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ELEMENTS
OF
PLUMBING
BY
SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE
HEAD OF SANITARY EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATION DEPT.
CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
FIRST EDITION
MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
239 WEST 39TH STREET. NEW YORK
LONDON: HILL PUBLISHING CO., LTD.
6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C.
1918
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE
MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
THE MAPLE PRESS YORK PA
PREFACE
In preparing this manuscript the author has had in mind the needs
of young men having no technical instruction who are anxious to
become proficient in the art of Plumbing. As a consequence each
exercise is minutely described and illustrated; so much so,
perhaps, that an experienced mechanic may find it too simple for
skilled hands and a mature mind. But the beginner will not find the
exercises too elaborately described and will profit by careful
study. Years of experience and observation have shown the author
that the methods herein described are entirely practical and are in
common use today.
The various exercises in lead work will acquaint the beginner with
the correct use of tools and metals. The exercises in iron pipe
work have also been detailed to show the correct installation of
jobs.
Together with the study of this book the subjects of Mathematics,
Physics, Chemistry, Drawing and English should be taken. These
subjects as they bear on Plumbing are invaluable to the mechanic in
his future connection with the trade.
The author is indebted for the illustrations of fixtures in the
chapter covering the development of plumbing fixtures, to the
Thomas Maddock's Sons Co., Standard Sanitary Mfg. Co., and The
Trenton Potteries Co.
SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE.
PITTSBURGH, _December, 1917_.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE v
CHAPTER
I. Plumbing Fixtures and Trade 1
II. The Use and Care of the Soldering Iron--Fluxes--Making
Different Soldering Joints 11
III. Mixtures of Solders for Soldering Iron and Wiping--Care
of Solders--Melting Points of Metals and Alloys 21
IV. Making and Caring of Wiping Cloths 24
V. Preparing and Wiping Joints 27
VI. Preparing and Wiping Joints (_Continued_) 37
VII. Laying Terra-cotta and Making Connections to Public
Sewers--Water Connections to Mains in Streets 69
VIII. Installing of French or Sub-soil Drains 82
IX. Storm and Sanitary Drainage with Sewage Disposal in
View 86
X. Soil and Waste Pipes and Vents--Tests 95
XI. House Traps, Fresh-air Connections, Drum Traps, and
Non-syphoning Traps 104
XII. Pipe Threading 110
XIII. Cold-water Supply--Test 118
XIV. Hot-water Heaters--Instantaneous Coil and Storage
Tanks--Return Circulation, Hot-water Lines and Expansion 124
XV. Insulation of Piping to Eliminate Conduction, Radiation,
Freezing and Noise 131
XVI. "Durham" or "Screw Pipe" Work--Pipe and Fittings 134
XVII. Gas Fittings, Pipe and Fittings, Threading, Measuring
and Testing 141
XVIII. Plumbing Codes 153
INDEX 167
ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING
CHAPTER I
PLUMBING FIXTURES AND TRADE
Modern plumbing as a trade is the arranging and running of pipes to
supply pure water to buildings, the erecting of fixtures for the
use of this supply, and the installing of other pipes for the
resulting waste water. The work of the trade divides itself
therefore into two parts: first the providing an adequate supply of
water; and second, the disposing of this water after use. The first
division offers few problems to the plumber, little variety in the
layout being possible, and the result depending mostly upon the
arrangement of the pipes and fittings; but the second division
calls for careful study in the arrangement, good workmanship in the
installing, and individual attention to each fixture.
The trade had its beginnings in merely supplying fresh water to a
community. This was done by means of trenching, or conveying water
from lakes, rivers, or springs through wooden pipes or open
troughs. By easy stages the trade improved and enlarged its scope,
until at the present time it is able to provide for the adequate
distribution of tons of water under high pressure furnished by the
city water works.
In the early years of the trade the question of the disposal of the
waste water was easily answered, for it was allowed to be
discharged onto the ground to seek its own course. But with the
increased amount of water available, the waste-water problem has
enlarged until today it plays the most important part of plumbing,
and the trade has had to change to meet this waste-water problem.
The first simple system of a pipe running from the sink to a point
outside the building was sufficient. As larger buildings came into
use and communities were more thickly populated, the plumbing
problem demanded thought and intense study. The waste pipes from
fixtures had to be so arranged that it would be impossible for foul
odors and germ-laden air to enter the building through a plumbing
fixture. The importance of this is evidenced by the plumbing laws
now in use throughout the country.
One of the first plumbing fixtures put into common use was a
hollowed-out stone which served as a sink. It was with considerable
interest that the writer saw a sink of this kind in actual use in
the summer of 1915, at a house in a New England village. This sink
had been in service for about 100 years. From this beginning the
well-known fixtures of today have developed. The demand for
moderate priced, sanitary closets, lavatories, and baths has led to
the rapid improvement seen in plumbing fixtures. In the development
of these fixtures, as soon as a bad feature was recognized the
fixture was at once discarded, until now the market offers fixtures
as mechanically fine as can be produced. Plumbing fixtures were at
first manufactured so that it was necessary to support them on a
wooden frame, and this frame was enclosed in wood. The enclosure
made by this framework soon became foul and filthy and a breeding
place for all kinds of disease germs and vermin. This bad feature
was overcome by the introduction of open plumbing, that is,
fixtures so made that the enclosure of wood could be done away
with. The open plumbing allowed a free circulation of air around
the fixture and exposed pipes, thereby making the outside of the
fixture and its immediate surroundings free from all the bad
features of the closed plumbing. Plenty of fresh air and plenty of
light are necessary for good sanitary plumbing.
The materials of which the first open-plumbing fixtures were made
consisted of marble, copper, zinc, slate, iron, and clay. Time soon
proved that marble and slate were absorbent, copper and zinc soon
leaked from wear, iron rusted, and clay cracked and lacked
strength; therefore these materials soon became insanitary, and
foul odors were easily detected rising from the fixture. Besides
these materials being insanitary, the fact that a fixture was
constructed using a number of sections proved that joints and seams
were insanitary features on a fixture. For instance, in a marble
lavatory constructed by using one piece for the top, another for
the bowl, and still another for the back, filth accumulated at
every joint and seam. Following this condition, developed the iron
enameled and earthenware fixtures, constructed without seams and
with a smooth, even, glossy white finish. The fact that these
fixtures are made of material that is non-absorbent adds to their
value as sanitary plumbing fixtures.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Pan closet (_English_).]
Another problem which is as important as the foregoing is the
proper flushing, that is, the supplying of sufficient water in a
manner designed to cleanse the fixture properly.
The development of sanitary earthenware illustrates how the above
problems were satisfactorily solved. In the city of London a law
compelling the use of drains was enforced, and in the early 70's
the effect of this law was felt in this country. The introduction
at this time of the mechanical water closet, known as the "pan
closet," and the English plumbing material which was brought to
this country was the beginning of "American plumbing," which today
outstrips that of any other country in the world. The "pan closet"
continued in use for some time until the "valve closet" was
introduced as a more sanitary fixture. Closely following these
closets, in 1880, the plunger closet became popular as a still more
sanitary fixture. The plunger closet continued in use until the
present all-earthenware closet bowl drove all other makes from the
market. The American development of the earthenware closet bowl
put the American sanitary fixture far ahead of the English
improvements, as the American earthenware is superior and the
sanitary features of the bowls are nearer perfection.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pan closet (_American_).]
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Plunger closet.]
When the washout bowl was introduced it was considered perfection.
The hopper closet bowl, which was nothing more than a funnel-shaped
bowl placed on top of a trap, was placed in competition with the
washout bowl. There are a number of these bowls now in use and also
being manufactured. However, large cities prohibit their use.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plunger closet.]
To quote Thomas Maddock's Sons Co.: "In 1876 Wm. Smith of San
Francisco patented a water closet which employed a jet to assist in
emptying the bowl and the development of this principle is due
entirely to the potter, who had gradually and by costly experiment
become the determining factor in the evolution of the water
closet." With this improvement it became possible to do away with
the boxing-in of the bowl which up to this time had been necessary.
Closet bowls of today are made of vitreous body which does not
permit crazing or discoloring of the ware. A study of the
illustrations which show the evolution of the closet bowl should be
of interest to the student as well as to the apprentice and
journeyman. The bath tub developed from a gouged-out stone, in
which water could be stored and used for bathing purposes, to our
present-day enameled iron and earthenware tubs. The development did
not progress very rapidly until about 25 years ago. Since then
every feature of the tub has been improved, and from a sanitary
standpoint the tubs of today cannot be improved. The bath tub has
become an American custom, as the people in this country have
demanded that they have sanitary equipment in their homes, while in
the European countries this demand has not developed.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Modern low-tank closet.]
The first tubs used in this country were of wood lined with copper
or zinc, and were built in or boxed in with wood panelling. The
plumbing ordinances of today prohibit this boxing as it proved to
be a breeding place for vermin, etc. As the illustration shows, the
woodwork encasing the tub was in a great many cases beautifully
carved and finished.
The placing on the market of a steel-clad tub, a steel tub with a
copper lining, which did away with the boxing, was a big
improvement as far as sanitary reasons were concerned as well as a
reduction in cost of tubs. These tubs were set up on legs which
permitted cleaning and provided good ventilation all around. With
these features they drove all other tubs from the market. The
copper and zinc were found to be hard to keep clean and they were
soon replaced by the iron enamelled and earthenware tubs. The
finish on these tubs being white and non-absorbent makes
them highly acceptable as sanitary fixtures. A study of the
illustrations will show how progress has been made in design as
well as in sanitary features.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Encased bath tub.]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Steel tub on legs.]
THE WASH BOWL.--Succeeding the hand basin the first wash basins
used in this country were made of marble or slate, with a round
bowl of crockery. The bowl was 14 inches in diameter originally,
but later was changed to an oval bowl. Like the bath tub these
wash stands were encased in wood, the encasing being used to
support the marble top. Ornamental brackets were introduced and the
wood encasement done away with.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Modern built-in tub.]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Encased wash bowl.]
About 1902 the iron-enamelled lavatory appeared on the market and
drove all other kinds from the market at once. The reason for this
is clear. The marble stands were absorbent and were made with three
parts, top, back, and bowl; the enamelled iron lavatory is made
all in one piece of material non-absorbent. A study of the
illustrations will show clearly how the lavatory has been
improved. Strange to say, in all plumbing fixtures, and especially
the lavatory, as improvements were made to make them more sanitary
a reduction has been made in the price of an individual fixture.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Bath room of early 80's. All fixtures are
enclosed.]
The development of the urinal, showers, wash trays, drinking
fountains and other fixtures I will not attempt to cover. As the
demand has been evident for fixtures of certain types, the plumber
has been alert to anticipate and supply it. There is need,
however, for improvement in all our fixtures, especially that part
which connects with the waste pipes, also the hanging, that is the
arrangement or lack of arrangement for hanging fixtures to the
wall. The waste and overflow of all fixtures need considerable
change to make them sanitary. The opportunity is, therefore, before
anyone who will apply himself to this development. Much money,
thought, and time have been spent by the manufacturers of iron
enamelled ware and by the potteries to gather suggestions made by
the plumber in regard to fixtures, and then to perfect them. To
these manufacturers is due the beautiful design, stability, and
perfect sanitary material which make up our plumbing fixtures of
today.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.]