The Norman conquest of Morganwg was effected in the closing years of the

11th century by Robert Fitzhamon, lord of Gloucester. His followers

settled in the low-lying lands of the "Vale," which became known as the

"body" of the shire, while in the hill country, which consisted of ten

"members," corresponding to its ancient territorial divisions, the Welsh

retained their customary laws and much of their independence. Glamorgan,

whose bounds were now contracted between the Neath and the Rhymney, then

became a lordship marcher, its status and organization being that of a

county palatine; its lord possessed _jura regalia_, and his chief

official was from the first a _vice-comes_, or sheriff, who presided

over a county court composed of his lord's principal tenants. The

inhabitants of Cardiff in which, as the _caput baroniae_, this court was

held (though sometimes ambulatory), were soon granted municipal

privileges, and in time Cowbridge, Kenfig, Llantrisant, Aberavon and

Neath also became chartered market-towns. The manorial system was

introduced throughout the "Vale," the manor in many cases becoming the

parish, and the owner building for its protection first a castle and

then a church. The church itself became Normanized, and monasteries were

established--the Cistercian abbey of Neath and Margam in 1129 and 1147

respectively, the Benedictine priory of Ewenny in 1141 and that of

Cardiff in 1147. Dominican and Franciscan houses were also founded at

Cardiff in the following century.

Gower (with Kilvey) or the country west of the morass between Neath and

Swansea had a separate history. It was conquered about 1100 by Henry de

Newburgh, 1st earl of Warwick, by whose descendants and the powerful

family of De Breos it was successively held as a marcher lordship,

organized to some extent on county lines, till 1469. Swansea (which was

the _caput baroniae_ of Gower) and Loughor received their earlier

charters from the lords of Gower (see GOWER).

For the first two centuries after Fitzhamon's time the lordship of

Glamorgan was held by the earls of Gloucester, a title conferred by

Henry I. on his natural son Robert, who acquired Glamorgan by marrying

Fitzhamon's daughter. To the 1st earl's patronage of Geoffrey of

Monmouth and other men of letters, at Cardiff Castle of which he was the

builder, is probably due the large place which Celtic romance,

especially the Arthurian cycle, won for itself in medieval literature.

The lordship passed by descent through the families of Clare (who held

it from 1217 to 1317), Despenser, Beauchamp and Neville to Richard III.,

on whose fall it escheated to the crown. From time to time, the Welsh of

the hills, often joined by their countrymen from other parts, raided

the Vale, and even Cardiff Castle was seized about 1153 by Ivor Bach,

lord of Senghenydd, who for a time held its lord a prisoner. At last

Caerphilly Castle was built to keep them in check, but this provoked an

invasion in 1270 by Prince Llewelyn ap Griffith, who besieged the castle

and refused to retire except on conditions. In 1316 Llewelyn Bren headed

a revolt in the same district, but being defeated was put to death by

Despenser, whose great unpopularity with the Welsh made Glamorgan less

safe as a retreat for Edward II. a few years later. In 1404 Glendower

swept through the county, burning castles and laying waste the

possessions of the king's supporters. By the Act of Union of 1535 the

county of Glamorgan was incorporated as it now exists, by the addition

to the old county of the lordship of Gower and Kilvey, west of the

Neath. By another act of 1542 the court of great sessions was

established, and Glamorgan, with the counties of Brecon and Radnor,

formed one of its four Welsh circuits from thence till 1830, when the

English assize system was introduced into Wales. In the same year the

county was given one parliamentary representative, increased to two in

1832 and to five in 1885. The boroughs were also given a member. In 1832

Cardiff (with Llantrisant and Cowbridge), the Swansea group of boroughs

and the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil were given one member

each, increased to two, in the case of Merthyr Tydfil in 1867. In 1885

the Swansea group was divided into two constituencies with a member

each.

The lordship of Glamorgan, shorn of its quasi-regal status, was granted

by Edward VI. to William Herbert, afterwards 1st earl of Pembroke, from

whom it has descended to the present marquess of Bute.

The rule of the Tudors promoted the rapid assimilation of the

inhabitants of the county, and by the reign of Elizabeth even the

descendants of the Norman knights had largely become Welsh both in

speech and sentiment. Welsh continued to be the prevalent speech almost

throughout the county, except in the peninsular part of Gower and

perhaps Cardiff, till the last quarter of the 19th century. Since then

it has lost ground in the maritime towns and the south-east corner of

the county generally, while fairly holding its own, despite much English

migration, in the industrial districts to the north. In 1901 about 56%

of the total population above three years of age was returned as

speaking English only, 37% as speaking both English and Welsh, and about

6-1/2% as speaking Welsh only.

In common with the rest of Wales the county was mainly Royalist in the

Civil War, and indeed stood foremost in its readiness to pay ship-money,

but when Charles I. visited Cardiff in July 1645 he failed to recruit

his army there, owing to the dissatisfaction of the county, which a few

months later declared for the parliament. There was, however, a

subsequent Royalist revolt in Glamorgan in 1648, but it was signally

crushed by Colonel Horton at the battle of St Fagan's (8th of May).

The educational gap caused by final disappearance of the great

university of Llantwit Major, founded in the 6th century, and by the

dissolution of the monasteries was to some extent filled by the

foundation, by the Stradling family, of a grammar school at Cowbridge

which, refounded in 1685 by Sir Leoline Jenkins, is still carried on as

an endowed school. The only other ancient grammar school is that of

Swansea, founded by Bishop Gore in 1682, and now under the control of

the borough council. Besides the University College of South Wales and

Monmouthshire established at Cardiff in 1883, and a technical college at

Swansea, there is a Church of England theological college (St Michael's)

at Llandaff (previously at Aberdare), a training college for

school-mistresses at Swansea, schools for the blind at Cardiff and

Swansea and for the deaf at Cardiff, Swansea and Pontypridd.

_Antiquities._--The antiquities of the county not already mentioned

include an unusually large number of castles, all of which, except the

castles of Morlais (near Merthyr Tydfil), Castell Coch and Llantrisant,

are between the hill country and the sea. The finest specimen is that of

Caerphilly, but there are also more or less imposing ruins at

Oystermouth, Coity, Newcastle (at Bridgend), Llanblethian, Pennard and

Swansea. Among the restored castles, resided in by their present

owners, are St Donat's, "the latest and most complete of the structures

built for defence," Cardiff, the residence of the marquess of Bute, St

Fagan's, Dunraven, Fonmon and Penrice. Of the monastic buildings, that

of Ewenny is best preserved, Neath and Margam are mere ruins, while all

the others have disappeared. Almost all the older churches possess

towers of a somewhat military character, and most of them, except in

Gower, retain some Norman masonry. Coity, Coychurch and Ewenny (all near

Bridgend) are fine examples of cross churches with embattled towers

characteristic of the county. There are interesting monumental effigies

at St Mary's, Swansea, Oxwich, Ewenny, Llantwit Major, Llantrisant,

Coity and other churches in the Vale. There are from twenty-five to

thirty sculptured stones, of which some sixteen are both ornamented and

inscribed, five of the latter being at Margam and three at Llantwit

Major, and dating from the 9th century if not earlier.

AUTHORITIES.--The records of the _Curia comitatus_ or County Court of

Glamorgan are supposed to have perished, so also have the records of

Neath. With these exceptions, the records of the county have been well

preserved. A collection edited by G. T. Clark under the title _Cartae

et alia munimenta quae ad dominium de Glamorgan pertinent_ was

privately printed by him in four volumes (1885-1893). _A Descriptive

Catalogue of the Penrice and Margam Abbey MSS. in the Possession of

Miss Talbot of Margam_ (6 vols.) was privately issued (1893-1905)

under the editorship of Dr de Gray Birch, who has also published

histories of the Abbeys of Neath and Margam. The _Book of Llan Daf_

(edited by Dr Gwenogvryn Evans, 1903) contains documents illustrative

of the early history of the diocese of Llandaff. Cardiff has published

its _Records_ in 5 vols., and there is a volume of Swansea charters.

There is no complete history of the county, except a modest but useful

one in Welsh--_Hanes Morganwg_, by D. W. Jones (Dafydd Morganwg)

(1874); the chief contributions are Rice Merrick's _Booke of

Glamorganshire's Antiquities_, written in 1578; _The Land of Morgan_

(1883) (a history of the lordship of Glamorgan), by G. T. Clark, whose

_Genealogies of Glamorgan_ (1886) and _Medieval Military Architecture_

(1884) are also indispensable; see also T. Nicholas, _Annals and

Antiquities of the Counties and County Families of Wales_ (2 vols.,

1872). For Gower, see GOWER. (D. Ll. T.)

GLANDERS, or FARCY (_Equinia_), a specific infective and contagious

disease, caused by a tissue parasite (_Bacillus mallei_), to which

certain animals, chiefly the horse, ass and mule, are liable, and which

is communicable from them to man. Glanders in the domesticated animals

is dealt with under VETERINARY SCIENCE; it is happily a rare form of

disease in man, there being evidently less affinity for its development

in the human subject than in the equine species. For the pathology see

the article PARASITIC DISEASES. It occurs chiefly among those who from

their occupation are frequently in contact with horses, such as grooms,

coachmen, cavalry soldiers, veterinary surgeons, &c.; the bacillus is

communicated from a glandered animal either through a wound or scratch

or through application to the mucous membrane of the nose or mouth. A

period of incubation, lasting from three to five days, generally follows

the introduction of the virus into the human system. This period,

however, appears sometimes to be of much longer duration, especially

where there has been no direct inoculation of the poison. The first

symptoms are a general feeling of illness, accompanied with pains in the

limbs and joints resembling those of acute rheumatism. If the disease

has been introduced by means of an abraded surface, pain is felt at that

point, and inflammatory swelling takes place there, and extends along

the neighbouring lymphatics. An ulcer is formed at the point of

inoculation which discharges an offensive ichor, and blebs appear in the

inflamed skin, along with diffuse abscesses, as in phlegmonous

erysipelas. Sometimes the disease stops short with these local

manifestations, but more commonly goes on rapidly accompanied with

symptoms of grave constitutional disturbance. Over the whole surface of

the body there appear numerous red spots or pustules, which break and

discharge a thick mucous or sanguineous fluid. Besides these there are

larger swellings lying deeper in the subcutaneous tissue, which at first

are extremely hard and painful, and to which the term farcy "buds" or

"buttons" is applied. These ultimately open and become extensive

sloughing ulcers.

The mucous membranes participate in the same lesions as are present in

the skin, and this is particularly the case with the interior of the

nose, where indeed, in many instances, the disease first of all shows

itself. This organ becomes greatly swollen and inflamed, while from one

or both nostrils there exudes a copious discharge of highly offensive

purulent or sanguineous matter. The lining membrane of the nostrils is

covered with papules similar in character to those on the skin, which

form ulcers, and may lead to the destruction of the cartilaginous and

bony textures of the nose. The diseased action extends into the throat,

mouth and eyes, while the whole face becomes swollen and erysipelatous,

and the lymphatic glands under the jaws inflame and suppurate. Not

unfrequently the bronchial tubes become affected, and cough attended

with expectoration of matter similar to that discharged from the nose is

the consequence. The general constitutional symptoms are exceedingly

severe, and advance with great rapidity, the patient passing into a

state of extreme prostration. In the acute form of the disease recovery

rarely if ever occurs, and the case generally terminates fatally in a

period varying from two or three days to as many weeks.

A chronic form of glanders and farcy is occasionally met with, in which

the symptoms, although essentially the same as those above described,

advance much more slowly, and are attended with relatively less urgent

constitutional disturbance. Cases of recovery from this form are on

record; but in general the disease ultimately proves fatal by exhaustion

of the patient, or by a sudden supervention, which is apt to occur, of

the acute form. On the other hand, acute glanders is never observed to

become chronic.

In the treatment of this malady in human beings reliance is mainly

placed on the maintenance of the patient's strength by strong

nourishment and tonic remedies. Cauterization should be resorted to if

the point of infection is early known. Abscesses may be opened and

antiseptic lotions used. In all cases of the outbreak of glanders it is

of the utmost consequence to prevent the spread of the disease by the

destruction of affected animals and the cleansing and disinfection of

infected localities.

GLANVILL (or GLANVIL), JOSEPH (1636-1680); English philosopher, was born

at Plymouth in 1636, and was educated at Exeter and Lincoln colleges,

Oxford, where he graduated as M.A. in 1658. After the Restoration he was

successively rector of Wimbush, Essex, vicar of Frome Selwood,

Somersetshire, rector of Streat and Walton. In 1666 he was appointed to

the abbey church, Bath; in 1678 he became prebendary of Worcester

Cathedral, and acted as chaplain in ordinary to Charles II. from 1672.

He died at Bath in November 1680. Glanvill's first work (a passage in

which suggested the theme of Matthew Arnold's _Scholar Gipsy_), _The

Vanity of Dogmatizing, or Confidence in Opinions, manifested in a

Discourse of the shortness and uncertainty of our Knowledge, and its

Causes, with Reflexions on Peripateticism, and an Apology for

Philosophy_ (1661), is interesting as showing one special direction in

which the new method of the Cartesian philosophy might be developed.

Pascal had already shown how philosophical scepticism might be employed

as a bulwark for faith, and Glanvill follows in the same track. The

philosophic endeavour to cognize the whole system of things by referring

all events to their causes appears to him to be from the outset doomed

to failure. For if we inquire into this causal relation we find that

though we know isolated facts, we cannot perceive any such connexion

between them as that the one should give rise to the other. In the words

of Hume, "they seem conjoined but never connected." All causes then are

but secondary, i.e. merely the occasions on which the one first cause

operates. It is singular enough that Glanvill who had not only shown,

but even exaggerated, the infirmity of human reason, himself provided an

example of its weakness; for, after having combated scientific

dogmatism, he not only yielded to vulgar superstitions, but actually

endeavoured to accredit them both in his revised edition of the _Vanity

of Dogmatizing_, published as _Scepsis scientifica_ (1665, ed. Rev. John

Owen, 1885), and in his _Philosophical Considerations concerning the

existence of Sorcerers and Sorcery_ (1666). The latter work appears to

have been based on the story of the drum which was alleged to have been

heard every night in a house in Wiltshire (Tedworth, belonging to a Mr

Mompesson), a story which made much noise in the year 1663, and which is

supposed to have furnished Addison with the idea of his comedy the

_Drummer_. At his death Glanvill left a piece entitled _Sadducismus

Triumphatus_ (printed in 1681, reprinted with some additions in 1682,

German trans. 1701). He had there collected twenty-six relations or

stories of the same description as that of the drum, in order to

establish, by a series of facts, the opinion which he had expressed in

his _Philosophical Considerations_. Glanvill supported a much more

honourable cause when he undertook the defence of the Royal Society of

London, under the title of _Plus Ultra, or the Progress and Advancement

of Science since the time of Aristotle_ (1668), a work which shows how

thoroughly he was imbued with the ideas of the empirical method.

Besides the works already noticed, Glanvill wrote _Lux orientalis_

(1662); _Philosophia pia_ (1671); _Essays on Several Important

Subjects in Philosophy and Religion_ (1676); _An Essay concerning

Preaching; and Sermons_. See C. Remusat, _Hist. de la phil. en

Angleterre_, bk. iii. ch. xi.; W. E. H. Lecky, _Rationalism in Europe_

(1865), i. 120-128; Hallam's _Literature of Europe_, iii. 358-362;

Tulloch's _Rational Theology_, ii. 443-455.

GLANVILL, RANULF DE (sometimes written GLANVIL, GLANVILLE) (d. 1190),

chief justiciar of England and reputed author of a book on English law,

was born at Stratford in Suffolk, but in what year is unknown. There is

but little information regarding his early life. He first comes to the

front as sheriff of Yorkshire from 1163 to 1170. In 1173 he became

sheriff of Lancashire and custodian of the honour of Richmond. In 1174

he was one of the English leaders at the battle of Alnwick, and it was

to him that the king of the Scots, William the Lion, surrendered. In

1175 he was reappointed sheriff of Yorkshire, in 1176 he became justice

of the king's court and a justice itinerant in the northern circuit, and

in 1180 chief justiciar of England. It was with his assistance that

Henry II. completed his judicial reforms, though the principal of them

had been carried out before he came into office. He became the king's

right-hand man, and during Henry's frequent absences was in effect

viceroy of England. After the death of Henry in 1189, Glanvill was

removed from his office by Richard I., and imprisoned till he had paid a

ransom, according to one authority, of L15,000. Shortly after obtaining

his freedom he took the cross, and he died at the siege of Acre in 1190.

At the instance, it may be, of Henry II., Glanvill wrote or

superintended the writing of the _Tractatus de legibus et

consuetudinibus regni Angliae_, which is a practical treatise on the

forms of procedure in the king's court. As the source of our knowledge

regarding the earliest form of the _curia regis_, and for the

information it affords regarding ancient customs and laws, it is of

great value to the student of English history. It is now generally

agreed that the work of Glanvill is of earlier date than the Scottish

law book known from its first words as _Regiam Majestatem_, a work which

bears a close resemblance to his.

The treatise of Glanvill was first printed in 1554. An English

translation, with notes and introduction by John Beames, was published

at London in 1812. A French version is found in various MSS., but has

not yet been printed. (See also ENGLISH LAW: _History of_.)

GLAPTHORNE, HENRY (fl. 1635-1642), English poet and dramatist, wrote in

the reign of Charles I. All that is known of him is gathered from his

own work. He published _Poems_ (1639), many of them in praise of an

unidentified "Lucinda"; a poem in honour of his friend Thomas Beedome,

whose _Poems Divine and Humane_ he edited in 1641; and _Whitehall_

(1642), dedicated to his "noble friend and gossip, Captain Richard

Lovelace." The first volume contains a poem in honour of the duke of

York, and _Whitehall_ is a review of the past glories of the English

court, containing abundant evidences of the writer's devotion to the

royal cause. _Argalus and Parthenia_ (1639) is a pastoral tragedy

founded on an episode in Sidney's _Arcadia; Albertus Wallenstein_

(1639), his only attempt at historical tragedy, represents Wallenstein

as a monster of pride and cruelty. His other plays are _The Hollander_

(written 1635; printed 1640), a romantic comedy of which the scene is

laid in Genoa; _Wit in a Constable_ (1640), which is probably a version

of an earlier play, and owes something to Shakespeare's _Much Ado about

Nothing_; and _The Ladies Priviledge_ (1640). _The Lady Mother_ (1635)

has been identified (Fleay, _Biog. Chron. of the Drama_) with _The Noble

Trial_, one of the plays destroyed by Warburton's cook, and Mr A. H.

Bullen prints it in vol. ii. of his _Old English Plays_ as most probably

Glapthorne's work. _The Paraside, or Revenge for Honour_ (1654), entered

at Stationers' Hall in 1653 as Glapthorne's, was printed in the next

year with George Chapman's name on the title-page. It should probably be

included among Glapthorne's plays, which, though they hardly rise above

the level of contemporary productions, contain many felicitous isolated

passages.

The _Plays and Poems of Henry Glapthorne_ (1874) contains an unsigned

memoir, which, however, gives no information about the dramatist's

life. There is no reason for supposing that the George Glapthorne of

whose trial details are given was a relative of the poet.

GLARUS (Fr. _Glaris_), one of the Swiss cantons, the name being taken

from that of its chief town. Its area is 266.8 sq. m., of which 173.1

sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering 41 sq. m.), but it

also contains 13.9 sq. m. of glaciers, ranking as the fifth Swiss canton

in this respect. It is thus a mountain canton, the loftiest point in it

being the Todi (11,887 ft.), the highest summit that rises to the north

of the upper Aar and Vorder Rhine valleys. It is composed of the upper

valley of the Linth, that is the portion which lies to the south of a

line drawn from the Lake of Zurich to the Walensee. This river rises in

the glaciers of the Todi, and has carved out for itself a deep bed, so

that the floor of the valley is comparatively level, and therefore is

occupied by a number of considerable villages. Glacier passes only lead

from its head to the Grisons, save the rough footpath over the Kisten

Pass, while a fine new carriage road over the Klausen Pass gives access

to the canton of Uri. The upper Linth valley is sometimes called the

Grossthal (main valley) to distinguish it from its chief (or

south-eastern) tributary, the Sernf valley or Kleinthal, which joins it

at Schwanden, a little above Glarus itself. At the head of the Kleinthal

a mule track leads to the Grisons over the Panixer Pass, as also a

footpath over the Segnes Pass. Just below Glarus town, another glen

(coming from the south-west) joins the main valley, and is watered by

the Klon, while from its head the Pragel Pass (a mule path, converted

into a carriage road) leads over to the canton of Schwyz. The Klon glen

(uninhabited save in summer) is separated from the main glen by the fine

bold mass of the Glarnisch (9580 ft.), while the Sernf valley is

similarly cut off from the Grossthal by the high ridge running

northwards from the Hausstock (10,342 ft.) over the Karpfstock (9177

ft.). The principal lakes, the Klonthalersee and the Muttensee, are of a

thoroughly Alpine character, while there are several fine waterfalls

near the head of the main valley, such as those formed by the Sandbach,

the Schreienbach and the Fatschbach. The Pantenbrucke, thrown over the

narrow cleft formed by the Linth, is one of the grandest sights of the

Alps below the snow-line. There is a sulphur spring at Stachelberg, near

Linthal village, and an iron spring at Elm, while in the Sernf valley

there are the Plattenberg slate quarries, and just south of Elm those of

the Tschingelberg, whence a terrific landslip descended to Elm (11th

September 1881), destroying many houses and killing 115 persons. A

railway runs through the whole canton from north to south past Glarus to

Linthal village (16-1/4 m.), while from Schwanden there is an electric

line (opened in 1905) up to Elm (8-3/4 m.).

In 1900 the population of the canton was 32,349 (a decrease on the

33,825 of 1888, this being the only Swiss canton which shows a

decrease), of whom 31,797 were German-speaking, while there were 24,403

Protestants, 7918 Romanists (many in Nafels) and 3 Jews. After the

capital, Glarus (q.v.), the largest villages are Nafels (2557

inhabitants), Ennenda (2494 inhabitants, opposite Glarus, of which it is

practically a suburb), Netstal (2003 inhabitants), Mollis (1912

inhabitants) and Linththal (1894 inhabitants). The slate industry is

now the most important as the cotton manufacture has lately very greatly

fallen off, this being the real reason of the diminution in the number

of the population. There is little agriculture, for it is a pastoral

region (owing to its height) and contains 87 mountain pastures (though

the finest of all within the limits of the canton, the Urnerboden, or

the Glarus side of the Klausen Pass, belongs to Uri), which can support

8054 cows, and are of an estimated capital value of about L246,000. One

of the most characteristic products (though inferior qualities are

manufactured elsewhere in Switzerland) is the cheese called

_Schabzieger_, _Krauterkase_, or green cheese, made of skim milk

(_Zieger_ or _serac_), whether of goats or cows, mixed with buttermilk

and coloured with powdered _Steinklee_ (_Melilotus officinalis_) or

_blauer Honigklee_ (_Melilotus caerulea_). The curds are brought down

from the huts on the pastures, and, after being mixed with the dried

powder, are ground in a mill, then put into shapes and pressed. The

cheese thus produced is ripe in about a year, keeps a long time and is

largely exported, even to America. The ice formed on the surface of the

Klonthalersee in winter is stored up on its shore and exported. A

certain number of visitors come to the canton in the summer, either to

profit by one or other of the mineral springs mentioned above, or simply

to enjoy the beauties of nature, especially at Obstalden, above the

Walensee. The canton forms but a single administrative district and

contains 28 communes. It sends to the Federal _Standerath_ 2

representatives (elected by the _Landsgemeinde_) and 2 also to the

Federal _Nationalrath_. The canton still keeps its primitive democratic

assembly or _Landsgemeinde_ (meeting annually in the open air at Glarus

on the first Sunday in May), composed of all male citizens of 20 years

of age. It acts as the sovereign body, so that no "referendum" is

required, while any citizen can submit a proposal. It names the

executive of 6 members, besides the Landammann or president, all holding

office for three years. The communes (forming 18 electoral circles)

elect for three years the _Landrath_, a sort of standing committee

composed of members in the proportion of 1 for every 500 inhabitants or

fraction over 250. The present constitution dates from 1887.

(W. A. B. C.)

GLARUS (Fr. _Glaris_), the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name.

It is a clean, modern little town, built on the left bank of the Linth

(opposite it is the industrial suburb of Ennenda on the right bank), at

the north-eastern foot of the imposing rock peak of the Vorder Glarnisch

(7648 ft.), while on the east rises the Schild (6400 ft.). It now

contains but few houses built before 1861, for on the 10/11 May 1861

practically the whole town was destroyed by fire that was fanned by a

violent _Fohn_ or south wind, rushing down from the high mountains

through the natural funnel formed by the Linth valley. The total loss is

estimated at about half a million sterling, of which about L100,000 were

made up by subscriptions that poured in from every side. It possesses

the broad streets and usual buildings of a modern town, the parish

church being by far the most stately and well-situated building; it is

used in common by the Protestants and Romans. Zwingli, the reformer, was

parish priest here from 1506 to 1516, before he became a Protestant. The

town is 1578 ft. above the sea-level, and in 1900 had a population of

4877, almost all German-speaking, while 1248 were Romanists. For the

Linth canals (1811 and 1816) see LINTH.

The DISTRICT OF GLARUS is said to have been converted to Christianity in

the 6th century by the Irish monk, Fridolin, whose special protector was

St Hilary of Poitiers; the former was the founder, and both were

patrons, of the Benedictine nunnery of Sackingen, on the Rhine between

Constance and Basel, that about the 9th century became the owner of the

district which was then named after St Hilary. The Habsburgs, protectors

of the nunnery, gradually drew to themselves the exercise of all the

rights of the nuns, so that in 1352 Glarus joined the Swiss

Confederation. But the men of Glarus did not gain their complete freedom

till after they had driven back the Habsburgs in the glorious battle of

Nafels (1388), the complement of Sempach, so that the Habsburgers gave

up their rights in 1398, while those of Sackingen were bought up in

1395, on condition of a small annual payment. Glarus early adopted

Protestantism, but there were many struggles later on between the two

parties, as the chief family, that of Tschudi, adhered to the old faith.

At last it was arranged that, besides the common _Landsgemeinde_, each

party should have its separate _Landsgemeinde_ (1623) and tribunals

(1683), while it was not till 1798 that the Protestants agreed to accept

the Gregorian calendar. The slate-quarrying industry appeared early in

the 17th century, while cotton-spinning was introduced about 1714, and

calico-printing by 1750. In 1798, in consequence of the resistance of

Glarus to the French invaders, the canton was united to other districts

under the name of canton of the Linth, though in 1803 it was reduced to

its former limits. In 1799 it was traversed by the Russian army, under

Suworoff, coming over the Pragel Pass, but blocked by the French at

Nafels, and so driven over the Panixer to the Grisons. The old system of

government was set up again in 1814. But in 1836 by the new Liberal

constitution one single _Landsgemeinde_ was restored, despite the

resistance (1837) of the Romanist population at Nafels.

AUTHORITIES.--J. Babler, _Die Alpwirtschaft im Kant. G._ (Soleure,

1898); J. J. Blumer, article on the early history of the canton in

vol. iii. (Zurich, 1844) of the _Archiv f. schweiz. Geschichte_; E.

Buss and A. Heim, _Der Bergsturz von Elm_ (1881) (Zurich, 1881); W. A.

B. Coolidge, _The Range of the Todi_ (London, 1894); J. G. Ebel,

_Schilderung der Gebirgsvolker d. Schweiz_, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1798);

Gottfried Heer, _Geschichte d. Landes Glarus_ (to 1830) (2 vols.,

Glarus, 1898-1899), _Glarnerische Reformationsgeschichte_ (Glarus,

1900), _Zur 500 jahrigen Gedachtnisfeier der Schlacht bei Nafels_

(1388) (Glarus, 1888) and _Die Kirchen d. Kant. Glarus_ (Glarus,

1890); Oswald Heer and J. J. Blumer-Heer, _Der Kant. Glarus_ (St Gall,

1846); J. J. Hottinger, _Conrad Escher von der Linth_ (Zurich, 1852);

_Jahrbuch_, published annually since 1865 by the Cantonal Historical

Society; A. Jenny-Trumpy, "Handel u. Industrie d. Kant. G." (article

in vol. xxxiii., 1899, of the _Jahrbuch_); M. Schuler, _Geschichte d.

Landes Glarus_ (Zurich, 1836); E. Naf-Blumer, _Clubfuhrer durch die

Glarner-Alpen_ (Schwanden, 1902); Aloys Schulte, article on the true

and legendary early history of the Canton, published in vol. xviii.,

1893, of the _Jahrbuch f. schweiz. Geschichte_ (Zurich); J. J. Blumer,

_Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demokratien_ (3 vols., St

Gall, 1850-1859); H. Ryffel, _Die schweiz. Landsgemeinden_ (Zurich,

1903); R. von Reding-Biberegg, _Der Zug Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in

1799_ (Stans, 1895). (W. A. B. C.)

GLAS, GEORGE (1725-1765); Scottish seaman and merchant adventurer in

West Africa, son of John Glas the divine, was born at Dundee in 1725,

and is said to have been brought up as a surgeon. He obtained command of

a ship which traded between Brazil, the N.W. coasts of Africa and the

Canary Islands. During his voyages he discovered on the Saharan seaboard

a river navigable for some distance inland, and here he proposed to

found a trading station. The exact spot is not known with certainty, but

it is plausibly identified with Gueder, a place in about 29 deg. 10' N.,

possibly the haven where the Spaniards had in the 15th and 16th

centuries a fort called Santa Cruz de Mar Pequena. Glas made an

arrangement with the Lords of Trade whereby he was granted L15,000 if he

obtained free cession of the port he had discovered to the British

crown; the proposal was to be laid before parliament in the session of

1765. Having chartered a vessel, Glas, with his wife and daughter,

sailed for Africa in 1764, reached his destination and made a treaty

with the Moors of the district. He named his settlement Port

Hillsborough, after Wills Hill, earl of Hillsborough (afterwards marquis

of Downshire), president of the Board of Trade and Plantations,

1763-1765. In November 1764 Glas and some companions, leaving his ship

behind, went in the longboat to Lanzarote, intending to buy a small

barque suitable for the navigation of the river on which was his

settlement. From Lanzarote he forwarded to London the treaty he had

concluded for the acquisition of Port Hillsborough. A few days later he

was seized by the Spaniards, taken to Teneriffe and imprisoned at Santa

Cruz. In a letter to the Lords of Trade from Teneriffe, dated the 15th

of December 1764, Glas said he believed the reason for his detention was

the jealousy of the Spaniards at the settlement at Port Hillsborough

"because from thence in time of war the English might ruin their fishery

and effectually stop the whole commerce of the Canary Islands." The

Spaniards further looked upon the settlement as a step towards the

conquest of the islands. "They are therefore contriving how to make out

a claim to the port and will forge old manuscripts to prove their

assertion" (_Calendar of Home Office Papers_, 1760-1765). In March 1765

the ship's company at Port Hillsborough was attacked by the natives and

several members of it killed. The survivors, including Mrs and Miss

Glas, escaped to Teneriffe. In October following, through the

representations of the British government, Glas was released from

prison. With his wife and child he set sail for England on board the

barque "Earl of Sandwich." On the 30th of November Spanish and

Portuguese members of the crew, who had learned that the ship contained

much treasure, mutinied, killing the captain and passengers. Glas was

stabbed to death, and his wife and daughter thrown overboard. (The

murderers were afterwards captured and hanged at Dublin.) After the

death of Glas the British government appears to have taken no steps to

carry out his project.

In 1764 Glas published in London _The History of the Discovery and

Conquest of the Canary Islands_, which he had translated from the MS.

of an Andalusian monk named Juan Abreu de Galindo, then recently

discovered at Palma. To this Glas added a description of the islands,

a continuation of the history and an account of the manners, customs,

trade, &c., of the inhabitants, displaying considerable knowledge of

the archipelago.

GLAS, JOHN (1695-1773), Scottish divine, was born at Auchtermuchty,

Fife, where his father was parish minister, on the 5th of October 1695.

He was educated at Kinclaven and the grammar school, Perth, graduated

A.M. at the university of St Andrews in 1713, and completed his

education for the ministry at Edinburgh. He was licensed as a preacher

by the presbytery of Dunkeld, and soon afterwards ordained by that of

Dundee as minister of the parish of Tealing (1719), where his effective

preaching soon secured a large congregation. Early in his ministry he

was "brought to a stand" while lecturing on the "Shorter Catechism" by

the question "How doth Christ execute the office of a king?" This led to

an examination of the New Testament foundation of the Christian Church,

and in 1725, in a letter to Francis Archibald, minister of Guthrie,

Forfarshire, he repudiated the obligation of national covenants. In the

same year his views found expression in the formation of a society

"separate from the multitude" numbering nearly a hundred, and drawn from

his own and neighbouring parishes. The members of this _ecclesiola in

ecclesia_ pledged themselves "to join together in the Christian

profession, to follow Christ the Lord as the righteousness of his

people, to walk together in brotherly love, and in the duties of it, in

subjection to Mr Glas as their overseer in the Lord, to observe the

ordinance of the Lord's Supper once every month, to submit themselves to

the Lord's law for removing offences," &c. (Matt. xviii. 15-20). From

the scriptural doctrine of the essentially spiritual nature of the

kingdom of Christ, Glas in his public teaching drew the conclusions: (1)

that there is no warrant in the New Testament for a national church; (2)

that the magistrate as such has no function in the church; (3) that

national covenants are without scriptural grounds; (4) that the true

Reformation cannot be carried out by political and secular weapons but

by the word and spirit of Christ only.

This argument is most fully exhibited in a treatise entitled _The

Testimony of the King of Martyrs_ (1729). For the promulgation of these

views, which were confessedly at variance with the doctrines of the

standards of the national church of Scotland, he was summoned (1726)

before his presbytery, where in the course of the investigations which

followed he affirmed still more explicitly his belief that "every

national church established by the laws of earthly kingdoms is

antichristian in its constitution and persecuting in its spirit," and

further declared opinions upon the subject of church government which

amounted to a repudiation of Presbyterianism and an acceptance of the

puritan type of Independency. For these opinions he was in 1728

suspended from the discharge of ministerial functions, and finally

deposed in 1730. The members of the society already referred to,

however, for the most part continued to adhere to him, thus

constituting the first "Glassite" or "Glasite" church. The seat of this

congregation was shortly afterwards transferred to Dundee (whence Glas

subsequently removed to Edinburgh), where he officiated for some time as

an "elder." He next laboured in Perth for a few years, where he was

joined by Robert Sandeman (see GLASITES), who became his son-in-law, and

eventually was recognized as the leader and principal exponent of Glas's

views; these he developed in a direction which laid them open to the

charge of antinomianism. Ultimately in 1730 Glas returned to Dundee,

where the remainder of his life was spent. He introduced in his church

the primitive custom of the "osculum pacis" and the "agape" celebrated

as a common meal with broth. From this custom his congregation was known

as the "kail kirk." In 1739 the General Assembly, without any

application from him, removed the sentence of deposition which had been

passed against him, and restored him to the character and function of a

minister of the gospel of Christ, but not that of a minister of the

Established Church of Scotland, declaring that he was not eligible for a

charge until he should have renounced principles inconsistent with the

constitution of the church.

A collected edition of his works was published at Edinburgh in 1761 (4

vols., 8vo), and again at Perth in 1782 (5 vols., 8vo). He died in

1773.

Glas's published works bear witness to his vigorous mind and scholarly

attainments. His reconstruction of the _True Discourse of Celsus_

(1753), from Origen's reply to it, is a competent and learned piece of

work. The _Testimony of the King of Martyrs concerning His Kingdom_

(1729) is a classic repudiation of erastianism and defence of the

spiritual autonomy of the church under Jesus Christ. His common sense

appears in his rejection of Hutchinson's attempt to prove that the

Bible supplies a complete system of physical science, and his

shrewdness in his _Notes on Scripture Texts_ (1747). He published a

volume of Christian Songs (Perth, 1784). (D. Mn.)

GLASER, CHRISTOPHER, a pharmaceutical chemist of the 17th century, was a

native of Basel, became demonstrator of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi

in Paris and apothecary to Louis XIV. and to the duke of Orleans. He is

best known by his _Traite de la chymie_ (Paris, 1663), which went

through some ten editions in about five-and-twenty years, and was

translated into both German and English. It has been alleged that he was

an accomplice in the notorious poisonings carried out by the marchioness

de Brinvilliers, but the extent of his complicity is doubtful. He

appears to have died some time before 1676. The _sal polychrestum

Glaseri_ is normal potassium sulphate which he prepared and used

medicinally.

GLASGOW, a city, county of a city, royal burgh and port of Lanarkshire,

Scotland, situated on both banks of the Clyde, 401-1/2 m. N.W. of London

by the West Coast railway route, and 47 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh by the

North British railway. The valley of the Clyde is closely confined by

hills, and the city extends far over these, the irregularity of its site

making for picturesqueness. The commercial centre of Glasgow, with the

majority of important public buildings, lies on the north bank of the

river, which traverses the city from W.S.W. to E.N.E., and is crossed by

a number of bridges. The uppermost is Dalmarnock Bridge, dating from

1891, and next below it is Rutherglen Bridge, rebuilt in 1896, and

superseding a structure of 1775. St Andrew's suspension bridge gives

access to the Green to the inhabitants of Hutchesontown, a district

which is approached also by Albert Bridge, a handsome erection, leading

from the Saltmarket. Above this bridge is the tidal dam and weir.

Victoria Bridge, of granite, was opened in 1856, taking the place of the

venerable bridge erected by Bishop Rae in 1345, which was demolished in

1847. Then follows a suspension bridge (dating from 1853) by which

foot-passengers from the south side obtain access to St Enoch Square

and, finally, the most important bridge of all is reached, variously

known as Glasgow, Jamaica Street, or Broomielaw Bridge, built of granite

from Telford's designs and first used in 1835. Towards the close of the

century it was reconstructed, and reopened in 1899. At the busier

periods of the day it bears a very heavy traffic. The stream is spanned

between Victoria and Albert Bridges by a bridge belonging to the Glasgow

& South-Western railway and by two bridges carrying the lines of the

Caledonian railway, one below Dalmarnock Bridge and the other a massive

work immediately west of Glasgow Bridge.

_Buildings._--George Square, in the heart of the city, is an open space

of which every possible advantage has been taken. On its eastern side

stand the municipal buildings, a palatial pile in Venetian renaissance

style, from the designs of William Young, a native of Paisley. They were

opened in 1889 and cost nearly L600,000. They form a square block four

storeys high and carry a domed turret at each end of the western facade,

from the centre of which rises a massive tower. The entrance hall and

grand staircase, the council chamber, banqueting hall and reception

rooms are decorated in a grandiose style, not unbecoming to the

commercial and industrial metropolis of Scotland. Several additional

blocks have been built or rented for the accommodation of the municipal

staff. Admirably equipped sanitary chambers were opened in 1897,

including a bacteriological and chemical laboratory. Up till 1810 the

town council met in a hall adjoining the old tolbooth. It then moved to

the fine classical structure at the foot of the Saltmarket, which is now

used as court-houses. This was vacated in 1842 for the county buildings

in Wilson Street. Growth of business compelled another migration to

Ingram Street in 1875, and, fourteen years later, it occupied its

present quarters. On the southern side of George Square the chief

structure is the massive General Post Office. On the western side stand

two ornate Italian buildings, the Bank of Scotland and the Merchants'

House, the head of which (the dean of gild), along with the head of the

Trades' House (the deacon-convener of trades) has been de facto member

of the town council since 1711, an arrangement devised with a view to

adjusting the frequent disputes between the two gilds. The Royal

Exchange, a Corinthian building with a fine portico of columns in two

rows, is an admired example of the work of David Hamilton (1768-1843), a

native of Glasgow, who designed several of the public buildings and

churches, and gained the second prize for a design for the Houses of

Parliament. The news-room of the exchange is a vast apartment, 130 ft.

long, 60 ft. wide, 130 ft. high, with a richly-decorated roof supported

by Corinthian pillars. Buchanan Street, the most important and handsome

street in the city, contains the Stock Exchange, the Western Club House

(by David Hamilton) and the offices of the _Glasgow Herald_. In

Sauchiehall Street are the Fine Art Institute and the former Corporation

Art Gallery. Argyll Street, the busiest thoroughfare, mainly occupied

with shops, leads to Trongate, where a few remains of the old town are

now carefully preserved. On the south side of the street, spanning the

pavement, stands the Tron Steeple, a stunted spire dating from 1637. It

is all that is left of St Mary's church, which was burned down in 1793

during the revels of a notorious body known as the Hell Fire Club. On

the opposite side, at the corner of High Street, stood the ancient

tolbooth, or prison, a turreted building, five storeys high, with a fine

Jacobean crown tower. The only remnant of the structure is the tower

known as the Cross Steeple.

St Mungo's Cathedral.

Although almost all the old public buildings of Glasgow have been swept

away, the cathedral remains in excellent preservation. It stands in the

north-eastern quarter of the city at a height of 104 ft. above the level

of the Clyde. It is a beautiful example of Early English work,

impressive in its simplicity. Its form is that of a Latin cross, with

imperfect transepts. Its length from east to west is 319 ft., and its

width 63 ft.; the height of the choir is 93 ft., and of the nave 85 ft.

At the centre rises a fine tower, with a short octagonal spire, 225 ft.

high. The choir, locally known as the High Church, serves as one of the

city churches, and the extreme east end of it forms the Lady chapel. The

rich western doorway is French in design but English in details. The

chapter-house projects from the north-eastern corner and somewhat mars

the harmony of the effect. It was built in the 15th century and has a

groined roof supported by a pillar 20 ft. high. Many citizens have

contributed towards filling the windows with stained glass, executed at

Munich, the government providing the eastern window in recognition of

their enterprise. The crypt beneath the choir is not the least

remarkable part of the edifice, being without equal in Scotland. It is

borne on 65 pillars and lighted by 41 windows. The sculpture of the

capitals of the columns and bosses of the groined vaulting is exquisite

and the whole is in excellent preservation. Strictly speaking, it is not

a crypt, but a lower church adapted to the sloping ground of the right

bank of the Molendinar burn. The dripping aisle is so named from the

constant dropping of water from the roof. St Mungo's Well in the

south-eastern corner was considered to possess therapeutic virtues, and

in the crypt a recumbent effigy, headless and handless, is faithfully

accepted as the tomb of Kentigern. The cathedral contains few monuments

of exceptional merit, but the surrounding graveyard is almost completely

paved with tombstones. In 1115 an investigation was ordered by David,

prince of Cumbria, into the lands and churches belonging to the

bishopric, and from the deed then drawn up it is clear that at that date

a cathedral had already been endowed. When David ascended the throne in

1124 he gave to the see of Glasgow the lands of Partick, besides

restoring many possessions of which it had been deprived. Jocelin (d.

1199), made bishop in 1174, was the first great bishop, and is memorable

for his efforts to replace the cathedral built in 1136 by Bishop John

Achaius, which had been destroyed by fire. The crypt is his work, and he

began the choir, Lady chapel, and central tower. The new structure was

sufficiently advanced to be dedicated in 1197. Other famous bishops were

Robert Wishart (d. 1316), appointed in 1272, who was among the first to

join in the revolt of Wallace, and received Robert Bruce when he lay

under the ban of the church for the murder of Comyn; John Cameron (d.

1446), appointed in 1428, under whom the building as it stands was

completed; and William Turnbull (d. 1454), appointed in 1447, who

founded the university in 1450. James Beaton or Bethune (1517-1603) was

the last Roman Catholic archbishop. He fled to France at the reformation

in 1560, and took with him the treasures and records of the see,

including the Red Book of Glasgow dating from the reign of Robert III.

The documents were deposited in the Scots College in Paris, were sent at

the outbreak of the Revolution for safety to St Omer, and were never

recovered. This loss explains the paucity of the earlier annals of the

city. The zeal of the Reformers led them to threaten to mutilate the

cathedral, but the building was saved by the prompt action of the

craftsmen, who mustered in force and dispersed the fanatics.

[Illustration: Map of Glasgow and Environs.]

Churches.

Excepting the cathedral, none of the Glasgow churches possesses

historical interest; and, speaking generally, it is only the buildings

that have been erected since the beginning of the 19th century that have

pronounced architectural merit. This was due largely to the long

survival of the severe sentiment of the Covenanters, who discouraged, if

they did not actually forbid, the raising of temples of beautiful

design. Representative examples of later work are found in the United

Free churches in Vincent Street, in Caledonia Road and at Queen's Park,

designed by Alexander Thomson (1817-1875), an architect of distinct

originality; St George's church, in West George Street, a remarkable

work by William Stark, erected in the beginning of the 19th century; St

Andrew's church in St Andrew's Square off the Saltmarket, modelled after

St Martin's-in-the-Fields, London, with a fine Roman portico; some of

the older parish churches, such as St Enoch's, dating from 1780, with a

good spire (the saint's name is said to be a corruption of Tanew, mother

of Kentigern); the episcopal church of St Mary (1870), in Great Western

Road, by Sir G. G. Scott; the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Andrew, on

the river-bank between Victoria and Broomielaw bridges; the Barony

church, replacing the older kirk in which Norman Macleod ministered; and

several admirable structures, well situated, on the eastern confines of

Kelvingrove Park.

The principal burying-ground is the Necropolis, occupying Fir Park, a

hill about 300 ft. high in the northern part of the city. It provides a

not inappropriate background to the cathedral, from which it is

approached by a bridge, known as the "Bridge of Sighs," over the

Molendinar ravine. The ground, which once formed portion of the estate

of Wester Craigs, belongs to the Merchants' House, which purchased it in

1650 from Sir Ludovic Stewart of Minto. A Doric column to the memory of

Knox, surmounted by a colossal statue of the reformer, was erected by

public subscription on the crown of the height in 1824, and a few years

later the idea arose of utilizing the land as a cemetery. The Jews have

reserved for their own people a detached area in the north-western

corner of the cemetery.

Glasgow University.

_Education._--The university, founded in 1450 by Bishop Turnbull under a

bull of Pope Nicholas V., survived in its old quarters till far in the

19th century. The _paedagogium_, or college of arts, was at first housed

in Rottenrow, but was moved in 1460 to a site in High Street, where Sir

James Hamilton of Cadzow, first Lord Hamilton (d. 1479), gave it four

acres of land and some buildings. Queen Mary bestowed upon it thirteen

acres of contiguous ground, and her son granted it a new charter and

enlarged the endowments. Prior to the Revolution its fortunes

fluctuated, but in the 18th century it became very famous. By the middle

of the 19th century, however, its surroundings had deteriorated, and in

1860 it was decided to rebuild it elsewhere. The ground had enormously

increased in value and a railway company purchased it for L100,000. In

1864 the university bought the Gilmore Hill estate for L65,000, the

adjacent property of Dowan Hill for L16,000 and the property of

Clayslaps for L17,400. Sir G. G. Scott was appointed architect and

selected as the site of the university buildings the ridge of Gilmore

Hill--the finest situation in Glasgow. The design is Early English with

a suggestion in parts of the Scots-French style of a much later period.

The main structure is 540 ft. long and 300 ft. broad. The principal

front faces southwards and consists of a lofty central tower with spire

and corner blocks with turrets, between which are buildings of lower

height. Behind the tower lies the Bute hall, built on cloisters, binding

together the various departments and smaller halls, and dividing the

massive edifice into an eastern and western quadrangle, on two sides of

which are ranged the class-rooms in two storeys. The northern facade

comprises two corner blocks, besides the museum, the library and, in the

centre, the students' reading-room on one floor and the Hunterian museum

on the floor above. On the south the ground falls in terraces towards

Kelvingrove Park and the Kelvin. On the west, but apart from the main

structure, stand the houses of the principal and professors. The

foundation stone was laid in 1868 and the opening ceremony was held in

1870. The total cost of the university buildings amounted to L500,000,

towards which government contributed L120,000 and public subscription

L250,000. The third marquess of Bute (1847-1900) gave L40,000 to provide

the Bute or common hall, a room of fine proportions fitted in Gothic

style and divided by a beautiful Gothic screen from the Randolph hall,

named after another benefactor, Charles Randolph (1809-1878), a native

of Stirling, who had prospered as shipbuilder and marine engineer and

left L60,000 to the university. The graceful spire surmounting the tower

was provided from the bequest of L5000 by Mr A. Cunningham, deputy

town-clerk, and Dr John M'Intyre erected the Students' Union at a cost

of L5000, while other donors completed the equipment so generously that

the senate was enabled to carry on its work, for the first time in its

history, in almost ideal circumstances. The library includes the

collection of Sir William Hamilton, and the Hunterian museum, bequeathed

by William Hunter, the anatomist, is particularly rich in coins, medals,

black-letter books and anatomical preparations. The observatory on Dowan

Hill is attached to the chair of astronomy. An interesting link with the

past are the exhibitions founded by John Snell (1629-1679), a native of

Colmonell in Ayrshire, for the purpose of enabling students of

distinction to continue their career at Balliol College, Oxford. Amongst

distinguished exhibitioners have been Adam Smith, John Gibson Lockhart,

John Wilson ("Christopher North"), Archbishop Tait, Sir William Hamilton

and Professor Shairp. The curriculum of the university embraces the

faculties of arts, divinity, medicine, law and science. The governing

body includes the chancellor, elected for life by the general council,

the principal, also elected for life, and the lord rector elected

triennially by the students voting in "nations" according to their

birthplace (_Glottiana_, natives of Lanarkshire; _Transforthana_, of

Scotland north of the Forth; _Rothseiana_, of the shires of Bute,

Renfrew and Ayr; and _Loudonia_, all others). There are a large number

of well-endowed chairs and lectureships and the normal number of

students exceeds 2000. The universities of Glasgow and Aberdeen unite to

return one member to parliament. Queen Margaret College for women,

established in 1883, occupies a handsome building close to the botanic

gardens, has an endowment of upwards of L25,000, and was incorporated

with the university in 1893. Muirhead College is another institution for

women.

Schools and colleges.

Elementary instruction is supplied at numerous board schools. Higher,

secondary and technical education is provided at several well-known

institutions. There are two educational endowments boards which apply

a revenue of about L10,000 a year mainly to the foundation of

bursaries. Anderson College in George Street perpetuates the memory of

its founder, John Anderson (1726-1796), professor of natural

philosophy in the university, who opened a class in physics for

working men, which he conducted to the end of his life. By his will he

provided for an institution for the instruction of artisans and others

unable to attend the university. The college which bears his name

began in 1796 with lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry by

Thomas Garnett (1766-1802). Two years later mathematics and geography

were added. In 1799 Dr George Birkbeck (1776-1841) succeeded Garnett

and began those lectures on mechanics and applied science which,

continued elsewhere, ultimately led to the foundation of mechanics'

institutes in many towns. In later years the college was further

endowed and its curriculum enlarged by the inclusion of literature and

languages, but ultimately it was determined to limit the scope of its

work to medicine (comprising, however, physics, chemistry and botany

also). The lectures of its medical school, incorporated in 1887 and

situated near the Western Infirmary, are accepted by Glasgow and other

universities. The Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College,

formed in 1886 out of a combination of the arts side of Anderson

College, the College of Science and Arts, Allan Glen's Institution and

the Atkinson Institution, is subsidized by the corporation and the

endowments board, and is especially concerned with students desirous

of following an industrial career. St Mungo's College, which has

developed from an extra-mural school in connexion with the Royal

Infirmary, was incorporated in 1889, with faculties of medicine and

law. The United Free Church College, finely situated near Kelvingrove

Park, the School of Art and Design, and the normal schools for the

training of teachers, are institutions with distinctly specialized

objects.

The High school in Elmbank is the successor of the grammar school

(long housed in John Street) which was founded in the 14th century as

an appanage of the cathedral. It was placed under the jurisdiction of

the school board in 1873. Other secondary schools include Glasgow

Academy, Kelvinside Academy and the girls' and boys' schools endowed

by the Hutcheson trust. Several of the schools under the board are

furnished with secondary departments or equipped as science schools,

and the Roman Catholics maintain elementary schools and advanced

academies.

_Art Galleries, Libraries and Museums._--Glasgow merchants and

manufacturers alike have been constant patrons of art, and their

liberality may have had some influence on the younger painters who,

towards the close of the 19th century, broke away from tradition and,

stimulated by training in the studios of Paris, became known as the

"Glasgow school." The art gallery and museum in Kelvingrove Park,

which was built at a cost of L250,000 (partly derived from the profits

of the exhibitions held in the park in 1888 and 1901), is

exceptionally well appointed. The collection originated in 1854 in the

purchase of the works of art belonging to Archibald M'Lellan, and was

supplemented from time to time by numerous bequests of important

pictures. It was housed for many years in the Corporation galleries in

Sauchiehall Street. The Institute of Fine Arts, in Sauchiehall Street,

is mostly devoted to periodical exhibitions of modern art. There are

also pictures on exhibition in the People's Palace on Glasgow Green,

which was built by the corporation in 1898 and combines an art gallery

and museum with a conservatory and winter garden, and in the museum at

Camphill, situated within the bounds of Queen's Park. The library and

Hunterian museum in the university are mostly reserved for the use of

students. The faculty of procurators possess a valuable library which

is housed in their hall, an Italian Renaissance building, in West

George Street. In Bath Street there are the Mechanics' and the

Philosophical Society's libraries, and the Physicians' is in St

Vincent Street. Miller Street contains the headquarters of the public

libraries. The premises once occupied by the water commission have

been converted to house the Mitchell library, which grew out of a

bequest of L70,000 by Stephen Mitchell, largely reinforced by further

gifts of libraries and funds, and now contains upwards of 100,000

volumes. It is governed by the city council and has been in use since

1877. Another building in this street accommodates both the Stirling

and Baillie libraries. The Stirling, with some 50,000 volumes, is

particularly rich in tracts of the 16th and 17th centuries, and the

Baillie was endowed by George Baillie, a solicitor who, in 1863, gave

L18,000 for educational objects. The Athenaeum in St George's Place,

an institution largely concerned with evening classes in various

subjects, contains an excellent library and reading-room.

_Charities._--The old Royal Infirmary, designed by Robert Adam and

opened in 1794, adjoining the cathedral, occupies the site of the

archiepiscopal palace, the last portion of which was removed towards

the close of the 18th century. The chief architectural feature of the

infirmary is the central dome forming the roof of the operating

theatre. On the northern side are the buildings of the medical school

attached to the institution. The new infirmary commemorates the

Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. A little farther north, in Castle

Street, is the blind asylum. The Western Infirmary is to some extent

used for the purposes of clinical instruction in connexion with the

university, to which it stands in immediate proximity. Near it is the

Royal hospital for sick children. To the south of Queen's Park is

Victoria Infirmary, and close to it the deaf and dumb institution. On

the bank of the river, not far from the south-eastern boundary of the

city, is the Belvedere hospital for infectious diseases, and at

Ruchill, in the north, is another hospital of the same character

opened in 1900. The Royal asylum at Gartnavel is situated near

Jordanhill station, and the District asylum at Gartloch (with a branch

at West Muckroft) lies in the parish of Cadder beyond the

north-eastern boundary. There are numerous hospitals exclusively

devoted to the treatment of special diseases, and several nursing

institutions and homes. Hutcheson's Hospital, designed by David

Hamilton and adorned with statues of the founders, is situated in

Ingram Street, and by the increase in the value of its lands has

become a very wealthy body. George Hutcheson (1580-1639), a lawyer in

the Trongate near the tolbooth, who afterwards lived in the Bishop's

castle, which stood close to the spot where the Kelvin enters the

Clyde, founded the hospital for poor old men. His brother Thomas

(1589-1641) established in connexion with it a school for the lodging

and education of orphan boys, the sons of burgesses. The trust,

through the growth of its funds, has been enabled to extend its

educational scope and to subsidize schools apart from the charity.

_Monuments._--Most of the statues have been erected in George Square.

They are grouped around a fluted pillar 80 ft. high, surmounted by a

colossal statue of Sir Walter Scott by John Ritchie (1809-1850),

erected in 1837, and include Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort

(both equestrian) by Baron Marochetti; James Watt by Chantrey; Sir

Robert Peel, Thomas Campbell the poet, who was born in Glasgow, and

David Livingstone, all by John Mossman; Sir John Moore, a native of

Glasgow, by Flaxman, erected in 1819; James Oswald, the first member

returned to parliament for the city after the Reform Act of 1832; Lord

Clyde (Sir Colin Campbell), also a native, by Foley, erected in 1868;

Dr Thomas Graham, master of the mint, another native, by Brodie;

Robert Burns by G. E. Ewing, erected in 1877, subscribed for in

shillings by the working men of Scotland; and William Ewart Gladstone

by Hamo Thornycroft, unveiled by Lord Rosebery in 1902. In front of

the Royal Exchange stands the equestrian monument of the duke of

Wellington. In Cathedral Square are the statues of Norman Macleod,

James White and James Arthur, and in front of the Royal infirmary is

that of Sir James Lumsden, lord provost and benefactor. Nelson is

commemorated by an obelisk 143 ft. high on the Green, which was

erected in 1806 and is said to be a copy of that in the Piazza del

Popolo at Rome. One of the most familiar statues is the equestrian

figure of William III. in the Trongate, which was presented to the

town in 1735 by James Macrae (1677-1744), a poor Ayrshire lad who had

amassed a fortune in India, where he was governor of Madras from 1725

to 1730.

_Recreations._--Of the theatres the chief are the King's in Bath

Street, the Royal and the Grand in Cowcaddens, the Royalty and Gaiety

in Sauchiehall Street, and the Princess's in Main Street. Variety

theatres, headed by the Empire in Sauchiehall Street, are found in

various parts of the town. There is a circus in Waterloo Street, a

hippodrome in Sauchiehall Street and a zoological garden in New City

Road. The principal concert halls are the great hall of the St

Andrew's Halls, a group of rooms belonging to the corporation; the

City Hall in Candleriggs, the People's Palace on the Green, and

Queen's Rooms close to Kelvingrove Park. Throughout winter enormous

crowds throng the football grounds of the Queen's Park, the leading

amateur club, and the Celtic, the Rangers, the Third Lanark and other

prominent professional clubs.

_Parks and Open Spaces._--The oldest open space is the Green (140

acres), on the right bank of the river, adjoining a densely-populated

district. It once extended farther west, but a portion was built over

at a time when public rights were not vigilantly guarded. It is a

favourite area for popular demonstrations, and sections have been

reserved for recreation or laid out in flower-beds. Kelvingrove Park,

in the west end, has exceptional advantages, for the Kelvin burn flows

through it and the ground is naturally terraced, while the situation

is beautified by the adjoining Gilmore Hill with the university on its

summit. The park was laid out under the direction of Sir Joseph

Paxton, and contains the Stewart fountain, erected to commemorate the

labours of Lord Provost Stewart and his colleagues in the promotion of

the Loch Katrine water scheme. The other parks on the right bank are,

in the north, Ruchill (53 acres), acquired in 1891, and Springburn

(53-1/4 acres), acquired in 1892, and, in the east, Alexandra Park (120

acres), in which is laid down a nine-hole golf-course, and Tollcross

(82-3/4 acres), beyond the municipal boundary, acquired in 1897. On the

left bank Queen's Park (130 acres), occupying a commanding site, was

laid out by Sir Joseph Paxton, and considerably enlarged in 1894 by

the enclosure of the grounds of Camphill. The other southern parks are

Richmond (44 acres), acquired in 1898, and named after Lord Provost

Sir David Richmond, who opened it in 1899; Maxwell, which was taken

over on the annexation of Pollokshields in 1891; Bellahouston (176

acres), acquired in 1895; and Cathkin Braes (50 acres), 3-1/2m. beyond

the south-eastern boundary, presented to the city in 1886 by James

Dick, a manufacturer, containing "Queen Mary's stone," a point which

commands a view of the lower valley of the Clyde. In the north-western

district of the town 40 acres between Great Western Road and the

Kelvin are devoted to the Royal Botanic Gardens, which became public

property in 1891. They are beautifully laid out, and contain a great

range of hothouses. The gardens owed much to Sir William Hooker, who

was regius professor of botany in Glasgow University before his

appointment to the directorship of Kew Gardens.

_Communications._--The North British railway terminus is situated in

Queen Street, and consists of a high-level station (main line) and a

low-level station, used in connexion with the City & District line,

largely underground, serving the northern side of the town, opened in

1886. The Great Northern and North-Eastern railways use the high-level

line of the N.B.R., the three companies forming the East Coast Joint

Service. The Central terminus of the Caledonian railway in Gordon

Street, served by the West Coast system (in which the London &

North-Western railway shares), also comprises a high-level station for

the main line traffic and a low-level station for the Cathcart

District railway, completed in 1886 and made circular for the southern

side and suburbs in 1894, and also for the connexion between Maryhill

and Rutherglen, which is mostly underground. Both the underground

lines communicate with certain branches of the main line, either

directly or by change of carriage. The older terminus of the

Caledonian railway in Buchanan Street now takes the northern and

eastern traffic. The terminus of the Glasgow & South-Western railway

company in St Enoch Square serves the country indicated in its title,

and also gives the Midland railway of England access to the west coast

and Glasgow. The Glasgow Subway--an underground cable passenger line,

6-1/2 m. long, worked in two tunnels and passing below the Clyde

twice--was opened in 1896. Since no more bridge-building will be

sanctioned west of the railway bridge at the Broomielaw, there are at

certain points steam ferry boats or floating bridges for conveying

vehicles across the harbour, and at Stobcross there is a subway for

foot and wheeled traffic. Steamers, carrying both goods and

passengers, constantly leave the Broomielaw quay for the piers and

ports on the river and firth, and the islands and sea lochs of

Argyllshire. The city is admirably served by tramways which penetrate

every populous district and cross the river by Glasgow and Albert

bridges.

_Trade._--Natural causes, such as proximity to the richest field of

coal and ironstone in Scotland and the vicinity of hill streams of

pure water, account for much of the great development of trade in

Glasgow. It was in textiles that the city showed its earliest

predominance, which, however, has not been maintained, owing, it is

alleged, to the shortage of female labour. Several cotton mills are

still worked, but the leading feature in the trade has always been the

manufacture of such light textures as plain, striped and figured

muslins, ginghams and fancy fabrics. Thread is made on a considerable

scale, but jute and silk are of comparatively little importance. The

principal varieties of carpets are woven. Some factories are

exclusively devoted to the making of lace curtains. The allied

industries of bleaching, printing and dyeing, on the other hand, have

never declined. The use of chlorine in bleaching was first introduced

in Great Britain at Glasgow in 1787, on the suggestion of James Watt,

whose father-in-law was a bleacher; and it was a Glasgow bleacher,

Charles Tennant, who first discovered and made bleaching powder

(chloride of lime). Turkey-red dyeing was begun at Glasgow by David

Dale and George M'Intosh, and the colour was long known locally as

Dale's red. A large quantity of grey cloth continues to be sent from

Lancashire and other mills to be bleached and printed in Scottish

works. These industries gave a powerful impetus to the manufacture of

chemicals, and the works at St Rollox developed rapidly. Among

prominent chemical industries are to be reckoned the alkali

trades--including soda, bleaching powder and soap-making--the

preparation of alum and prussiates of potash, bichromate of potash,

white lead and other pigments, dynamite and gunpowder. Glass-making

and paper-making are also carried on, and there are several breweries

and distilleries, besides factories for the making of aerated waters,

starch, dextrine and matches. Many miscellaneous trades flourish, such

as clothing, confectionery, cabinet-making, bread and biscuit making,

boot and shoe making, flour mills and saw mills, pottery and

india-rubber. Since the days of the brothers Robert Foulis (1705-1776)

and Andrew Foulis (1712-1775), printing, both letterpress and colour,

has been identified with Glasgow, though in a lesser degree than with

Edinburgh. The tobacco trade still flourishes, though much lessened.

But the great industry is iron-founding. The discovery of the value of

blackband ironstone, till then regarded as useless "wild coal," by

David Mushet (1772-1847), and Neilson's invention of the hot-air blast

threw the control of the Scottish iron trade into the hands of Glasgow

ironmasters, although the furnaces themselves were mostly erected in

Lanarkshire and Ayrshire. The expansion of the industry was such that,

in 1859, one-third of the total output in the United Kingdom was

Scottish. During the following years, however, the trade seemed to

have lost its elasticity, the annual production averaging about one

million tons of pig-iron. Mild steel is manufactured extensively, and

some crucible cast steel is made. In addition to brass foundries there

are works for the extraction of copper and the smelting of lead and

zinc. With such resources every branch of engineering is well

represented. Locomotive engines are built for every country where

railways are employed, and all kinds of builder's ironwork is forged

in enormous quantities, and the sewing-machine factories in the

neighbourhood are important. Boiler-making and marine engine works, in

many cases in direct connexion with the shipbuilding yards, are

numerous. Shipbuilding, indeed, is the greatest of the industries of

Glasgow, and in some years more than half of the total tonnage in the

United Kingdom has been launched on the Clyde, the yards of which

extend from the harbour to Dumbarton on one side and Greenock on the

other side of the river and firth. Excepting a trifling proportion of

wooden ships, the Clyde-built vessels are of iron and steel, the trade

having owed its immense expansion to the prompt adoption of this

material. Every variety of craft is turned out, from battleships and

great liners to dredging-plant and hopper barges.

_The Port._--The harbour extends from Glasgow Bridge to the point

where the Kelvin joins the Clyde, and occupies 206 acres. For the most

part it is lined by quays and wharves, which have a total length of

8-1/4 m., and from the harbour to the sea vessels drawing 26 ft. can

go up or down on one tide. It is curious to remember that in the

middle of the 18th century the river was fordable on foot at Dumbuck,

12 m. below Glasgow and 1-1/2 m. S.E. of Dumbarton. Even within the

limits of the present harbour Smeaton reported to the town council in

1740 that at Pointhouse ford, just east of the mouth of the Kelvin,

the depth at low water was only 15 in. and at high water 39 in. The

transformation effected within a century and a half is due to the

energy and enterprise of the Clyde Navigation Trust. The earliest

shipping-port of Glasgow was Irvine in Ayrshire, but lighterage was

tedious and land carriage costly, and in 1658 the civic authorities

endeavoured to purchase a site for a spacious harbour at Dumbarton.

Being thwarted by the magistrates of that burgh, however, in 1662 they

secured 13 acres on the southern bank at a spot some 2 m. above

Greenock, which became known as Port Glasgow, where they built

harbours and constructed the first graving dock in Scotland. Sixteen

years later the Broomielaw quay was built, but it was not until the

tobacco merchants appreciated the necessity of bringing their wares

into the heart of the city that serious consideration was paid to

schemes for deepening the waterway. Smeaton's suggestion of a lock and

dam 4 m. below the Broomielaw was happily not accepted. In 1768 John

Golborne advised the narrowing of the river and the increasing of the

scour by the construction of rubble jetties and the dredging of

sandbanks and shoals. After James Watt's report in 1769 on the ford at

Dumbuck, Golborne succeeded in 1775 in deepening the ford to 6 ft. at

low water with a width of 300 ft. By Rennie's advice in 1799,

following up Golborne's recommendation, as many as 200 jetties were

built between Glasgow and Bowling, some old ones were shortened and

low rubble walls carried from point to point of the jetties, and thus

the channel was made more uniform and much land reclaimed. By 1836

there was a depth of 7 or 8 ft. at the Broomielaw at low water, and in

1840 the whole duty of improving the navigation was devolved upon the

Navigation Trust. Steam dredgers were kept constantly at work, shoals

were removed and rocks blasted away. Two million cubic yards of matter

are lifted every year and dumped in Loch Long. By 1900 the channel had

been deepened to a minimum of 22 ft., and, as already indicated, the

largest vessels make the open sea in one tide, whereas in 1840 it took

ships drawing only 15 ft. two and even three tides to reach the sea.

The debt of the Trust amounts to L6,000,000, and the annual revenue to

L450,000. Long before these great results had been achieved, however,

the shipping trade had been revolutionized by the application of steam

to navigation, and later by the use of iron for wood in shipbuilding,

in both respects enormously enhancing the industry and commerce of

Glasgow. From 1812 to 1820 Henry Bell's "Comet," 30 tons, driven by an

engine of 3 horse-power, plied between Glasgow and Greenock, until she

was wrecked, being the first steamer to run regularly on any river in

the Old World. Thus since the appearance of that primitive vessel

phenomenal changes had taken place on the Clyde. When the quays and

wharves ceased to be able to accommodate the growing traffic, the

construction of docks became imperative. In 1867 Kingston Dock on the

south side, of 5-1/3 acres, was opened, but soon proved inadequate,

and in 1880 Queen's Dock (two basins) at Stobcross, on the north side,

of 30 acres, was completed. Although this could accommodate one

million tons of shipping, more dock space was speedily called for, and

in 1897 Prince's Dock (three basins) on the opposite side, of 72

acres, was opened, fully equipped with hydraulic and steam cranes and

all the other latest appliances. There are, besides, three graving

docks, the longest of which (880 ft.) can be made at will into two

docks of 417 ft. and 457 ft. in length. The Caledonian and Glasgow &

South-Western railways have access to the harbour for goods and

minerals at Terminus Quay to the west of Kingston Dock, and a mineral

dock has been constructed by the Trust at Clydebank, about 3-1/2 m.

below the harbour. The shipping attains to colossal proportions. The

imports consist chiefly of flour, fruit, timber, iron ore, live stock

and wheat; and the exports principally of cotton manufactures,

manufactured iron and steel, machinery, whisky, cotton yarn, linen

fabrics, coal, jute, jam and foods, and woollen manufactures.

_Government._--By the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889 the city

was placed entirely in the county of Lanark, the districts then

transferred having previously belonged to the shires of Dumbarton and

Renfrew. In 1891 the boundaries were enlarged to include six suburban

burghs and a number of suburban districts, the area being increased

from 6111 acres to 11,861 acres. The total area of the city and the

conterminous burghs of Govan, Partick and Kinning Park--which, though

they successfully resisted annexation in 1891, are practically part of

the city--is 15,659 acres. The extreme length from north to south and

from east to west is about 5 m. each way, and the circumference

measures 27 m. In 1893 the municipal burgh was constituted a county of

a city. Glasgow is governed by a corporation consisting of 77 members,

including 14 bailies and the lord provost. In 1895 all the powers

which the town council exercised as police commissioners and trustees

for parks, markets, water and the like were consolidated and conferred

upon the corporation. Three years later the two parish councils of the

city and barony, which administered the poor law over the greater part

of the city north of the Clyde, were amalgamated as the parish council

of Glasgow, with 31 members. As a county of a city Glasgow has a

lieutenancy (successive lords provost holding the office) and a court

of quarter sessions, which is the appeal court from the magistrates

sitting as licensing authority. Under the corporation municipal

ownership has reached a remarkable development, the corporation owning

the supplies of water, gas and electric power, tramways and municipal

lodging-houses. The enterprise of the corporation has brought its work

prominently into notice, not only in the United Kingdom, but in the

United States of America and elsewhere. In 1859 water was conveyed by

aqueducts and tunnels from Loch Katrine (364 ft. above sea-level,

giving a pressure of 70 or 80 ft. above the highest point in the city)

to the reservoir at Mugdock (with a capacity of 500,000,000 gallons),

a distance of 27 m., whence after filtration it was distributed by

pipes to Glasgow, a further distance of 7 m., or 34 m. in all. During

the next quarter of a century it became evident that this supply would

require to be augmented, and powers were accordingly obtained in 1895

to raise Loch Katrine 5 ft. and to connect with it by tunnel Loch

Arklet (455 ft. above the sea), with storage for 2,050,000,000

gallons, the two lochs together possessing a capacity of twelve

thousand million gallons. The entire works between the loch and the

city were duplicated over a distance of 23-1/2 m., and an additional

reservoir, holding 694,000,000 gallons, was constructed, increasing

the supply held in reserve from 12-1/2 days' to 30-1/2 days'. In 1909

the building of a dam was undertaken 1-1/4 m. west of the lower end of

Loch Arklet, designed to create a sheet of water 2-1/2 m. long and to

increase the water-supply of the city by ten million gallons a day.

The water committee supplies hydraulic power to manufacturers and

merchants. In 1869 the corporation acquired the gasworks, the

productive capacity of which exceeds 70 million cub. ft. a day. In

1893 the supply of electric light was also undertaken, and since that

date the city has been partly lighted by electricity. The corporation

also laid down the tramways, which were leased by a company for

twenty-three years at a rental of L150 a mile per annum. When the

lease expired in 1894 the town council took over the working of the

cars, substituting overhead electric traction for horse-power. One of

the most difficult problems that the corporation has had to deal with

was the housing of the poor. By the lapse of time and the congestion

of population, certain quarters of the city, in old Glasgow

especially, had become slums and rookeries of the worst description.

The condition of the town was rapidly growing into a byword, when the

municipality obtained parliamentary powers in 1866 enabling it to

condemn for purchase over-crowded districts, to borrow money and levy

rates. The scheme of reform contemplated the demolition of 10,000

insanitary dwellings occupied by 50,000 persons, but the corporation

was required to provide accommodation for the dislodged whenever the

numbers exceeded 500. In point of fact they never needed to build, as

private enterprise more than kept pace with the operations of the

improvement. The work was carried out promptly and effectually, and

when the act expired in 1881 whole localities had been recreated and

nearly 40,000 persons properly housed. Under the amending act of 1881

the corporation began in 1888 to build tenement houses in which the

poor could rent one or more rooms at the most moderate rentals;

lodging-houses for men and women followed, and in 1896 a home was

erected for the accommodation of families in certain circumstances.

The powers of the improvement trustees were practically exhausted in

1896, when it appeared that during twenty-nine years L1,955,550 had

been spent in buying and improving land and buildings, and L231,500 in

building tenements and lodging-houses; while, on the other side,

ground had been sold for L1,072,000, and the trustees owned heritable

property valued at L692,000, showing a deficiency of L423,050.

Assessment of ratepayers for the purposes of the trust had yielded

L593,000, and it was estimated that these operations, beneficial to

the city in a variety of ways, had cost the citizens L24,000 a year.

In 1897 an act was obtained for dealing in similar fashion with

insanitary and congested areas in the centre of the city, and on the

south side of the river, and for acquiring not more than 25 acres of

land, within or without the city, for dwellings for the poorest

classes. Along with these later improvements the drainage system was

entirely remodelled, the area being divided into three sections, each

distinct, with separate works for the disposal of its own sewage. One

section (authorized in 1891 and doubled in 1901) comprises 11 sq.

m.--one-half within the city north of the river, and the other in the

district in Lanarkshire--with works at Dalmarnock; another section

(authorized in 1896) includes the area on the north bank not provided

for in 1891, as well as the burghs of Partick and Clydebank and

intervening portions of the shires of Renfrew and Dumbarton, the total

area consisting of 14 sq. m., with works at Dalmuir, 7 m. below

Glasgow; and the third section (authorized in 1898) embraces the whole

municipal area on the south side of the river, the burghs of

Rutherglen, Pollokshaws, Kinning Park and Govan, and certain districts

in the counties of Renfrew and Lanark--14 sq. m. in all, which may be

extended by the inclusion of the burghs of Renfrew and Paisley--with

works at Braehead, 1 m. east of Renfrew. Among other works in which it

has interests there may be mentioned its representation on the board

of the Clyde Navigation Trust and the governing body of the West of

Scotland Technical College. In respect of parliamentary representation

the Reform Act of 1832 gave two members to Glasgow, a third was added

in 1868 (though each elector had only two votes), and in 1885 the city

was split up into seven divisions, each returning one member.

_Population._--Throughout the 19th century the population grew

prodigiously. Only 77,385 in 1801, it was nearly doubled in twenty

years, being 147,043 in 1821, already outstripping Edinburgh. It had

become 395,503 in 1861, and in 1881 it was 511,415. In 1891, prior to

extension of the boundary, it was 565,839, and, after extension,

658,198, and in 1901 it stood at 761,709. The birth-rate averages 33,

and the death-rate 21 per 1000, but the mortality before the city

improvement scheme was carried out was as high as 33 per 1000. Owing

to its being convenient of access from the Highlands, a very

considerable number of Gaelic-speaking persons live in Glasgow, while

the great industries attract an enormous number of persons from other

parts of Scotland. The valuation of the city, which in 1878-1879 was

L3,420,697, now exceeds L5,000,000.

_History._--There are several theories as to the origin of the name of

Glasgow. One holds that it comes from Gaelic words meaning "dark glen,"

descriptive of the narrow ravine through which the Molendinar flowed to

the Clyde. But the more generally accepted version is that the word is

the Celtic _Cleschu_, afterwards written Glesco or Glasghu, meaning

"dear green spot" (_glas_, green; _cu_ or _ghu_, dear), which is

supposed to have been the name of the settlement that Kentigern found

here when he came to convert the Britons of Strathclyde. Mungo became

the patron-saint of Glasgow, and the motto and arms of the city are

wholly identified with him--"Let Glasgow Flourish by the Preaching of

the Word," usually shortened to "Let Glasgow Flourish." It is not till

the 12th century, however, that the history of the city becomes clear.

About 1178 William the Lion made the town by charter a burgh of barony,

and gave it a market with freedom and customs. Amongst more or less

isolated episodes of which record has been preserved may be mentioned

the battle of the Bell o' the Brae, on the site of High Street, in which

Wallace routed the English under Percy in 1300; the betrayal of Wallace

to the English in 1305 in a barn situated, according to tradition, in

Robroyston, just beyond the north-eastern boundary of the city; the

ravages of the plague in 1350 and thirty years later; the regent Arran's

siege, in 1544, of the bishop's castle, garrisoned by the earl of

Glencairn, and the subsequent fight at the Butts (now the Gallowgate)

when the terms of surrender were dishonoured, in which the regent's men

gained the day. Most of the inhabitants were opposed to Queen Mary and

many actively supported Murray in the battle of Langside--the site of

which is now occupied by the Queen's Park--on the 13th of May 1568, in

which she lost crown and kingdom. A memorial of the conflict was erected

on the site in 1887. Under James VI. the town became a royal burgh in

1636, with freedom of the river from the Broomielaw to the Cloch. But

the efforts to establish episcopacy aroused the fervent anti-prelatical

sentiment of the people, who made common cause with the Covenanters to

the end of their long struggle. Montrose mulcted the citizens heavily

after the battle of Kilsyth in 1645, and three years later the provost

and bailies were deposed for contumacy to their sovereign lord. Plague

and famine devastated the town in 1649, and in 1652 a conflagration laid

a third of the burgh in ashes. Even after the restoration its sufferings

were acute. It was the headquarters of the Whiggamores of the west and

its prisons were constantly filled with rebels for conscience' sake. The

government scourged the townsfolk with an army of Highlanders, whose

brutality only served to strengthen the resistance at the battles of

Drumclog and Bothwell Brig. With the Union, hotly resented as it was at

the time, the dawn of almost unbroken prosperity arose. By the treaty of

Union Scottish ports were placed, in respect of trade, on the same

footing as English ports, and the situation of Glasgow enabled it to

acquire a full share of the ever-increasing Atlantic trade. Its commerce

was already considerable and in population it was now the second town in

Scotland. It enjoyed a practical monopoly of the sale of raw and refined

sugars, had the right to distil spirits from molasses free of duty,

dealt largely in cured herring and salmon, sent hides to English tanners

and manufactured soap and linen. It challenged the supremacy of Bristol

in the tobacco trade--fetching cargoes from Virginia, Maryland and

Carolina in its own fleet--so that by 1772 its importations of tobacco

amounted to more than half of the whole quantity brought into the United

Kingdom. The tobacco merchants built handsome mansions and the town

rapidly extended westwards. With the surplus profits new industries were

created, which helped the city through the period of the American War.

Most, though not all, of the manufactures in which Glasgow has always

held a foremost place date from this period. It was in 1764 that James

Watt succeeded in repairing a hitherto unworkable model of Newcomen's

fire (steam) engine in his small workshop within the college precincts.

Shipbuilding on a colossal scale and the enormous developments in the

iron industries and engineering were practically the growth of the 19th

century. The failure of the Western bank in 1857, the Civil War in the

United States, the collapse of the City of Glasgow bank in 1878, among

other disasters, involved heavy losses and distress, but recovery was

always rapid.

AUTHORITIES.--J. Cleland, _Annals of Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1816); Duncan,

_Literary History of Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1886); _Registrum Episcopatus

Glasgow_ (Maitland Club, 1843); Pagan, _Sketch of the History of

Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1847); Sir J. D. Marwick, _Extracts from the Burgh

Records of Glasgow_ (Burgh Records Society); _Charters relating to

Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1891); _River Clyde and Harbour of Glasgow_

(Glasgow, 1898); _Glasgow Past and Present_ (Glasgow, 1884);

_Munimenta Universitatis Glasgow_ (Maitland Club, 1854); J. Strang,

_Glasgow and its Clubs_ (Glasgow, 1864); Reid ("Senex"), _Old

Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1864); A. Macgeorge, _Old Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1888);

Deas, _The River Clyde_ (Glasgow, 1881); Gale, _Loch Katrine

Waterworks_ (Glasgow, 1883); Mason, _Public and Private Libraries of

Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1885); J. Nicol, _Vital, Social and Economic

Statistics of Glasgow_ (1881); J. B. Russell, _Life in One Room_

(Glasgow, 1888); _Ticketed Houses_ (Glasgow, 1889); T. Somerville,

_George Square_ (Glasgow, 1891); J. A. Kilpatrick, _Literary Landmarks

of Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1898); J. K. M'Dowall, _People's History of

Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1899); Sir J. Bell and J. Paton, _Glasgow: Its

Municipal Organization and Administration_ (Glasgow, 1896); Sir D.

Richmond, _Notes on Municipal Work_ (Glasgow, 1899); J. M. Lang,

_Glasgow and the Barony_ (Glasgow, 1895); _Old Glasgow_ (Glasgow,

1896); J. H. Muir, _Glasgow in 1901_.

GLASITES, or SANDEMANIANS,[1] a Christian sect, founded in Scotland by

John Glas (q.v.). It spread into England and America, but is now

practically extinct. Glas dissented from the Westminster Confession only

in his views as to the spiritual nature of the church and the functions

of the civil magistrate. But his son-in-law Robert Sandeman added a

distinctive doctrine as to the nature of faith which is thus stated on

his tombstone: "That the bare death of Jesus Christ without a thought or

deed on the part of man, is sufficient to present the chief of sinners

spotless before God." In a series of letters to James Hervey, the author

of _Theron and Aspasia_, he maintained that justifying faith is a simple

assent to the divine testimony concerning Jesus Christ, differing in no

way in its character from belief in any ordinary testimony. In their

practice the Glasite churches aimed at a strict conformity with the

primitive type of Christianity as understood by them. Each congregation

had a plurality of elders, pastors or bishops, who were chosen according

to what were believed to be the instructions of Paul, without regard to

previous education or present occupation, and who enjoy a perfect

equality in office. To have been married a second time disqualified for

ordination, or for continued tenure of the office of bishop. In all the

action of the church unanimity was considered to be necessary; if any

member differed in opinion from the rest, he must either surrender his

judgment to that of the church, or be shut out from its communion. To

join in prayer with any one not a member of the denomination was

regarded as unlawful, and even to eat or drink with one who had been

excommunicated was held to be wrong. The Lord's Supper was observed

weekly; and between forenoon and afternoon service every Sunday a love

feast was held at which every member was required to be present. Mutual

exhortation was practised at all the meetings for divine service, when

any member who had the gift of speech ([Greek: charisma]) was allowed to

speak. The practice of washing one another's feet was at one time

observed; and it was for a long time customary for each brother and

sister to receive new members, on admission, with a holy kiss. "Things

strangled" and "blood" were rigorously abstained from; the lot was

regarded as sacred; the accumulation of wealth they held to be

unscriptural and improper, and each member considered his property as

liable to be called upon at any time to meet the wants of the poor and

the necessities of the church. Churches of this order were founded in

Paisley, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Leith, Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen,

Dunkeld, Cupar, Galashiels, Liverpool and London, where Michael Faraday

was long an elder. Their exclusiveness in practice, neglect of education

for the ministry, and the antinomian tendency of their doctrine

contributed to their dissolution. Many Glasites joined the general body

of Scottish Congregationalists, and the sect may now be considered

extinct. The last of the Sandemanian churches in America ceased to exist

in 1890.

See James Ross, _History of Congregational Independency in Scotland_

(Glasgow, 1900). (D. Mn.)