of Phlius, 362.

Tolstoi, 230.

_Upanishads, The_, 14, 15, 170, 371.

Wallace, 38 (footnote).

Wells, H. G., Preface.

Wilde, Oscar, 126, 156.

Xenocrates, 250, 251.

Xenophanes, 40-3, 72, 79, 108, 340.

Xenophon, 132, 141, 142.

Zeller, 98, 101, 176, 202, 209, 224.

Zeno the Eleatic, 40, 52-60, 72, 117, 163, 246, 292.

Zeno the Stoic, 344, 354.

Zeus, 360.

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