VI. TYPICAL DECORATED CANOPY. From Exeter.

Nos. I., II., III., IV., VI. are taken from illustrations in Lewis F.

Day, _Windows_, by permission of B. T. Batsford.]

[Illustration: PLATE II.

I. A TYPICAL PERPENDICULAR CANOPY (from Lewis F. Day, _Windows_, by

permission of B. T. Batsford).

II. A WINDOW FROM AUCH. Illustrating the transition from Perpendicular

to Renaissance.

III. A SIXTEENTH-CENTURY JESSE WINDOW. From Beauvais (source as in

Fig. I.).

IV. PORTION OF A RENAISSANCE WINDOW. From Montmorency, showing the

perfection of glass painting.

From Lutien Magne, _Oeuvre des Peintres Verriers Francais_, by

permission of Firmin-Didot et C^ie.]

A sign of later times is the way pictures spread beyond the confines of

a single light. This happened by degrees. At first the connexion between

the figures in separate window openings was only in idea, as when a

central figure of the crucified Christ was flanked by the Virgin and St

John in the side lights. Then the arms of the cross would be carried

through, or as it were behind, the mullions. The expansion to a picture

right across the window was only a question of time. Not that the artist

ventured as yet to disregard the architectural setting of his

picture--that happened later on--but that he often composed it with such

cunning reference to intervening stonework that it did not interfere

with it. It has been argued that each separate light of a window ought

to be complete in itself. On the other hand it has proved possible to

make due acknowledgment of architectural conditions without cramping

design in that way. There can be no doubt as to the variety and breadth

of treatment gained by accepting the whole window as field for a design.

And, when a number of lights go to make a window, it is the window, and

no separate part of it, which is the main consideration.

By the end of the Gothic period, glass painters proceeded on an entirely

different method from that of the 13th century. The designer of early

days began with glazing: he thought in mosaic and leadwork; the lines he

first drew were the lines of glazing; painting was only a supplementary

process, enabling him to get what lead lines would not give. The Late

Gothic draughtsman began with the idea of painting; glazing was to him

of secondary importance; he reached a stage (Creation window, Great

Malvern) where it is clear that he first sketched out his design, and

then bethought him how to glaze it in such wise that the leadwork (which

once boldly outlined everything) should not interfere with the picture.

The artful way in which he would introduce little bits of colour into a

window almost entirely white, makes it certain that he had always at the

back of his mind the consideration of the glazing to come. So long as he

thought of that, and did not resent it, all was fairly well with glass

painting, but there came a point where he found it difficult, if not

impossible, to reconcile the extreme delicacy of his painting upon white

glass with the comparatively brutal strength of his lead lines. It is

here that the conditions of painting and glazing clash at last.

It must not be supposed that Late Gothic windows were never by any

chance rich in colour. Local conservatism and personal predilection

prevented anything like monotonous progress in a single direction. There

is (St Sebald, Nuremberg) Middle Gothic glass as dense in colour as any

13th-century work, and Late Gothic (Troyes cathedral) which, from its

colour, one might take at first to be a century earlier than it is. In

Italy (Florence) and to some extent in Spain (Seville) it was the custom

to make canopywork so rich in colour that it was more like part of the

picture than a frame to it. But that was by exception. The tendency was

towards lighter windows. Glass itself was less deeply stained when

painters depended more upon their power of deepening it by paint. It was

the seeking after delicate effects of painting, quite as much as the

desire to let light into the church, which determined the tone of later

windows. The clearer the glass the more scope it gave for painting.

It is convenient to draw a line between Gothic art and Renaissance.

Nothing is easier than to say that windows in which crocketed canopywork

occurs are Gothic, and that those with arabesque are Renaissance. But

that is an arbitrary distinction, which does not really distinguish.

Some of the most beautiful work in glass, such for example as that at

Auch, is so plainly intermediate between two styles that it is

impossible to describe it as anything but "transitional." And, apart

from particular instances, we have only to look at the best Late Gothic

work to see that it is informed by the new spirit, and at fine

Renaissance glass to observe how it conforms to Gothic traditions of

workmanship. The new idea gave a spurt to Gothic art; and it was Gothic

impetus which carried Renaissance glass painting to the summit of

accomplishment reached in the first half of the 16th century. When that

subsided, and the pictorial spirit of the age at last prevailed, the

bright days of glass were at an end. If we have to refer to the early

Renaissance as the culminating period of glass painting, it is because

the technique of an earlier period found in it freer and fuller

expression. With the Renaissance, design broke free from the restraints

of tradition.

An interesting development of Renaissance design was the framing of

pictures in golden-yellow arabesque ornament, scarcely architectural

enough to be called canopywork, and reminiscent rather of beaten

goldsmith's work than of stone carving. This did for the glass picture

what a gilt frame does for a painting in oil. Very often framework of

any kind was dispensed with. The primitive idea of accepting bars and

mullions as boundaries of design, and filling the compartments formed by

them with a medley of little subjects, lingered on. The result was

delightfully broken colour, but inevitable confusion; for iron and

masonry do not effectively separate glass pictures. There was no longer

in late glass any pretence of preserving the plane of the window. It was

commonly designed to suggest that one saw out of it. Throughout the

period of the Renaissance, architectural and landscape backgrounds play

an important part in design. An extremely beautiful feature in early

16th-century French glass pictures (Rouen, &c.) is the little peep of

distant country delicately painted upon the pale-blue glass which

represents the sky. In larger work landscape and architecture were

commonly painted upon white (King's College, Cambridge). The landscape

effect was always happiest when one or other of these conventions was

adopted. Canopywork never went quite out of fashion. For a long while

the plan was still to frame coloured pictures in white. Theoretically

this is no less effectually to be done by Italian than by Gothic

shrinework. Practically the architectural setting assumed in the 16th

century more and more the aspect of background to the figures, and, in

order that it should take its place in the picture, they painted it so

heavily that it no longer told as white. Already in van Orley's

magnificent transept windows at St Gudule, Brussels, the great triumphal

arch behind the kneeling donors and their patron saints (in late glass

donors take more and more the place of holy personages) tells dark

against the clear ground. There came a time, towards the end of the

century, when, as in the wonderful windows at Gouda, the very quality of

white glass is lost in heavily painted shadow.

The pictorial ambition of the glass painter, active from the first, was

kept for centuries within the bounds of decoration. Medallion subjects

were framed in ornament, standing figures in canopywork, and pictures

were conceived with regard to the window and its place in architecture.

Severity of treatment in design may have been due more to the

limitations of technique than to restraint on the part of the painter.

The point is that it led to unsurpassed results. It was by absolute

reliance upon the depth and brilliancy of self-coloured glass that all

the beautiful effects of early glass were obtained. We need not compare

early mosaic with later painted glass; each was in its way admirable;

but the early manner is the more peculiar to glass, if not the more

proper to it. The ruder and more archaic design gives in fullest measure

the glory of glass--for the loss of which no quality of painting ever

got in glass quite makes amends. The pictorial effects compatible with

glass design are those which go with pure, brilliant and translucent

colour. The ideal of a "primitive" Italian painter was more or less to

be realized in glass: that of a Dutch realist was not. It is astonishing

what glass painters did in the way of light and shade. But the fact

remains that heavy painting obscured the glass, that shadows rendered in

opaque surface-colour lacked translucency, and that in seeking before

all things the effects of shadow and relief, glass painters of the 17th

century fell short of the qualities on the one hand of glass and on the

other of painting.

The course of glass painting was not so even as this general survey of

its progress might seem to imply. It was quickened here, impeded there,

by historic events. The art made a splendid start in France; but its

development was stayed by the disasters of war, just when in England it

was thriving under the Plantagenets. It revived again under Francis I.

In Germany it was with the prosperity of the free cities of the Empire

that glass painting prospered. In the Netherlands it blossomed out under

the favour of Charles V. In the Swiss Confederacy its direction was

determined by civil and domestic instead of church patronage. In most

countries there were in different districts local schools of glass

painting, each with some character of its own. To what extent design was

affected by national temperament it is not easy to say. The marked

divergence of the Flemish from the French treatment of glass in the

16th century is not entirely due to a preference on the one part for

colour and on the other for light and shade, but is partly owing to the

circumstance that, whilst in France design remained in the hands of

craftsmen, whose trade was glass painting, in the Netherlands it was

entrusted by the emperor to his court painter, who concerned himself as

little as possible with a technique of which he knew nothing. If in

France we come also upon the names of well-known artists, they seem,

like Jean Cousin, to have been closely connected with glass painting:

they designed so like glass painters that they might have begun their

artistic career in the workshop.

The attribution of fine windows to famous artists should not be too

readily accepted; for, though it is a foible of modern times to father

whatever is noteworthy upon some great name, the masterpieces of

medieval art are due to unknown craftsmen. In Italy, where glass

painting was not much practised, and it seems to have been the custom

either to import glass painters as they were wanted or to get work done

abroad, it may well be that designs were supplied by artists more or

less distinguished. Ghiberti and Donatello may have had a hand in the

cartoons for the windows of the Duomo at Florence; but it is not to any

sculptor that we can give the entire credit of design so absolutely in

the spirit of colour decoration. The employment of artists not connected

with glass design would go far to explain the great difference of

Italian glass from that of other countries. The 14th-century work at

Assisi is more correctly described as "Trecento" than as Gothic, and the

"Quattrocento" windows at Florence are as different as could be from

Perpendicular work. One compares them instinctively with Italian

paintings, not with glass elsewhere. And so with the 15th-century

Italian glass. The superb 16th-century windows of William of Marseilles

at Arezzo, in which painting is carried to the furthest point possible

short of sacrificing the pure quality of glass, are more according to

contemporary French technique. Both French and Italian influence may be

traced in Spanish glass (Avila, Barcelona, Burgos, Granada, Leon,

Seville, Toledo). Some of it is said to have been executed in France. If

so it must have been done to Spanish order. The coarse effectiveness of

the design, the strength of the colour, the general robustness of the

art, are characteristically Spanish; and nowhere this side of the

Pyrenees do we find detail on a scale so enormous.

We have passed by, in following the progressive course of craftsmanship,

some forms of design, peculiar to no one period but very characteristic

of glass. The "quarry window," barely referred to, its diamond-shaped or

oblong panes painted, richly bordered, relieved by bosses of coloured

ornament often heraldic, is of constant occurrence. Entire windows, too,

were from first to last given up to heraldry. The "Jesse window" occurs

in every style. According to the fashion of the time the "Stem of Jesse"

burst out into conventional foliage, vine branches or arbitrary

scrollwork. It appealed to the designer by the scope it gave for freedom

of design. He found vent, again, for fantastic imagination in the

representation of the "Last Judgment," to which the west window was

commonly devoted. And there are other schemes in which he delighted; but

this is not the place to dwell upon them.

The glass of the 17th century does not count for much. Some of the best

in England is the work of the Dutch van Linge family (Wadham and Balliol

Colleges, Oxford). What glass painting came to in the 18th century is

nowhere better to be seen than in the great west window of the

ante-chapel at New College, Oxford. That is all Sir Joshua Reynolds and

the best china painter of his day could do between them. The very idea

of employing a china painter shows how entirely the art of the glass

painter had died out.

It re-awoke in England with the Gothic revival of the 19th century; and

the Gothic revival determined the direction modern glass should take.

Early Victorian doings are interesting only as marking the steps of

recovery (cf. the work of T. Willement in the choir of the Temple

church; of Ward and Nixon, lately removed from the south transept of

Westminster Abbey; of Wailes). Better things begin with the windows at

Westminster inspired by A. C. Pugin, who exercised considerable

influence over his contemporaries. John Powell (Hardman & Co.) was an

able artist content to walk, even after that master's death, reverently

in his footsteps. Charles Winston, whose _Hints on Glass Painting_ was

the first real contribution towards the understanding of Gothic glass,

and who, by the aid of the Powells (of Whitefriars) succeeded in getting

something very like the texture and colour of old glass, was more

learned in ancient ways of workmanship than appreciative of the art

resulting from them. (He is responsible for the Munich glass in Glasgow

cathedral.) So it was that, except for here and there a window entrusted

by exception to W. Dyce, E. Poynter, D. G. Rossetti, Ford Madox Brown or

E. Burne-Jones, glass, from the beginning of its recovery, fell into the

hands of men with a strong bias towards archaeology. The architects

foremost in the Gothic revival (W. Butterfield, Sir G. Scott, G. E.

Street, &c.) were all inclined that way; and, as they had the placing of

commissions for windows, they controlled the policy of glass painters.

Designers were constrained to work in the pedantically archaeological

manner prescribed by architectural fashion. Unwillingly as it may have

been, they made mock-medieval windows, the interest in which died with

the popular illusion about a Gothic revival. But they knew their trade;

and when an artist like John Clayton (master of a whole school of later

glass painters) took a window in hand (St Augustine's, Kilburn; Truro

cathedral; King's College Chapel, Cambridge) the result was a work of

art from which, tradework as it may in a sense be, we may gather what

such men might have done had they been left free to follow their own

artistic impulse. It is necessary to refer to this because it is

generally supposed that whatever is best in recent glass is due to the

romantic movement. The charms of Burne-Jones's design and of William

Morris's colour, place the windows done by them among the triumphs of

modern decorative art; but Morris was neither foremost in the reaction,

nor quite such a master of the material he was working in as he showed

himself in less exacting crafts. Other artists to be mentioned in

connexion with glass design are: Clement Heaton, Bayne, N. H. J.

Westlake and Henry Holiday, not to speak of a younger generation of able

men.

Foreign work shows, as compared with English, a less just appreciation

of glass, though the foremost draughtsmen of their day were enlisted for

its design. In Germany, King Louis of Bavaria employed P. von Cornelius

and W. von Kaulbach (Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne, Glasgow); in France the

Bourbons employed J. A. D. Ingres, F. V. E. Delacroix, Vernet and J. H.

Flandrin (Dreux); and the execution of their designs was entrusted to

the most expert painters to be procured at Munich and Sevres; but all to

little effect. They either used pot-metal glass of poor quality, or

relied upon enamel--with the result that their colour lacks the

qualities of glass. Where it is not heavy with paint it is thin and

crude. In Belgium happier results were obtained. In the chapel of the

Holy Sacrament at Brussels there is one window by J. B. Capronnier not

unworthy of the fine series by B. van Orley which it supplements. At the

best, however, foreign artists failed to appreciate the quality of

glass; they put better draughtsmanship into their windows than English

designers of the mid-Victorian era, and painted them better; but they

missed the glory of translucent colour.

Modern facilities of manufacture make possible many things which were

hitherto out of the question. Enamel colours are richer; their range is

extended; and it may be possible, with the improved kilns and greater

chemical knowledge we possess, to make them hold permanently fast. It

was years ago demonstrated at Sevres how a picture may be painted in

colours upon a sheet of plate-glass measuring 4 ft. by 2-1/2 ft. We are

now no doubt in a position to produce windows painted on much larger

sheets. But the results achieved, technically wonderful as they are,

hardly warrant the waste of time and labour upon work so costly, so

fragile, so lacking in the qualities of a picture on the one hand and of

glass on the other.

In America, John la Farge, finding European material not dense enough,

produced pot-metal more heavily charged with colour. This was wilfully

streaked, mottled and quasi-accidentally varied; some of it was

opalescent; much of it was more like agate or onyx than jewels. Other

forms of American enterprise were: the making of glass in lumps, to be

chipped into flakes; the ruckling it; the shaping it in a molten state,

or the pulling it out of shape. It takes an artist of some reserve to

make judicious use of glass like this. La Farge and L. C. Tiffany have

turned it to beautiful account; but even they have put it to purposes

more pictorial than it can properly fulfil. The design it calls for is a

severely abstract form of ornament verging upon the barbaric.

_Examples of Important Historical Stained Glass._

There are remains of the earliest known glass: in France--at Le Mans,

Chartres, Chalons-sur-Marne, Angers and Poitiers cathedrals, the abbey

church of St Denis and at St Remi, Reims: in England--at York minster

(fragments): in Germany--at Augsburg and Strassburg cathedrals: in

Austria--in the cloisters of Heiligen Kreuz.

The following is a classified list of some of the most characteristic

and important windows, omitting for the most part isolated examples,

and giving by preference the names of churches where there is a fair

amount of glass remaining; the country in which at each period the art

throve best is put first.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

EARLY GOTHIC

_France._ _England._

Chartres \ Canterbury \

Le Mans | Salisbury > cathedrals.

Bourges > cathedrals. Lincoln /

Reims | York minster.

Auxerre /

Ste Chapelle, Paris.

Church of St Jean-aux-Bois.

_Germany._

Church of St Kunibert, Cologne (Romanesque).

Cologne cathedral.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

MIDDLE GOTHIC

_England._ _Germany._

York minster. Church of St Sebald, Nuremberg.

Ely cathedral. Strassburg \

Wells cathedral. Regensburg |

Tewkesbury abbey. Augsburg > cathedrals.

Erfurt |

Freiburg /

Church of Nieder Haslach.

_France._ _Italy._

Evreux cathedral. Church of St Francis, Assisi.

Church of St Pierre, Chartres. Church of Or San Michele,

Cathedral and church of St Urbain, Florence.

Troyes. Church of S. Petronio, Bologna.

Church of Ste Radegonde, Poitiers.

Cathedral and church of St Ouen, Rouen.

_Spain._

Toledo cathedral.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

LATE GOTHIC

_England._ _France._

New College, Oxford. Bourges \ cathedrals.

Gloucester cathedral. Troyes /

York, minster and other churches. Church of Notre Dame, Alencon.

Great Malvern abbey.

Church of St Mary, Shrewsbury.

Fairford church.

_Italy._ _Germany._

The Duomo, Florence. Cologne \

Ulm > cathedrals.

_Spain._ Munich /

Church of St Lorenz, Nuremberg.

Toledo cathedral.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

TRANSITION PERIOD

The choir of the cathedral at Auch.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

RENAISSANCE

_France._ _Netherlands._

St Vincent \ Brussels cathedral.

St Patrice > Rouen. Church of St Jacques \

St Godard / Church of St Martin > Liege.

Church of St Foy, Conches. Cathedral /

Church of St Gervais, Paris.

Church of St Etienne-du-Mont, Paris. _Switzerland._

Church of St Martin, Montmorency.

Church of Ecouen. Lucerne and most of the other

Church of St Etienne, Beauvais. principal museums.

Church of St Nizier, Troyes.

Church of Brou, Bourg-en-Bresse.

The Chateau de Chantilly.

_Italy._ _England._

Arezzo \ cathedrals. King's College chapel, Cambridge.

Milan / Lichfield cathedral.

Certosa di Pavia. St George's church, Hanover Square,

Church of S. Petronio, Bologna. London.

Church of Sta Maria Novella, St Margaret's church, Westminster.

Florence.

_Germany._ _Spain._

Freiburg cathedral. Granada \ cathedrals.

Seville /

----------------------------------------------------------------------

LATE RENAISSANCE

_Netherlands._ _France._

Groote Kirk, Gouda. Church of St Martin-es-Vignes, Troyes.

Choir of Brussels cathedral. Nave and transepts of Auch cathedral.

Antwerp cathedral.

_England._ _Switzerland._

Wadham \ Most museums.

Balliol > colleges, Oxford.

New /

----------------------------------------------------------------------

Of late years each country has been learning so much from the others

that the newest effort is very much in one direction. It seems to be

agreed that the art of the window-maker begins with glazing, that the

all-needful thing is beautiful glass, that painting may be reduced to a

minimum, and on occasion (thanks to new developments in the making of

glass) dispensed with altogether. A tendency has developed itself in the

direction not merely of mosaic, but of carrying the glazier's art

farther than has been done before and rendering landscapes and even

figure subjects in unpainted glass. When, however, it comes to the

representation of the human face, the limitations of simple lead-glazing

are at once apparent. A possible way out of the difficulty was shown at

the Paris Exhibition of 1900 by M. Tournel, who, by fusing together

coloured tesserae on to larger pieces of colourless glass, anticipated

the discovery of the already mentioned fragment of Byzantine mosaic now

in the Victoria and Albert Museum. He may have seen or heard Of

something of the sort. There would be no advantage in building up whole

windows in this way; but for the rendering of the flesh and sundry

minute details in a window for the most part heavily leaded, this fusing

together of tesserae, and even of little pieces of glass cut carefully

to shape, seems to supply the want of something more in keeping with

severe mosaic glazing than painted flesh proves to be.

Glass painters are allowed to-day a freer hand than formerly. They are

no longer exclusively engaged upon ecclesiastical work; domestic glass

is an important industry; and a workman once comparatively exempt from

pedantic control is not so easily restrained from self-expression.

Moreover, the recognition of the artistic position of craftsmen in

general makes it possible for a man to devote himself to glass without

sinking to the rank of a mechanic; and artists begin to realize the

scope glass offers them. What they lack as yet is experience in their

craft, and perhaps due workmanlike respect for traditional ways of

workmanship. When the old methods come to be superseded it will be only

by new ones evolved out of them. At present the conditions of glass

painting remain very much what they were. The supreme beauty of glass is

still in the purity, the brilliancy, the translucency of its colour. To

make the most of this the designer must be master of his trade. The test

of window design is, now as ever, that it should have nothing to lose

and everything to gain by execution in stained glass.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Theophilus, _Arts of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1847);

Charles Winston, _An Inquiry into the Difference of Style observable

in Ancient Glass Painting, especially in England_ (Oxford, 1847), and

_Memoirs illustrative of the Art of Glass Painting_ (London, 1865); N.

H. J. Westlake, _A History of Design in Painted Glass_ (4 vols.,

London, 1881-1894); L. F. Day, _Windows, A Book about Stained and

Painted Glass_ (London, 1909), and _Stained Glass_ (London, 1903); A.

W. Franks, _A Book of Ornamental Glazing Quarries_ (London, 1849); _A

Booke of Sundry Draughtes, principaly serving for Glasiers_ (London,

1615, reproduced 1900); F. G. Joyce, _The Fairford Windows_ (coloured

plates) (London, 1870); _Divers Works of Early Masters in

Ecclesiastical Decoration_, edited by John Weale (2 vols., London,

1846); Ferdinand de Lasteyrie, _Histoire de la peinture sur verre

d'apres ses monuments en France_ (2 vols., Paris, 1852), and _Quelques

mots sur la theorie de la peinture sur verre_ (Paris, 1853); L. Magne,

_Oeuvre des peintres verriers francais_ (2 vols., Paris, 1885);

Viollet le Duc, "Vitrail," vol. ix. of the _Dictionnaire raisonne de

l'architecture_ (Paris, 1868); O. Merson, "Les Vitraux," _Bibliotheque

de l'enseignement des beaux-arts_ (Paris, 1895); E. Levy and J. B.

Capronnier, _Histoire de la peinture sur verre_ (coloured plates)

(Brussels, 1860); Ottin, _Le Vitrail, son histoire a travers les ages_

(Paris); Pierre le Vieil, _L'Art de la peinture sur verre et de la

vitrerie_ (Paris, 1774); C. Cahier and A. Martin, _Vitraux peints de

Bourges du XIII^e siecle_ (2 vols., Paris, 1841-1844); S. Clement and

A. Guitard, _Vitraux du XIII^e siecle de la cathedrale de Bourges_

(Bourges, 1900): M. A. Gessert, _Geschichte der Glasmalerei in

Deutschland und den Niederlanden, Frankreich, England, &c., von ihrem

Ursprung bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (Tubingen and Stuttgart, 1839; also

an English translation, London, 1851); F. Geiges, _Der alte

Fensterschmuck des Freiburger Munsters_, 5 parts (Freiburg im

Breisgau, 1902, &c.); A. Hafner, _Chefs-d'oeuvre de la peinture suisse

sur verre_ (Berlin). (L. F. D.)

GLASSBRENNER, ADOLF (1810-1876), German humorist and satirist, was born

at Berlin on the 27th of March 1810. After being for a short time in a

merchant's office, he took to journalism, and in 1831 edited _Don

Quixote_, a periodical which was suppressed in 1833 owing to its

revolutionary tendencies. He next, under the pseudonym _Adolf

Brennglas_, published a series of pictures of Berlin life, under the

titles _Berlin wie es ist und--trinkt_ (30 parts, with illustrations,

1833-1849), and _Buntes Berlin_ (14 parts, with illustrations, Berlin,

1837-1858), and thus became the founder of a popular satirical

literature associated with modern Berlin. In 1840 he married the actress

Adele Peroni (1813-1895), and removed in the following year to

Neustrelitz, where his wife had obtained an engagement at the Grand

ducal theatre. In 1848 Glassbrenner entered the political arena and

became the leader of the democratic party in Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

Expelled from that country in 1850, he settled in Hamburg, where he

remained until 1858; and then he became editor of the _Montagszeitung_

in Berlin, where he died on the 25th of September 1876.

Among Glassbrenner's other humorous and satirical writings may be

mentioned: _Leben und Treiben der feinen Welt_ (1834); _Bilder und

Traume aus Wien_ (2 vols., 1836); Gedichte (1851, 5th ed. 1870); the

comic epics, _Neuer Reineke Fuchs_ (1846, 4th ed. 1870) and _Die

verkehrte Welt_ (1857, 6th ed. 1873); also _Berliner Volksleben_ (3

vols., illustrated; Leipzig, 1847-1851). Glassbrenner has published

some charming books for children, notably _Lachende Kinder_ (14th ed.,

1884), and _Sprechende Tiere_ (20th ed., Hamburg, 1899).

See R. Schmidt-Cabanis, "Adolf Glassbrenner," in _Unsere Zeit_ (1881).

GLASS CLOTH, a textile material, the name of which indicates the use for

which it was originally intended. The cloths are in general woven with

the plain weave, and the fabric may be all white, striped or cheeked

with red, blue or other coloured threads; the checked cloths are the

most common. The real article should be all linen, but a large quantity

is made with cotton warp and tow weft, and in some cases they are

composed entirely of cotton. The short fibres of the cheaper kind are

easily detached from the cloth, and hence they are not so satisfactory

for the purpose for which they are intended.

GLASSIUS, SALOMO (1593-1656), theologian and biblical critic, was born

at Sondershausen, in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, on

the 20th of May 1593. In 1612 he entered the university of Jena. In

1615, with the idea of studying law, he moved to Wittenberg. In

consequence of an illness, however, he returned to Jena after a year.

Here, as a student of theology under Johann Gerhard, he directed his

attention especially to Hebrew and the cognate dialects; in 1619 he was

made an "adjunctus" of the philosophical faculty, and some time

afterwards he received an appointment to the chair of Hebrew. From 1625

to 1638 he was superintendent in Sondershausen; but shortly after the

death of Gerhard (1637) he was, in accordance with Gerhard's last wish,

appointed to succeed him at Jena. In 1640, however, at the earnest

invitation of Duke Ernest the Pious, he removed to Gotha as court

preacher and general superintendent in the execution of important

reforms which had been initiated in the ecclesiastical and educational

establishments of the duchy. The delicate duties attached to this office

he discharged with tact and energy; and in the "syncretistic"

controversy, by which Protestant Germany was so long vexed, he showed an

unusual combination of firmness with liberality, of loyalty to the past

with a just regard to the demands of the present and the future. He died

on the 27th of July 1656.

His principal work, _Philologia sacra_ (1623), marks the transition

from the earlier views on questions of biblical criticism to those of

the school of Spener. It was more than once reprinted during his

lifetime, and appeared in a new and revised form, edited by J. A.

Dathe (1731-1791) and G. L. Bauer at Leipzig. Glassius succeeded

Gerhard as editor of the Weimar _Bibelwerk_, and wrote the commentary

on the poetical books of the Old Testament for that publication. A

volume of his _Opuscula_ was printed at Leiden in 1700.

See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_.

GLASSWORT, a name given to _Salicornia herbacea_ (also known as marsh

samphire), a salt-marsh herb with succulent, jointed, leafless stems, in

reference to its former use in glass-making, when it was burnt for

barilla. _Salsola Kali_, an allied plant with rigid, fleshy,

spinous-pointed leaves, which was used for the same purpose, was known

as prickly glasswort. Both plants are members of the natural order

Chenopodiaceae.

GLASTONBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the Eastern

parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, on the main road from

London to Exeter, 37 m. S.W. of Bath by the Somerset & Dorset railway.

Pop. (1901) 4016. The town lies in the midst of orchards and

water-meadows, reclaimed from the fens which encircled Glastonbury Tor,

a conical height once an island, but now, with the surrounding flats, a

peninsula washed on three sides by the river Brue.

The town is famous for its abbey, the ruins of which are fragmentary,

and as the work of destruction has in many places descended to the very

foundations it is impossible to make out the details of the plan. Of the

vast range of buildings for the accommodation of the monks hardly any

part remains except the abbot's kitchen, noteworthy for its octagonal

interior (the exterior plan being square, with the four corners filled

in with fireplaces and chimneys), the porter's lodge and the abbey barn.

Considerable portions are standing of the so-called chapel of St Joseph

at the west end, which has been identified with the Lady chapel,

occupying the site of the earliest church. This chapel, which is the

finest part of the ruins, is Transitional work of the 12th century. It

measures about 66 ft. from east to west and about 36 from north to

south. Below the chapel is a crypt of the 15th century inserted beneath

a building which had no previous crypt. Between the chapel and the great

church is an Early English building which appears to have served as a

Galilee porch. The church itself was a cruciform structure with a choir,

nave and transepts, and a tower surmounting the centre of intersection.

From east to west the length was 410 ft. and the breadth of the nave was

about 80 ft. The nave had ten bays and the choir six. Of the nave three

bays of the south side are still standing, and the windows have pointed

arches externally and semicircular arches internally. Two of the tower

piers and a part of one arch give some indication of the grandeur of the

building. The foundations of the Edgar chapel, discovered in 1908, make

the whole church the longest of cathedral or monastic churches in the

country. The old clock, presented to the abbey by Adam de Sodbury

(1322-1335), and noteworthy as an early example of a clock striking the

hours automatically with a count-wheel, was once in Wells cathedral, but

is now preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

The Glastonbury thorn, planted, according to the legend, by Joseph of

Arimathea, has been the object of considerable comment. It is said to be

a distinct variety, flowering twice a year. The actual thorn visited by

the pilgrims was destroyed about the Reformation time, but specimens of

the same variety are still extant in various parts of the country.

The chief buildings, apart from the abbey, are the church of St John

Baptist, Perpendicular in style, with a fine tower and some 15th-century

monuments; St Benedict's, dating from 1493-1524; St John's hospital,

founded 1246; and the George Inn, built in the time of Henry VII. or

VIII. The present stone cross replaced a far finer one of great age,

which had fallen into decay. The Antiquarian Museum contains an

excellent collection, including remains from a prehistoric village of

the marshes, discovered in 1892, and consisting of sixty mounds within a

space of five acres. There is a Roman Catholic missionaries' college. In

the 16th century the woollen industry was introduced by the duke of

Somerset; and silk manufacture was carried on in the 18th century.

Tanning and tile-making, and the manufacture of boots and sheep-skin

rugs are practised. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12

councillors. Area, 5000 acres.

The lake-village discovered in 1892 proves that there was a Celtic

settlement about 300-200 B.C. on an island in the midst of swamps, and

therefore easily defensible. British earthworks and Roman roads and

relics prove later occupation. The name of Glastonbury, however, is of

much later origin, being a corruption of the Saxon _Glaestyngabyrig_. By

the Britons the spot seems to have been called Ynys yr Afalon (latinized

as Avallonia) or Ynysvitrin (see AVALON), and it became the local

habitation of various fragments of Celtic romance. According to the

legends which grew up under the care of the monks, the first church of

Glastonbury was a little wattled building erected by Joseph of Arimathea

as the leader of the twelve apostles sent over to Britain from Gaul by

St Philip. About a hundred years later, according to the same

authorities, the two missionaries, Phaganus and Deruvianus, who came to

king Lucius from Pope Eleutherius, established a fraternity of

anchorites on the spot, and after three hundred years more St Patrick

introduced among them a regular monastic life. The British monastery

founded about 601 was succeeded by a Saxon abbey built by Ine in 708.

From the decadent state into which Glastonbury was brought by the Danish

invasions it was recovered by Dunstan, who had been educated within its

walls and was appointed its abbot about 946. The church and other

buildings of his erection remained till the installation, in 1082, of

the first Norman abbot, who inaugurated the new epoch by commencing a

new church. His successor Herlewin (1101-1120), however, pulled it down

to make way for a finer structure. Henry of Blois (1126-1172) added

greatly to the extent of the monastery. In 1184 (on 25th May) the whole

of the buildings were laid in ruins by fire; but Henry II. of England,

in whose hands the monastery then was, entrusted his chamberlain

Rudolphus with the work of restoration, and caused it to be carried out

with much magnificence. The great church of which the ruins still remain

was then erected. In the end of the 12th century, and on into the

following, Glastonbury was distracted by a strange dispute, caused by

the attempt of Savaric, the ambitious bishop of Bath, to make himself

master of the abbey. The conflict was closed by the decision of Innocent

III., that the abbacy should be merged in the new see of Bath and

Glastonbury, and that Savaric should have a fourth of the property. On

Savaric's death his successor gave up the joint bishopric and allowed

the monks to elect their own abbot. From this date to the Reformation

the monastery, one of the chief Benedictine abbeys in England, continued

to flourish, the chief events in its history being connected with the

maintenance of its claims to the possession of the bodies or tombs of

King Arthur and St Dunstan. From early times through the middle ages it

was a place of pilgrimage. As early at least as the beginning of the

11th century the tradition that Arthur was buried at Glastonbury appears

to have taken shape; and in the reign of Henry II., according to

Giraldus Cambrensis and others, the abbot Henry de Blois, causing search

to be made, discovered at the depth of 16 ft. a massive oak trunk with

an inscription "Hic jacet sepultus inclitus rex Arthurus in insula

Avalonia." After the fire of 1184 the monks asserted that they were in

possession of the remains of St Dunstan, which had been abstracted from

Canterbury after the Danish sack of 1011 and kept in concealment ever

since. The Canterbury monks naturally denied the assertion, and the

contest continued for centuries. In 1508 Warham and Goldston having

examined the Canterbury shrine reported that it contained all the

principal bones of the saint, but the abbot of Glastonbury in reply as

stoutly maintained that this was impossible. The day of such disputes

was, however, drawing to a close. In 1539 the last and 60th abbot of

Glastonbury, Robert Whyting, was lodged in the Tower on account of

"divers and sundry treasons." "The 'account' or 'book' of his treasons

... seems to be lost, and the nature of the charges ... can only be a

matter of speculation" (Gairdner, _Cal. Pap._ on Hen. VIII., xiv. ii.

_pref._ xxxii). He was removed to Wells, where he was "arraigned and

next day put to execution for robbing of Glastonbury church." The

execution took place on Glastonbury Tor. His body was quartered and his

head fixed on the abbey gate. A darker passage does not occur in the

annals of the English Reformation than this murder of an able and

high-spirited man, whose worst offence was that he defended as best he

could from the hand of the spoiler the property in his charge.

In 1907, the site of the abbey with the remains of the buildings, which

had been in private hands since the granting of the estate to Sir Peter

Carew by Elizabeth in 1559, was bought by Mr Ernest Jardine for the

purpose of transferring it to the Church of England. Bishop Kennion of

Bath and Wells entered into an agreement to raise a sum of L31,000, the

cost of the purchase; this was completed, and the site and buildings

were formally transferred at a dedicatory service in 1909 to the

Diocesan Trustees of Bath and Wells, who are to hold and manage the

property according to a deed of trust. This deed provided for the

appointment of an advisory council, consisting of the archbishop of

Canterbury, the bishop of Bath and Wells and four other bishops, each

with power to nominate one clerical and one lay member. The council has

the duty of deciding the purpose for which the property is to be used

"in connexion with and for the benefit of the Church of England." To

give time for further collection of funds and deliberation, the property

was re-let for five years to the original purchaser.

In the 8th century Glastonbury was already a borough owned by the abbey,

which continued to be overlord till the Dissolution. The abbey obtained

charters in the 7th century, but the town received its first charter

from Henry II., who exempted the men of Glastonbury from the

jurisdiction of royal officials and freed them from certain tolls. This

was confirmed by Henry III. in 1227, by Edward I. in 1278, by Edward II.

in 1313 and by Henry VI. in 1447. The borough was incorporated by Anne

in 1706, and the corporation was reformed by the act of 1835. In 1319

Glastonbury received a writ of summons to parliament, but made no

return, and has not since been represented. A fair on the 8th of

September was granted in 1127; another on the 29th of May was held under

a charter of 1282. Fairs known as Torr fair and Michaelmas fair are now

held on the second Mondays in September and October and are chiefly

important for the sale of horses and cattle. The market day every other

Monday is noted for the sale of cheese. Glastonbury owed its medieval

importance to its connexion with the abbey. At the Dissolution the

introduction of woollen manufacture checked the decay of the town. The

cloth trade flourished for a century and was replaced by silk-weaving,

stocking-knitting and glove-making, all of which have died out.

See Abbot Gasquet. _Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries_ (1906),

and _The Last Abbot of Glastonbury_ (1895 and 1908); William of

Malmesbury, "De antiq. Glastoniensis ecclesiae," in _Rerum Anglicarum

script. vet._ tom. i. (1684) (also printed by Hearne and Migne); John

of Glastonbury, _Chronica sive de hist. de rebus Glast._, ed. by

Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1726); Adam of Domerham, _De rebus gestis

Glast._, ed. by Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1727); _Hist. and Antiq. of

Glast._ (London, 1807); _Avalonian Guide to the Town of Glastonbury_

(8th ed., 1839); Warner, _Hist. of the Abbey and Town_ (Bath, 1826);

Rev. F. Warre, "Glastonbury Abbey," in _Proc. of Somersetshire_

_Archaeol. and Nat. Hist. Soc._, 1849; Rev. F. Warre, "Notice of

Ruins of Glastonbury Abbey," ib. 1859; Rev. W. A. Jones, "On the

Reputed Discovery of King Arthur's Remains at Glastonbury," ib. 1859;

Rev. J. R. Green, "Dunstan at Glastonbury" and "Giso and Savaric," ib.

1863; Rev. Canon Jackson, "Savaric, Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury,"

ib. 1862, 1863; E. A. Freeman, "King Ine," ib. 1872 and 1874; Dr W.

Beattie, in _Journ. of Brit. Archaeol. Ass._ vol. xii., 1856; Rev. R.

Willis, _Architectural History of Glastonbury Abbey_ (1866); W. H. P.

Greswell, _Chapters on the Early History of Glastonbury Abbey_ (1909);

Views and plans of the abbey building will be found in Dugdale's

_Monasticon_ (1655); Stevens's _Monasticon_ (1720); Stukeley,

_Itinerarium curiosum_ (1724); Grose, _Antiquities_ (1754); Carter,

_Ancient Architecture_ (1800); Storer, _Antiq. and Topogr. Cabinet_,

ii., iv., v. (1807), &c.; Britton's _Architectural Antiquities_, iv.

(1813); _Vetusta monumenta_, iv. (1815); and _New Monasticon_, i.

(1817).

GLATIGNY, JOSEPH ALBERT ALEXANDRE (1830-1873), French poet, was born at

Lillebonne (Seine Inferieure) on the 21st of May 1839. His father, who

was a carpenter and afterwards a gendarme, removed in 1844 to Bernay,

where Albert received an elementary education. Soon after leaving school

he was apprenticed to a printer at Pont Audemer, where he produced a

three-act play at the local theatre. He then joined a travelling company

of actors to whom he acted as prompter. Inspired primarily by the study

of Theodore de Banville, he published his _Vignes folles_ in 1857; his

best collection of lyrics, _Les Fleches d'or_, appeared in 1864; and a

third volume, _Gilles et pasquins_, in 1872. After Glatigny settled in

Paris he improvised at cafe concerts and wrote several one-act plays. On

an expedition to Corsica with a travelling company he was on one

occasion arrested and put in irons for a week through being mistaken by

the police for a notorious criminal. His marriage with Emma Dennie

brought him great happiness, but the hardships of his life weakened his

health and he died at Sevres on the 16th of April 1873.

See Catulle Mendes, _Legende du Parnasse contemporain_ (1884), and

_Glatigny, drame funambulesque_ (1906).

GLATZ (Slav. _Kladsko_), a fortified town of Germany, in the Prussian

province of Silesia, in a narrow valley on the left bank of the Neisse,

not far from the Austrian frontier, 58 m. S.W. from Breslau by rail.

Pop. (1905) 16,051. The town with its narrow streets winds up the

fortified hill which is crowned by the old citadel. Across the river, on

the Schaferberg, lies a more modern fortress built by the Prussians

about 1750. Before the town on both banks of the river there is a

fortified camp by which bombardment from the neighbouring heights can be

hindered and which affords accommodation for 10,000 men. The inner

ceinture of walls was razed in 1891 and their site is now occupied by

new streets. There are a Lutheran and two Roman Catholic churches, one

of which, the parish church, contains the monuments of seven Silesian

dukes. Among the other buildings the principal are the Royal Catholic

gymnasium and the military hospital. The industries include machine

shops, breweries, and the manufacture of spirits, linen, damask, cloth,

hosiery, beads and leather.

Glatz existed as early as the 10th century, and received German settlers

about 1250. It was besieged several times during the Thirty Years' War

and during the Seven Years' War and came into the possession of Prussia

in 1742. In 1821 and 1883 great devastation was caused here by floods.

The county of Glatz was long contended for by the kingdoms of Poland and

of Bohemia. Eventually it became part of the latter country, and in 1534

was sold to the house of Habsburg, from whom it was taken by Frederick

the Great during his attack on Silesia.

See Ludwig, _Die Grafschaft Glatz in Wort und Bild_ (Breslau, 1897);

Kutzen, _Die Grafschaft Glatz_ (Glogau, 1873); and _Geschichtsquellen

der Grafschaft Glatz_, edited by F. Volkmer and Hohaus (1883-1891).

GLAUBER, JOHANN RUDOLF (1604-1668), German chemist, was born at

Karlstadt, Bavaria, in 1604 and died at Amsterdam in 1668. Little more

is known of his life than that he resided successively in Vienna,

Salzburg, Frankfurt and Cologne before settling in Holland, where he

made his living chiefly by the sale of secret chemical and medicinal

preparations. Though his writings abound in universal solvents and other

devices of the alchemists, he made some real contributions to chemical

knowledge. Thus he clearly described the preparation of hydrochloric

acid by the action of oil of vitriol on common salt, the manifold

virtues of sodium sulphate--_sal mirabile_, Glauber's salt--formed in

the process being one of the chief themes of his _Miraculum mundi_; and

he noticed that nitric acid was formed when nitre was substituted for

the common salt. Further he prepared a large number of substances,

including the chlorides and other salts of lead, tin, iron, zinc,

copper, antimony and arsenic, and he even noted some of the phenomena of

double decomposition. He was always anxious to turn his knowledge to

practical account, whether in preparing medicines, or in furthering

industrial arts such as dyeing, or in increasing the fertility of the

soil by artificial manures. One of his most notable works was his

_Teutschlands Wohlfarth_ in which he urged that the natural resources of

Germany should be developed for the profit of the country and gave

various instances of how this might be done.

His treatises, about 30 in number, were collected and published at

Frankfort in 1658-1659, at Amsterdam in 1661, and, in an English

translation by Packe, at London in 1689.

GLAUBER'S SALT, decahydrated sodium sulphate, Na2SO4, 10H2O. It is said

by J. Kunkel to have been known as an _arcanum_ or secret medicine to

the electoral house of Saxony in the middle of the 16th century, but it

was first described by J. R. Glauber (_De natura salium_, 1658), who

prepared it by the action of oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid on common

salt, and, ascribing to it many medicinal virtues, termed it _sal

mirabile Glauberi_. As the mineral thenardite or mirabilite, which

crystallizes in the rhombic system, it occurs in many parts of the

world, as in Spain, the western states of North America and the Russian

Caucasus; in the last-named region, about 25 m. E. of Tiflis, there is a

thick bed of the pure salt about 5 ft. below the surface, and at

Balalpashinsk there are lakes or ponds the waters of which are an almost

pure solution. The substance is the active principle of many mineral

waters, e.g. Frederickshall; it occurs in sea-water and it is a constant

constituent of the blood. In combination with calcium sulphate, it

constitutes the mineral glauberite or brongniartite, Na2SO4.CaSO4, which

assumes forms belonging to the monoclinic system and occurs in Spain and

Austria. It has a bitter, saline, but not acrid taste. At ordinary

temperatures it crystallizes from aqueous solutions in large colourless

monoclinic prisms, which effloresce in dry air, and at 35 deg.C. melt in

their water of crystallization. At 100 deg. they lose all their water,

and on further heating fuse at 843 deg. Its maximum solubility in water

is at 34 deg.; above that temperature it ceases to exist in the solution

as a decahydrate, but changes to the anhydrous salt, the solubility of

which decreases with rise of temperature. Glauber's salt readily forms

supersaturated solutions, in which crystallization takes place suddenly

when a crystal of the salt is thrown in; the same effect is obtained by

exposure to the air or by touching the solution with a glass rod. In

medicine it is employed as an aperient, and is one of the safest and

most innocuous known. For children it may be mixed with common salt and

the two be used with the food without the child being conscious of any

difference. Its simulation of the taste of common salt also renders it

suitable for administration to insane patients and others who refuse to

take any drug. If, however, its presence is recognized sodium phosphate

may be substituted.

GLAUCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the right bank

of the Mulde, 7 m. N. of Zwickau and 17 W. of Chemnitz by rail. Pop.

(1875) 21,743; (1905) 24,556. It has important manufactures of woollen

and half-woollen goods, in regard to which it occupies a high position

in Germany. There are also dye-works, print-works, and manufactories of

paper, linen, thread and machinery. Glauchau possesses a high grade

school, elementary schools, a weaving school, an orphanage and an

infirmary. Some portions of the extensive old castle date from the 12th

century, and the Gottesacker church contains interesting antiquarian

relics. Glauchau was founded by a colony of Sorbs and Wends, and

belonged to the lords of Schonburg as early as the 12th century.

See R. Hofmann, _Ruckblick uber die Geschichte der Stadt Glauchau_

(1897).

GLAUCONITE, a mineral, green in colour, and chemically a hydrous

silicate of iron and potassium. It especially occurs in the green sands

and muds which are gathering at the present time on the sea bottom at

many different places. The wide extension of these sands and muds was

first made known by the naturalists of the "Challenger," and it is now

found that they occur in the Mediterranean as well as in the open ocean,

but they have not been found in the Black Sea or in any fresh-water

lakes. These deposits are not in a true sense abyssal, but are of

terrigenous origin, the mud and sand being derived from the wear of the

continents, transported by marine currents. The greater part of the mass

consists in all cases of minerals such as quartz, felspar (often

labradorite), mica, chlorite, with more or less calcite which is

probably always derived from shells or other organic sources. Many

accessory minerals such as tourmaline and zircon have been identified

also, while augite, hornblende and other volcanic minerals occur in

varying proportion as in all the sediments of the open sea. The depth in

which they accumulate varies a good deal, viz. from 200 up to 2000

fathoms, but as a rule is less than 1000 fathoms, and it is believed

that the most common situations are where the continental shores slope

rather steeply into moderate depths of water. Many of the blue muds,

which owe their colour to fine particles of sulphide of iron, contain

also a small quantity of glauconite; in Globigerina oozes this substance

has also been found, and in fact there exists every gradation between

the glauconitic deposits and the other types of sands and muds which are

found at similar depths.

The colouring matter is believed in every case to be glauconite. Other

ingredients, such as lime, alumina and magnesia are usually shown to be

present by the analyses, but may perhaps be regarded as non-essential:

it is impossible to isolate this substance in a pure state as it occurs

only in fine aggregates, mixed with other minerals. The glauconite,

though crystalline, never occurs well crystallized but only as dense

clusters of very minute particles which react feebly on polarized light.

They have one well-marked characteristic inasmuch as they often form

rounded lumps. In many cases it is certain that these are casts, which

fill up the interior of empty shells of Foraminifera. They may be seen

occupying these shells, and when the shell is dissolved away perfect

casts of glauconite are set free. Apparently in some manner not

understood, the decaying organic matter in the shell of the dead

organism initiated or favoured the chemical reactions by which the

glauconite was formed. That the mineral originated on the sea bottom

among the sand and mud is quite certainly established by these facts;

moreover, since it is so soft and friable that it is easily powdered up

by pressure with the fingers, it cannot have been transported from any

great distance by currents. Small rounded glauconite lumps, which are

common on the sands but show no trace of having filled the chambers of

Foraminifera, may have arisen by a re-deposit of broken-down casts such

as have been described; probably slight movement of the deposits,

occasioned by currents, may have broken up the glauconite casts and

scattered the soft material through the water. Films or stains of

glauconite on shells, sand grains and phosphate nodules are explained by

a similar deposit of fragmental glauconite.

In a small number of Tertiary and older rocks glauconite occurs as an

essential component. It is found in the Pliocene sands of Holland, the

Eocene sands of Paris and the "Molasse" of Switzerland, but is much more

abundant in the Lower Cretaceous rocks of N. Europe, especially in the

subdivision known as the Greensand. Rounded lumps and casts like those

of the green sands of the present day are plentiful in these rocks, and

it is obvious that the mode of formation was in all respects the same.

The green sand when weathered is brown or rusty coloured, the glauconite

being oxidized to limonite. Calcareous sands or impure limestones with

glauconite are also by no means rare, an example being the well-known

Kentish Rag. In the Chalk-rock and Chalk-marl of some parts of England

glauconite is rather frequent, and glauconitic chalk is known also in

the north of France. Among the oldest rocks which contain this mineral

are the Lower Silurian of the St Petersburg district, but it is very

rare in the Palaeozoic formations, possibly because it undergoes

crystalline change and is also liable to be oxidized and converted into

other ferruginous minerals. It has been suggested that certain deposits

of iron ores may owe their origin to deposits of glauconite, as for

example those of the Mesabi range, Minnesota, U.S.A. (J. S. F.)

GLAUCOUS (Gr. [Greek: glaukos], bright, gleaming), a word meaning of a

sea-green colour, in botany covered with bloom, like a plum or a

cabbage-leaf.

GLAUCUS ("bright"), the name of several figures in Greek mythology, the

most important of which are the following:

1. GLAUCUS, surnamed _Pontius_, a sea divinity. Originally a fisherman

and diver of Anthedon in Boeotia, having eaten of a certain magical herb

sown by Cronus, he leapt into the sea, where he was changed into a god,

and endowed with the gift of unerring prophecy. According to others he

sprang into the sea for love of the sea-god Melicertes, with whom he was

often identified (Athenaeus vii. 296). He was worshipped not only at

Anthedon, but on the coasts of Greece, Sicily and Spain, where fishermen

and sailors at certain seasons watched for his arrival during the night

in order to consult him (Pausanias ix. 22). In art he is depicted as a

vigorous old man with long hair and beard, his body terminating in a

scaly tail, his breast covered with shells and seaweed. He was said to

have been the builder and pilot of the Argo, and to have been changed

into a god after the fight between the Argonauts and Tyrrhenians. He

assisted the expedition in various ways (Athenaeus, loc. cit.; see also

Ovid, _Metam._ xiii. 904). Glaucus was the subject of a satyric drama by

Aeschylus. He was famous for his amours, especially those with Scylla

and Circe.

See the exhaustive monograph by R. Gaedechens, _Glaukos der Meergott_

(1860), and article by the same in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_;

and for Glaucus and Scylla, E. Vinet in _Annali dell' Instituto di

Correspondenza archeologica_, xv. (1843).

2. GLAUCUS, usually surnamed _Potnieus_, from Potniae near Thebes, son

of Sisyphus by Merope and father of Bellerophon. According to the legend

he was torn to pieces by his own mares (Virgil, _Georgics_, iii. 267;

Hyginus, _Fab._ 250, 273). On the isthmus of Corinth, and also at

Olympia and Nemea, he was worshipped as Taraxippus ("terrifier of

horses"), his ghost being said to appear and frighten the horses at the

games (Pausanias vi. 20). He is closely akin to Glaucus Pontius, the

frantic horses of the one probably representing the stormy waves, the

other the sea in its calmer mood. He also was the subject of a lost

drama of Aeschylus.

3. GLAUCUS, the son of Minos and Pasiphae. When a child, while playing

at ball or pursuing a mouse, he fell into a jar of honey and was

smothered. His father, after a vain search for him, consulted the

oracle, and was referred to the person who should suggest the aptest

comparison for one of the cows of Minos which had the power of assuming

three different colours. Polyidus of Argos, who had likened it to a

mulberry (or bramble), which changes from white to red and then to

black, soon afterwards discovered the child; but on his confessing his

inability to restore him to life, he was shut up in a vault with the

corpse. Here he killed a serpent which was revived by a companion, which

laid a certain herb upon it. With the same herb Polyidus brought the

dead Glaucus back to life. According to others, he owed his recovery to

Aesculapius. The story was the subject of plays by the three great Greek

tragedians, and was often represented in mimic dances.

See Hyginus, _Fab._ 136; Apollodorus iii. 3. 10; C. Hock, _Kreta_,

iii. 1829; C. Eckermann, _Melampus_, 1840.

4. GLAUCUS, son of Hippolochus, and grandson of Bellerophon, mythical

progenitor of the kings of Ionia. He was a Lycian prince who, along with

his cousin Sarpedon, assisted Priam in the Trojan War. When he found

himself opposed to Diomedes, with whom he was connected by ties of

hospitality, they ceased fighting and exchanged armour. Since the

equipment of Glaucus was golden and that of Diomedes brazen, the

expression "golden for brazen" (_Iliad_, vi. 236) came to be used

proverbially for a bad exchange. Glaucus was afterwards slain by Ajax.

All the above are exhaustively treated by R. Gaedechens in Ersch and

Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_.

GLAZING.--The business of the glazier may be confined to the mere

fitting and setting of glass (q.v.), even the cutting up of the plates

into squares being generally an independent art, requiring a degree of

tact and judgment not necessarily possessed by the building artificer.

The tools generally used by the glazier are the diamond for cutting,

laths or straight edges, tee square, measuring rule, glazing knife,

hacking knife and hammer, duster, sash tool, two-foot rule and a

glazier's cradle for carrying the glass. Glaziers' materials are glass,

putty, priming or paint, springs, wash-leather or india-rubber for door

panels, size, black. The glass is supplied by the manufacturer and cut

to the sizes required for the particular work to be executed. Putty is

made of whiting and linseed oil, and is generally bought in iron kegs of

1/2 or 1 cwt.; the putty should always be kept covered over, and when

found to be getting hard in the keg a little oil should be put on it to

keep it moist. Priming is a thin coat of paint with a small amount of

red lead in it. In the majority of cases after the sashes for the

windows are fitted they are sent to the glazier's and primed and glazed,

and then returned to the job and hung in their proper positions. When

priming sashes it is important that the rebates be thoroughly primed,

else the putty will not adhere. All wood that is to be painted requires

before being primed to have the knots coated with knotting. When the

priming is dry, the glass is cut and fitted into its place; each pane

should fit easily with about 1/16th in. play all round. The glazier runs

the putty round the rebates with his hands, and then beds the glass in

it, pushing it down tight, and then further secures it by knocking in

small nails, called glaziers' sprigs, on the rebate side. He then trims

up the edges of the protruding putty and bevels off the putty on the

rebate or outside of the sash with a putty knife. The sash is then ready

for painting. Large squares and plate glass are usually inserted when

the sashes are hung to avoid risks of breakage. For inside work the

panes of glass are generally secured with beads (not with putty), and in

the best work these beads are fixed with brass screws and caps to allow

of easy removal without breaking the beads and damaging the paint, &c.

In the case of glass in door panels where there is much vibration and

slamming, the glass is bedded in wash-leather or india-rubber and

secured with beads as before mentioned.

Varieties of glass.

The most common glass and that generally used is clear sheet in varying

thicknesses, ranging in weight from 15 to 30 oz. per sq. ft. This can be

had in several qualities of English or foreign manufacture. But there

are many other varieties--obscured, fluted, enamelled, coloured and

ornamental, rolled and rough plate, British polished plate, patent

plate, fluted rolled, quarry rolled, chequered rough, and a variety of

figured rolled, and stained glass, and crown-glass with bulls'-eyes in

the centre.

Lead light glazing is the glazing of frames with small squares of glass,

which are held together by reticulations of lead; these are secured by

means of copper wire to iron saddle bars, which are let into mortices in

the wood frames or stone jambs. This is formed with strips of lead,

soldered at the angles; the glass is placed between the strips and the

lead flattened over the edges of glass to secure it. This is much used

in public buildings and private residences. In Weldon's method the

saddle bars are bedded in the centre of the strips of lead, thus

strengthening the frame of lead strips and giving a better appearance.

_Wired rolled plate or wired cast plate_, usually 1/4 in. thick, has

wire netting embedded in it to prevent the glass from falling in the

case of fire; its use is obligatory in London for all lantern and

skylights, screens and doors on the staircases of public and warehouse

buildings, in accordance with the London Building Act. It is also used

for the decks of ships and for port and cabin lights, as it is much

stronger than plain glass, and if fractured is held together by the

wire.

Patent prismatic rolled glass, or "refrax" (fig. 1), consists of an

effectual application of the well-known properties of the prism; it

absorbs all the light that strikes the window opening, and diffuses it

in the most efficient manner possible in the darkest portions of the

apartment. It can be fixed in the ordinary way or placed over the

existing glass.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Prism Window Glass.]

Pavement lights (fig. 2) and stallboard lights are constructed with iron

frames in small squares and glazed with thick prismatic glass, and are

used to light basements. They are placed on the pavement and under shop

fronts in the portion called the stallboard, and are also inserted in

iron coal plates.

Great skill has of late years been displayed in the ornamentation of

glass such as is seen in public saloons, restaurants, &c., as, for

instance, in bevelling the edges, silvering, brilliant cutting,

embossing, bending, cutting shelving to fancy shapes and polishing, and

in glass ventilators.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section through Prism Pavement Light, the

direction of light rays being indicated by arrows.]

Roof glazing.

There are several patent methods of roof glazing, such as are applied

to railway stations, studios and printing and other factories

requiring light. Some of the first patents of this kind were erected

with wood glazing bars; these were unsightly, since they required to

be of large sectional area when spanning a distance of 7 or 8 ft., and

also required to be constantly painted. This was a source of trouble;

the roof was constantly leaking and, moreover, it was not

fire-resisting.

Of subsequent patents one includes the use of steel T-bars, in which

the glass is bedded and covered with a capping of copper or zinc

secured with bolts and nuts. Another employs steel bars covered with

lead; and this is a very good method, as the bars are of small

section, require no painting, and are also fire-resisting. There is

one reason for preferring wood to steel, namely, that wood does not

expand and contract like steel does. After the sun has been on steel

bars, especially those in long lengths, they tend to buckle and then

when cold contract, thus getting out of shape; there is also the

possibility that when expanding they may break the glass. This is more

noticeable in the case of iron ventilating frames in this glazing,

which after having weathered for a year or two will begin to get out

of shape and so give trouble in opening and closing.

Care should be taken not to fit the glass in iron bars tightly, but a

good 1/8th in. play all round should be allowed. A few of the systems

of patent roof glazing will be described in the following pages,

together with illustrations.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--"British Challenge" Glazing.]

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Mellowes' Glazing.]

The system of glazing known as the "British Challenge" (fig. 3), with

steel bars encased with a sheeting of 4-lb. lead, is very simple and

durable, needs no painting, and can be fixed at as much as 8 ft. clear

bearings, with the bars spaced 2 ft. apart. The ends of the bars rest

on the wood or steel purlins or plates, and are either notched and

screwed down, or simply fitted with a bracket which is screwed. The

bar is of T section with condensation grooves, and the lead wings on

top are turned down on to the glass after fitting. This lead-covered

steel bar is a great improvement on the plain steel bar as it is

entirely unaffected by smoke, acids or exhaust fumes from steam

engines; this is important in the case of a railway station, where the

fumes would otherwise eat the steel away and so weaken the bars that

in time they would snap. Another somewhat similar system is known as

"Mellowes' Eclipse Roof Glazing" (fig. 4). It consists of steel T-bars

having lead wings on top to turn on to the glass in a similar manner

to the last, the top wings being double and the underside of the bar

having an additional wing to catch the condensation. The Heywood

combination system (fig. 5) is composed of galvanized steel T-bars,

sometimes encased in lead and sometimes partly encased. It has a

capping and condensation gutters of lead, and the glass is bedded on

asbestos packing to get a better bearing edge, so as to be held more

securely. Hope's glazing is very similar, but the bars are either T or

cross according to the span. The "Perfection" glazing used by Messrs

Helliwell & Co. (fig. 6) is composed of steel shaped T bars with

copper capping, secured with bolts and nuts and having asbestos

packing on top of the glass under the edges of the capping.

Pennycook's glazing is composed of steel shaped T bars encased with

lead and lead wings. Rendle's "Invincible" glazing (fig. 7) is

composed of steel T bars with specially shaped copper water and

condensation channels, all formed in the one piece and resting on top

of the T steel; the glass rests on the zinc channel, and a copper

capping is fixed over the edges of the glass and secured with bolts

and nuts. Deard's glazing is very similar, and is composed of T steel

encased with lead; it claims to save all drilling for fixing to iron

roofs. There are also other systems composed of wood bars with

condensation gutter and capping of copper secured with bolts and nuts,

and asbestos packing with slight differences in some minor matters,

but these systems are but little used.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Heywood's Glazing.]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Helliwell's "Perfection" Glazing.]

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Rendle's "Invincible" Glazing.]

Cloisonne glass is a patent ornamental glass formed by placing two

pieces flat against each other enclosing a species of glass mosaic.

Designs are worked and shaped in gilt wire and placed on one sheet of

glass; the space between the wire is then filled in with coloured

beads, and another sheet of glass is placed on top of it to keep them

in position, and the edges of the glass are bound with linen, &c., to

keep them firmly together.

Use in building.

Glass is now used for decorative purposes, such as wall tiling and

ceilings; it is coloured and decorated in almost any shade and presents

a very effective appearance. An invention has been patented for building

houses entirely of glass; the walls are constructed of blocks or bricks

of opaque glass, the several walls being varied in thickness according

to the constructional requirements.

It is certainly true that daylight has much to do with the sanitary

condition of all buildings, and this being so the proper distribution of

daylight to a building is of the greatest possible importance, and must

be effected by an ample provision of windows judiciously arranged. The

heads of all windows should be kept as near the ceiling as possible, as

well to obtain easy ventilation as to ensure good lighting. As far as is

practicable a building should be planned so that each room receives the

sun's rays for some part of the day. This is rarely an easy matter,

especially in towns where the aspect of the building is out of the

architect's hands. The best sites for light are found in streets running

north and south and east and west, and lighting areas or courts in

buildings should always if possible be arranged on these lines. The task

of adequately lighting lofty city buildings has been greatly minimized

by the introduction of many forms of reflecting and intensifying

contrivances, which are used to deflect light into those apartments into

which daylight does not directly penetrate, and which would otherwise

require the use of artificial light to render them of any use; the most

useful of these inventions are the various forms of prism glass already

referred to and illustrated in this article.

See L. F. Day, _Stained and Painted Class_; and W. Eckstein, _Interior

Lighting_. (J. Bt.)

GLAZUNOV, ALEXANDER CONSTANTINOVICH (1865- ), Russian musical composer,

was born in St Petersburg on the 10th of August 1865, his father being a

publisher and bookseller. He showed an early talent for music, and

studied for a year or so with Rimsky-Korsakov. At the age of sixteen he

composed a symphony (afterwards elaborated and published as _op._ 5),

but his _opus_ 1 was a quartet in D, followed by a pianoforte suite on

_S-a-c-h-a_, the diminutive of his name Alexander. In 1884 he was taken

up by Liszt, and soon became known as a composer. His first symphony was

played that year at Weimar, and he appeared as a conductor at the Paris

exhibition in 1889. In 1897 his fourth and fifth symphonies were

performed in London under his own conducting. In 1900 he became

professor at the St Petersburg conservatoire. His separate works,

including orchestral symphonies, dance music and songs, make a long

list. Glazunov is a leading representative of the modern Russian school,

and a master of orchestration; his tendency as compared with

contemporary Russian composers is towards classical form, and he was

much influenced by Brahms, though in "programme music" he is represented

by such works as his symphonic poems _The Forest_, _Stenka Razin_, _The

Kremlin_ and his suite _Aus dem Mittelalter_. His ballet music, as in

_Raymonda_, achieved much popularity.

GLEBE (Lat. _glaeba_, _gleba_, clod or lump of earth, hence soil, land),

in ecclesiastical law the land devoted to the maintenance of the

incumbent of a church. Burn (_Ecclesiastical Law, s.v._ "Glebe Lands")

says: "Every church of common right is entitled to house and glebe, and

the assigning of them at the first was of such absolute necessity that

without them no church could be regularly consecrated. The house and

glebe are both comprehended under the word _manse_, of which the rule of

the canon law is, _sancitum est ut unicuique ecclesiae unus mansus

integer absque ullo servitio tribuatur_." In the technical language of

English law the fee-simple of the glebe is said to be in _abeyance_,

that is, it exists "only in the remembrance, expectation and intendment

of the law." But the freehold is in the parson, although at common law

he could alienate the same only with proper consent,--that is, in his

case, with the consent of the bishop. The disabling statutes of

Elizabeth (Alienation by Bishops, 1559, and Dilapidations, &c., 1571)

made void all alienations by ecclesiastical persons, except leases for

the term of twenty-one years or three lives. By an act of 1842 (5 & 6

Vict. c. 27, Ecclesiastical Leases) glebe land and buildings may be let

on lease for farming purposes for fourteen years or on an improving

lease for twenty years. But the parsonage house and ten acres of glebe

situate most conveniently for occupation must not be leased. By the

Ecclesiastical Leasing Acts of 1842 (5 & 6 Vict. c. 108) and 1858 glebe

lands may be let on building leases for not more than ninety-nine years

and on mining leases for not more than sixty years. The Tithe Act 1842,

the Glebe Lands Act 1888 and various other acts make provision for the

sale, purchase, exchange and gift of glebe lands. In Scots

ecclesiastical law, the manse now signifies the minister's

dwelling-house, the glebe being the land to which he is entitled in

addition to his stipend. All parish ministers appear to be entitled to a

glebe, except the ministers in royal burghs proper, who cannot claim a

glebe unless there be a landowner's district annexed; and even in that

case, when there are two ministers, it is only the first who has a

claim.

See Phillimore, _Ecclesiastical Law_ (2nd ed.); Cripps, _Law of Church

and Clergy_; Leach, _Tithe Acts_ (6th ed.); Dart, _Vendors and

Purchasers_ (7th ed.).

GLEE, a musical term for a part-song of a particular kind. The word, as

well as the thing, is essentially confined to England. The technical

meaning has been explained in different ways; but there is little doubt

of its derivation through the ordinary sense of the word (i.e.

merriment, entertainment) from the A.S. _gleov_, _gleo_, corresponding

to Lat. _gaudium_, _delectamentum_, hence _ludus musicus_; on the other

hand, a musical "glee" is by no means necessarily a merry composition.

Gleeman (A.S. "gleo-man") is translated simply as "musicus" or "cantor,"

to which the less distinguished titles of "mimus, jocista, scurra," are

frequently added in old dictionaries. The accomplishments and social

position of the gleeman seem to have been as varied as those of the

Provencal "joglar." There are early examples of the word "glee" being

used as synonymous with harmony or concerted music. The former

explanation, for instance, is given in the _Promptorium parvulorum_, a

work of the 15th century. Glee in its present meaning signifies, broadly

speaking, a piece of concerted vocal music, generally unaccompanied, and

for male voices, though exceptions are found to the last two

restrictions. The number of voices ought not to be less than three. As

regards musical form, the glee is little distinguished from the

catch,--the two terms being often used indiscriminately for the same

song; but there is a distinct difference between it and the

madrigal--one of the earliest forms of concerted music known in England.

While the madrigal does not show a distinction of contrasted movements,

this feature is absolutely necessary in the glee. In the madrigal the

movement of the voices is strictly contrapuntal, while the more modern

form allows of freer treatment and more compact harmonies. Differences

of tonality are fully explained by the development of the art, for while

the madrigal reached its acme in Queen Elizabeth's time, the glee proper

was little known before the Commonwealth; and its most famous

representatives belong to the 18th century and the first quarter of the

19th. Among the numerous collections of the innumerable pieces of this

kind, only one of the earliest and most famous may be mentioned, _Catch

that Catch can, a Choice Collection of Catches, Rounds and Canons, for

three and four voices_, published by John Hilton in 1652. The name

"glee," however, appears for the first time in John Playford's _Musical

Companion_, published twenty-one years afterwards, and reprinted again

and again, with additions by later composers--Henry Purcell, William

Croft and John Blow among the number. The originator of the glee in its

modern form was Dr Arne, born in 1710. Among later English musicians

famous for their glees, catches and part-songs, the following may be

mentioned:--Attwood, Boyce, Bishop, Crotch, Callcott, Shield, Stevens,

Horsley, Webb and Knyvett. The convivial character of the glee led, in

the 18th century, to the formation of various societies, which offered

prizes and medals for the best compositions of the kind and assembled

for social and artistic purposes. The most famous amongst these--The

Glee Club--was founded in 1787, and at first used to meet at the house

of Mr Robert Smith, in St Paul's churchyard. This club was dissolved in

1857. A similar society--The Catch Club--was formed in 1761 and is still

in existence.

GLEICHEN, two groups of castles in Germany, thus named from their

resemblance to each other (Ger. _gleich_ = like, or resembling). The

first is a group of three, each situated on a hill in Thuringia between

Gotha and Erfurt. One of these called Gleichen, the Wanderslebener

Gleiche (1221 ft. above the sea), was besieged unsuccessfully by the

emperor Henry IV. in 1088. It was the seat of a line of counts, one of

whom, Ernest III., a crusader, is the subject of a romantic legend.

Having been captured, he was released from his imprisonment by a Turkish

woman, who returned with him to Germany and became his wife, a papal

dispensation allowing him to live with two wives at the same time (see

Reineck, _Die Sage von der Doppelehe eines Grafen von Gleichen_, 1891).

After belonging to the elector of Mainz the castle became the property

of Prussia in 1803. The second castle is called Muhlburg (1309 ft. above

the sea). This existed as early as 704 and was besieged by Henry IV. in

1087. It came into the hands of Prussia in 1803. The third castle,

Wachsenburg (1358 ft.), is still inhabited and contains a collection of

weapons and pictures belonging to its owner, the duke of

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, whose family obtained possession of it in 1368. It

was built about 935 (see Beyer, _Die drei Gleichen_, Erfurt, 1898). The

other group consists of two castles, Neuen-Gleichen and Alten-Gleichen.

Both are in ruins and crown two hills about 2 m. S.E. from Gottingen.

The name of Gleichen is taken by the family descended from Prince Victor

of Hohenlohe-Langenburg through his marriage with Miss Laura Seymour,

daughter of Admiral Sir George Francis Seymour, a branch of the

Hohenlohe family having at one time owned part of the county of

Gleichen.

GLEIG, GEORGE (1753-1840), Scottish divine, was born at Boghall,

Kincardineshire, on the 12th of May 1753, the son of a farmer. At the

age of thirteen he entered King's College, Aberdeen, where the first

prize in mathematics and physical and moral sciences fell to him. In his

twenty-first year he took orders in the Scottish Episcopal Church, and

was ordained to the pastoral charge of a congregation at Pittenweem,

Fife, whence he removed in 1790 to Stirling. He became a frequent

contributor to the _Monthly Review_, the _Gentleman's Magazine_, the

_Anti-Jacobin Review_ and the _British Critic_. He also wrote several

articles for the third edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and

on the death of the editor, Colin Macfarquhar, in 1793, was engaged to

edit the remaining volumes. Among his principal contributions to this

work were articles on "Instinct," "Theology" and "Metaphysics." The two

supplementary volumes were mainly his own work. He was twice chosen

bishop of Dunkeld, but the opposition of Bishop Skinner, afterwards

primus, rendered the election on both occasions ineffectual. In 1808 he

was consecrated assistant and successor to the bishop of Brechin, in

1810 was preferred to the sole charge, and in 1816 was elected primus of

the Episcopal Church of Scotland, in which capacity he greatly aided in

the introduction of many useful reforms, in fostering a more catholic

and tolerant spirit, and in cementing a firm alliance with the sister

church of England. He died at Stirling on the 9th of March 1840.

Besides various sermons, Gleig was the author of _Directions for the

Study of Theology_, in a series of letters from a bishop to his son on

his admission to holy orders (1827); an edition of _Stackhouse's

History of the Bible_ (1817); and a life of Robertson the historian,

prefixed to an edition of his works. See _Life of Bishop Gleig_, by

the Rev. W. Walker (1879). Letters to Henderson of Edinburgh and John

Douglas, bishop of Salisbury, are in the British Museum.

His third and only surviving son, GEORGE ROBERT GLEIG (1796-1888), was

educated at Glasgow University, whence he passed with a Snell exhibition

to Balliol College, Oxford. He abandoned his scholastic studies to enter

the army, and served with distinction in the Peninsular War (1813-14),

and in the American War, in which he was thrice wounded. Resuming his

work at Oxford, he proceeded B.A. in 1818, M.A. in 1821, and, having

been ordained in 1820, held successively curacies at Westwell in Kent

and Ash (to the latter the rectory of Ivy Church was added in 1822). He

was subsequently appointed chaplain of Chelsea hospital (1824),

chaplain-general of the forces (1844-1875) and inspector-general of

military schools (1846-1857). From 1848 till his death on the 9th of

July 1888 he was prebend of Willesden in St Paul's cathedral. During the

last sixty years of his life he was a prolific, if not very scientific,

writer; he wrote for _Blackwood's Magazine_ and _Fraser's Magazine_, and

produced a large number of historical works.

Among the latter were (besides histories of the campaigns in which he

served), _Life of Sir Thomas Munro_ (3 vols., 1830); _History of

India_ (4 vols., 1830-1835); _The Leipsic Campaign and Lives of

Military Commanders_ (1831); _Story of the Battle of Waterloo_ (1847);

_Sketch of the Military History of Great Britain_ (1845); _Sale's

Brigade in Afghanistan_ (1847); biographies of Lord Clive (1848), the

duke of Wellington (1862), and Warren Hastings (1848; the subject of

Macaulay's essay, in which it is described as "three big bad volumes

full of undigested correspondence and undiscerning panegyric").

GLEIM, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG (1719-1803), German poet, was born on the

2nd of April 1719 at Ermsleben, near Halberstadt. Having studied law at

the university of Halle he became secretary to Prince William of

Brandenburg-Schwedt at Berlin, where he made the acquaintance of Ewald

von Kleist, whose devoted friend he became. When the prince fell at the

battle of Prague, Gleim became secretary to Prince Leopold of Dessau;

but he soon gave up his position, not being able to bear the roughness

of the "Old Dessauer." After residing a few years in Berlin he was

appointed, in 1747, secretary of the cathedral chapter at Halberstadt.

"Father Gleim" was the title accorded to him throughout all literary

Germany on account of his kind-hearted though inconsiderate and

undiscriminating patronage alike of the poets and poetasters of the

period. He wrote a large number of feeble imitations of Anacreon, Horace

and the minnesingers, a dull didactic poem entitled _Halladat oder das

rote Buch_ (1774), and collections of fables and romances. Of higher

merit are his _Preussische Kriegslieder von einem Grenadier_ (1758).

These, which were inspired by the campaigns of Frederick II., are often

distinguished by genuine feeling and vigorous force of expression. They

are also noteworthy as being the first of that long series of noble

political songs in which later German literature is so rich. With this

exception, Gleim's writings are for the most part tamely commonplace in

thought and expression. He died at Halberstadt on the 18th of February

1803.

Gleim's _Samtliche Werke_ appeared in 7 vols. in the years 1811-1813;

a reprint of the _Lieder eines Grenadiers_ was published by A. Sauer

in 1882. A good selection of Gleim's poetry will be found in F.

Muncker, _Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker_ (1894).

See W. Korte, _Gleims Leben aus seinen Briefen und Schriften_ (1811).

His correspondence with Heinse was published in 2 vols. (1894-1896);

with Uz (1889), in both cases edited by C. Schuddekopf.

GLEIWITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the

Klodnitz, and the railway between Oppeln and Cracow, 40 m. S.E. of the

former town. Pop. (1875) 14,156; (1905) 61,324. It possesses two

Protestant and four Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue, a mining

school, a convent, a hospital, two orphanages, and barracks. Gleiwitz is

the centre of the mining industry of Upper Silesia. Besides the royal

foundry, with which are connected machine manufactories and

boiler-works, there are other foundries, meal mills and manufactories of

wire, gas pipes, cement and paper.

See B. Nietsche, _Geschichte der Stadt Gleiwitz_ (1886); and Seidel,

_Die konigliche Eisengiesserei zu Gleiwitz_ (Berlin, 1896).

GLENALMOND, a glen of Perthshire, Scotland, situated to the S.E. of Loch

Tay. It comprises the upper two-thirds of the course of the Almond, or a

distance of 20 m. For the greater part it follows a direction east by

south, but at Newton Bridge it inclines sharply to the south-east for 3

m., and narrows to such a degree that this portion is known as the Small

(or Sma') Glen. At the end of this pass the glen expands and runs

eastwards as far as the well-known public school of Trinity College,

where it may be considered to terminate. The most interesting spot in

the glen is that traditionally known as the grave of Ossian. The

district east of Buchanty, near which are the remains of a Roman camp,

is said to be the Drumtochty of Ian Maclaren's stories. The mountainous

region at the head of the glen is dominated by Ben y Hone or Ben Chonzie

(3048 ft. high).

GLENCAIRN, EARLS OF. The 1st earl of Glencairn in the Scottish peerage

was ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM (d. 1488), a son of Sir Robert Cunningham of

Kilmaurs in Ayrshire. Made a lord of the Scottish parliament as Lord

Kilmaurs not later than 1469, Cunningham was created earl of Glencairn

in 1488; and a few weeks later he was killed at the battle of

Sauchieburn whilst fighting for King James III. against his rebellious

son, afterwards James IV. His son and successor, ROBERT (d. c. 1490),

was deprived of his earldom by James IV., but before 1505 this had been

revived in favour of Robert's son, CUTHBERT (d. c. 1540), who became 3rd

earl of Glencairn, and whose son WILLIAM (c. 1490-1547) was the 4th

earl. This noble, an early adherent of the Reformation, was during his

public life frequently in the pay and service of England, although he

fought on the Scottish side at the battle of Solway Moss (1542), where

he was taken prisoner. Upon his release early in 1543 he promised to

adhere to Henry VIII., who was anxious to bring Scotland under his rule,

and in 1544 he entered into other engagements with Henry, undertaking

_inter alia_ to deliver Mary queen of Scots to the English king.

However, he was defeated by James Hamilton, earl of Arran, and the

project failed; Glencairn then deserted his fellow-conspirator, Matthew

Stewart, earl of Lennox, and came to terms with the queen-mother, Mary

of Guise, and her party.

William's son, ALEXANDER, the 5th earl (d. 1574), was a more pronounced

reformer than his father, whose English sympathies he shared, and was

among the intimate friends of John Knox. In March 1557 he signed the

letter asking Knox to return to Scotland; in the following December he

subscribed the first "band" of the Scottish reformers; and he

anticipated Lord James Stewart, afterwards the regent Murray, in taking

up arms against the regent, Mary of Guise, in 1558. Then, joined by

Stewart and the lords of the congregation, he fought, against the

regent, and took part in the attendant negotiations with Elizabeth of

England, whom he visited in London in December 1560. When in August 1561

Mary queen of Scots returned to Scotland, Glencairn was made a member of

her council; he remained loyal to her after she had been deserted by

Murray, but in a few weeks rejoined Murray and the other Protestant

lords, returning to Mary's side in 1566. After the queen had married the

earl of Bothwell she was again forsaken by Glencairn, who fought against

her at Carberry Hill and at Langside. The earl, who was always to the

fore in destroying churches, abbeys and other "monuments of idolatry,"

died on the 23rd of November 1574. His short satirical poem against the

Grey Friars is printed by Knox in his _History of the Reformation_.

JAMES, the 7th earl (d. c. 1622), took part in the seizure of James VI.,

called the raid of Ruthven in 1582. WILLIAM, the 9th earl (c.

1610-1664), a somewhat lukewarm Royalist during the Civil War, was a

party to the "engagement" between the king and the Scots in 1647; for

this proceeding the Scottish parliament deprived him of his office as

lord justice-general, and nominally of his earldom. In March 1653

Charles II. commissioned the earl to command the Royalist forces in

Scotland, pending the arrival of General John Middleton, and the

insurrection of this year is generally known as Glencairn's rising.

After its failure he was betrayed and imprisoned, but although excepted

from pardon he was not executed; and when Charles II. was restored he

became lord chancellor of Scotland. After a dispute with his former

friend, James Sharp, archbishop of St Andrews, he died at Belton in

Haddingtonshire on the 30th of May 1664. This earl's son JOHN (d. 1703),

who followed his brother Alexander as 11th earl in 1670, was a supporter

of the Revolution of 1688. His descendant, JAMES, the 14th earl

(1749-1791), is known as the friend and patron of Robert Burns. He

performed several useful services for the poet; and when he died on the

30th of January 1791 Burns wrote a _Lament_ beginning, "The wind blew

hollow frae the hills," and ending with the lines, "But I'll remember

thee, Glencairn, and a' that thou hast done for me." The 14th earl was

never married, and when his brother and successor, John, died childless

in September 1796 the earldom became extinct, although it was claimed by

Sir Adam Fergusson, Bart., a descendant of the 10th earl.

GLENCOE, a glen in Scotland, situated in the north of Argyllshire.

Beginning at the north-eastern base of Buchaille Etive, it takes a

gentle north-westerly trend for 10 m. to its mouth on Loch Leven, a

salt-water arm of Loch Linnhe. On both sides it is shut in by wild and

precipitous mountains and its bed is swept by the Coe--Ossian's "dark

Cona,"--which rises in the hills at its eastern end. About half-way down

the glen the stream forms the tiny Loch Triochatan. Towards Invercoe the

landscape acquires a softer beauty. Here Lord Strathcona, who, in 1894,

purchased the heritage of the Macdonalds of Glencoe, built his stately

mansion of Mount Royal. The principal mountains on the south side are

the various peaks of Buachaille Etive, Stob Dearg (3345 ft.), Bidean nam

Bian (3756 ft.) and Meall Mor (2215 ft.), and on the northern side the

Pap of Glencoe (2430 ft.), Sgor nam Fiannaidh (3168 ft.) and Meall Dearg

(3118 ft.). Points of interest are the Devil's Staircase, a steep,

boulder-strewn "cut" (1754 ft. high) across the hills to Fort William;

the Study; the cave of Ossian, where tradition says that he was born,

and the Iona cross erected in 1883 by a Macdonald in memory of his

clansmen who perished in the massacre of 1692. About 1 m. beyond the

head of the glen is Kingshouse, a relic of the old coaching days, when

it was customary for tourists to drive from Ballachulish via Tyndrum to

Loch Lomond. Now the Glencoe excursion is usually made from Oban--by

rail to Achnacloich, steamer up Loch Etive, coach up Glen Etive and down

Glencoe and steamer at Ballachulish to Oban. One mile to the west of the

Glen lies the village of BALLACHULISH (pop. 1143). It is celebrated for

its slate quarries, which have been worked since 1760. The industry

provides employment for 600 men and the annual output averages 30,000

tons. The slate is of excellent quality and is used throughout the

United Kingdom. Ballachulish is a station on the Callander and Oban

extension line to Fort William (Caledonian railway). The pier and ferry

are some 2 m. W. of the village.

GLENCORSE, JOHN INGLIS, Lord (1810-1891), Scottish judge, son of a

minister, was born at Edinburgh on the 21st of August 1810. From Glasgow

University he went to Balliol College, Oxford. He was admitted a member

of the Faculty of Advocates, and soon became known as an eloquent and

successful pleader. In 1852 he was made solicitor-general for Scotland

in Lord Derby's first ministry, three months later becoming Lord

Advocate. In 1858 he resumed this office in Lord Derby's second

administration, being returned to the House of Commons as member for

Stamford. He was responsible for the Universities of Scotland Act of

1858, and in the same year he was elevated to the bench as lord justice

clerk. In 1867 he was made lord justice general of Scotland and lord

president of the court of session, taking the title of Lord Glencorse.

Outside his judicial duties he was responsible for much useful public

work, particularly in the department of higher education. In 1869 he was

elected chancellor of Edinburgh University, having already been rector

of the university of Glasgow. He died on the 20th August 1891.

GLENDALOUGH, VALE OF, a mountain glen of Co. Wicklow, Ireland,

celebrated and frequently visited both on account of its scenic beauty

and, more especially, because of the collection of ecclesiastical

remains situated in it. Fortunately for its appearance, it is not

approached by any railway, but services of cars are maintained to

several points, of which Rathdrum, 8-1/2 m. S.E., is the nearest railway

station, on the Dublin & South-Eastern. The glen is traversed by the

stream of Glenealo, a tributary of the Avonmore, expanding into small

loughs, the Upper and the Lower. The former of these is walled by the

abrupt heights of Camaderry (2296 ft.) and Lugduff (2176 ft.), and here

the extreme narrowness of the valley adds to its grandeur; while lower

down, where it widens, the romantic character of the scenery is enhanced

by the scattered ruins of the former monastic settlement. These ruins

have the collective name of the "Seven Churches." The settlement owed

its foundation to the hermit St Kevin, who is reputed to have died on

the 3rd of June 618; and it rapidly became a seat of learning of wide

fame, but suffered much at the hands of the Danes and the Anglo-Normans.

In close proximity to an hotel, and to one another, in an enclosure, are

a round tower, one of the finest in Ireland, 110 ft. high and 52 in

circumference; St Kevin's kitchen or church (closely resembling the

house of St Columba at Kells), which measures 25 ft. by 15, with a

high-pitched roof and round belfry--supposed to be the earliest example

of its type; and the cathedral, about 73 ft. in total length by 51 in

width. This possesses a good square-headed doorway, and an east window

of ornate character (the chancel being of later date than the nave), and

there are also some early tombs, but the whole is in a decayed

condition. In the enclosure are also a Lady chapel, chiefly remarkable

for its doorway of wrought granite, in a style of architecture

resembling Greek; a priest's house (restored), and slight remains of St

Chiaran's church. Here is also St Kevin's cross, a granite monolith

never completed; and the enclosure is entered by a fine though

dilapidated gateway. Other neighbouring remains are Trinity or the Ivy

Church, towards Laragh, with beautiful detailed work; St Saviour's

monastery, carefully restored under the direction of the Board of Works,

with a chancel arch of three orders (re-erected); while on the shores of

the upper lough are Reefert Church, the burial-place of the O'Toole

family, and Teampull-na-skellig, the church of the rock. St Kevin's bed

is a cave approachable with difficulty, above the lough, probably a

natural cavity artificially enlarged, to which attaches the legend of St

Kevin's hermitage. Along the valley there are a number of monuments and

stone crosses of various sizes and styles. The whole collection forms,

with the possible exception of Clonmacnoise in King's county, the most

striking monument of monasticism in Ireland.

GLENDOWER, OWEN (c. 1359-1415), the last to claim the title of an

independent prince of Wales, more correctly described as Owain ab

Gruffydd, lord of Glyndyvrdwy in Merioneth, was a man of good family,

with two great houses, Sycharth and Glyndyvrdwy in the north, besides

smaller estates in south Wales. His father was called Gruffydd Vychan,

and his mother Helen; on both sides he had pretensions to be descended

from the old Welsh princes. Owen was probably born about 1359, studied

law at Westminster, was squire to the earl of Arundel, and a witness for

Grosvenor in the famous Scrope and Grosvenor lawsuit in 1386. Afterwards

he was in the service of Henry of Bolingbroke, the future king, though

by an error it has been commonly stated that he was squire to Richard

II. Welsh sympathies were, however, on Richard's side, and combined with

a personal quarrel to make Owen the leader of a national revolt.

The lords of Glyndyvrdwy had an ancient feud with their English

neighbours, the Greys of Ruthin. Reginald Grey neglected to summon Owen,

as was his duty, for the Scottish expedition of 1400, and then charged

him with treason for failing to appear. Owen thereupon took up arms, and

when Henry IV. returned from Scotland in September he found north Wales

ablaze. A hurried campaign under the king's personal command was

ineffectual. Owen's estates were declared forfeit and vigorous measures

threatened by the English government. Still the revolt gathered

strength. In the spring of 1401 Owen was raiding in south Wales, and

credited with the intention of invading England. A second campaign by

the king in the autumn was defeated, like that of the previous year,

through bad weather and the Fabian tactics of the Welsh. Owen had

already been intriguing with Henry Percy (Hotspur), who during 1401 held

command in north Wales, and with Percy's brother-in-law, Sir Edmund

Mortimer. During the winter of 1401-1402 his plans were further extended

to negotiations with the rebel Irish, the Scots and the French. In the

spring he had grown so strong that he attacked Ruthin, and took Grey

prisoner. In the summer he defeated the men of Hereford under Edmund

Mortimer at Pilleth, near Brynglas, in Radnorshire. Mortimer was taken

prisoner and treated with such friendliness as to make the English doubt

his loyalty; within a few months he married Owen's daughter. In the

autumn the English king was for the third time driven "bootless home and

weather-beaten back." The few English strongholds left in Wales were now

hard pressed, and Owen boasted that he would meet his enemy in the

field. Nevertheless, in May 1403 Henry of Monmouth was allowed to sack

Sycharth and Glyndyvrdwy unopposed. Owen had a greater plot in hand. The

Percies were to rise in arms, and meeting Owen at Shrewsbury, overwhelm

the prince before help could arrive. But Owen's share in the undertaking

miscarried through his own defeat near Carmarthen on the 12th of July,

and Percy was crushed at Shrewsbury ten days later. Still the Welsh

revolt was never so formidable. Owen styled himself openly prince of

Wales, established a regular government, and called a parliament at

Machynlleth. As a result of a formal alliance the French sent troops to

his aid, and in the course of 1404 the great castles of Harlech and

Aberystwith fell into his hands.

In the spring of 1405 Owen was at the height of his power; but the tide

turned suddenly. Prince Henry defeated the Welsh at Grosmont in March,

and twice again in May, when Owen's son Griffith and his chancellor were

made prisoners. Scrope's rebellion in the North prevented the English

from following up their success. The earl of Northumberland took refuge

in Wales, and the tripartite alliance of Owen with Percy and Mortimer

(transferred by Shakespeare to an earlier occasion) threatened a renewal

of danger. But Northumberland's plots and the active help of the French

proved ineffective. The English under Prince Henry gained ground

steadily, and the recovery of Aberystwith, after a long siege, in the

autumn of 1408 marked the end of serious warfare. In February 1409

Harlech was also recaptured, and Owen's wife, daughter and grandchildren

were taken prisoners. Owen himself still held out and even continued to

intrigue with the French. In July 1415 Gilbert Talbot had power to treat

with Owen and his supporters and admit them to pardon. Owen's name does

not occur in the document renewing Talbot's powers in February 1416;

according to Adam of Usk he died in 1415. Later English writers allege

that he died of starvation in the mountains; but Welsh legend represents

him as spending a peaceful old age with his sons-in-law at Ewyas and

Monington in Herefordshire, till his death and burial at the latter

place. The dream of an independent and united Wales was never nearer

realization than under Owen's leadership. The disturbed state of England

helped him, but he was indeed a remarkable personality, and has not

undeservedly become a national hero. Sentiment and tradition have

magnified his achievements, and confused his career with tales of

portents and magical powers. Owen left many bastard children; his

legitimate representative in 1433 was his daughter Alice, wife of Sir

John Scudamore of Ewyas.

The facts of Owen's life must be pieced together from scattered

references in contemporary chronicles and documents; perhaps the most

important are Adam of Usk's _Chronicle_ and Ellis's _Original

Letters_. On the Welsh side something is given by the bards Iolo Goch

and Lewis Glyn Cothi. For modern accounts consult J. H. Wylie's

_History of England under Henry IV._ (4 vols., 1884-1898); A. C.

Bradley's popular biography; and Professor Tout's article in the

_Dictionary of National Biography_. (C. L. K.)

GLENELG, CHARLES GRANT, BARON (1778-1866), eldest son of Charles Grant

(q.v.), chairman of the directors of the East India Company, was born in

India on the 26th of October 1778, and was educated at Magdalene

College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1802. Called to the

bar in 1807, he was elected member of parliament for the Inverness

burghs in 1807, and having gained some reputation as a speaker in the

House of Commons, he was made a lord of the treasury in December 1813,

an office which he held until August 1819, when he became secretary to

the lord-lieutenant of Ireland and a privy councillor. In 1823 he was

appointed vice-president of the board of trade; from September 1827 to

June 1828 he was president of the board and treasurer of the navy; then

joining the Whigs, he was president of the board of control under Earl

Grey and Lord Melbourne from November 1830 to November 1834. At the

board of control Grant was primarily responsible for the act of 1833,

which altered the constitution of the government of India. In April 1835

he became secretary for war and the colonies, and was created Baron

Glenelg. His term of office was a stormy one. His differences with Sir

Benjamin d'Urban (q.v.), governor of Cape Colony, were serious; but more

so were those with King William IV. and others over the administration

of Canada. He was still secretary when the Canadian rebellion broke out

in 1837; his wavering and feeble policy was fiercely attacked in

parliament; he became involved in disputes with the earl of Durham, and

the movement for his supercession found supporters even among his

colleagues in the cabinet. In February 1839 he resigned, receiving

consolation in the shape of a pension of L2000 a year. From 1818 until

he was made a peer Grant represented the county of Inverness in

parliament, and he has been called "the last of the Canningites." Living

mainly abroad during the concluding years of his life, he died unmarried

at Cannes on the 23rd of April 1866 when his title became extinct.

Glenelg's brother, SIR ROBERT GRANT (1779-1838), who was third wrangler

in 1801, was, like his brother, a fellow of Magdalene College,

Cambridge, and a barrister. From 1818 to 1834 he represented various

constituencies in parliament, where he was chiefly prominent for his

persistent efforts to relieve the disabilities of the Jews.[1] In June

1834 he was appointed governor of Bombay, and he died in India on the

9th of July 1838. Grant wrote a _Sketch of the History of the East India

Co._ (1813), and is also known as a writer of hymns.