AGREEMENT.
With One Subject.
254. 1. Agreement in Number and Person. A Finite Verb agrees with its
subject in Number and Person; as,--
vōs vidētis, _you see_;
pater fīliōs īnstituit, _the father trains his sons_.
2. Agreement in Gender. In the compound forms of the verb the participle
regularly agrees with its subject in gender; as,--
sēditiō repressa est, _the mutiny was checked_.
3. But when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from its
subject, the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive; as,--
Tarquiniī māterna patria erat, _Tarquinii was his native country on his
mother's side_;
nōn omnis error stultitia est dīcenda, _not every error is to be called
folly_.
a. Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive; as,--
Coriolī, oppidum Volscōrum, captum est, _Corioli, a town of the Volsci,
was captured_.
4. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes the verb agrees with its
subject according to sense instead of strict grammatical form. Thus:--
a) In Number; as,--
multitūdō hominum convēnerant, _a crowd of men had gathered_.
b) In Gender; as,--
duo mīlia crucibus adfīxī sunt, _two thousand (men) were crucified_.
With Two or More Subjects.
255. 1. Agreement in Number. With two or more subjects the verb is
regularly plural; as,--
pater et fīlius mortuī sunt, _the father and son died_.
2. But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject; viz.,--
a) When the verb precedes both subjects or stands between them; as,--
mortuus est pater et fīlius;
pater mortuus est et fīlius.
b) When the subjects are connected by aut; aut ... aut; vel ... vel;
neque ... neque; as,--
neque pater neque fīlius mortuus est, _neither father nor son died_.
3. When the different subjects are felt together as constituting a whole,
the singular is used; as,--
temeritās ignōrātiōque vitiōsa est, _rashness and ignorance are bad_.
a. This is regularly the case in senātus populusque Rōmānus.
4. Agreement in Person. With compound subjects of different persons the
verb always takes the _first_ person rather than the _second_, and the
_second_ rather than the _third_; as,--
sī tū et Tullia valētis, ego et Cicerō valēmus, _if you and Tullia are
well, Cicero and I are well_.
5. Agreement in Gender. With subjects of different genders the participle
in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for
predicate adjectives. See § 235, B, 2.
VOICES.
256. 1. The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original middle
or reflexive meaning; as,--
ego nōn patiar eum dēfendī, _I shall not allow him to defend himself_.
2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by
the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as acting not
upon itself, but as doing something _in his own interest_; as,--
vēlātus tempora, _having veiled his temples_.
a. Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used; as,--
tunicā indūcitur artūs, _he covers his limbs with a tunic_.
3. Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive; as,--
curritur, _people run_ (lit. _it is run_);
ventum est, _he_ (_they_, etc.) _came_ (lit. _it was come_).
TENSES.
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.
257. 1. The Latin tenses express two distinct notions:--
a) The _period of time_ to which the action belongs: Present, Past, or
Future.
b) The _kind of action_: Undefined, Going on, or Completed.
The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds of
action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine
tenses). It does this by employing certain tenses in more than one way, as
may be seen by the following table:--
KIND OF PERIOD OF TIME.
ACTION.
PRESENT. PAST. FUTURE.
UNDEFINED Present: Historical Future:
scrībō, _I write_. Perfect: scrībam, _I shall
scrīpsī, _I write_.
wrote_.
GOING ON. Present: Imperfect: Future:
scrībō, _I am scrībēbam, _I was scrībam, _I shall
writing_. writing_. be writing_.
COMPLETED. Present Pluperfect: Future Perfect:
Perfect: scrīpseram, _I had scrīpserō, _I
scrīpsī, _I have written_. shall have
written_. written_.
2. It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action or action
Going on; so also the Future. The Perfect likewise has a double use,
according as it denotes action Completed in present time (Present Perfect)
or Undefined action belonging to past time (Historical Perfect).
Principal and Historical Tenses.
258. Tenses which denote Present or Future time are called Principal (or
Primary) Tenses, those which denote Past time are called Historical (or
Secondary).
The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are: Present, Future, Present
Perfect, Future Perfect.
The Historical Tenses are: Imperfect, Historical Perfect, Pluperfect.
Present Indicative.
259. Besides the two uses indicated in the table, the Present Indicative
presents the following peculiarities:--
1. It is used to denote _a general truth_, i.e. something true not merely
in the present but at all times ('Gnomic Present'); as,--
virtūs conciliat amīcitiās et cōnservat, _virtue establishes ties of
friendship and maintains them_ (i.e. always does so).
2. It is used of an attempted action ('Conative Present'); as,--
dum vītant vitia, in contrāria currunt, _while they try to avoid_
(vītant) _vices, they rush into opposite ones_.
3. In lively narration the Present is often used of a past action
('Historical Present'); as,--
Caesar imperat magnum numerum obsidum, _Caesar demanded a large number
of hostages_ (lit. _demands_).
4. In combination with jam, jam diū, jam prīdem, and similar words, the
Present is frequently used of an action originating in the past and
continuing in the present; as,--
jam prīdem cupiō tē vīsere, _I have long been desiring to visit you_
(i.e. I desire and have long desired).
Imperfect Indicative.
260. 1. The Imperfect primarily denotes action _going on in past time_;
as,--
librum legēbam, _I was reading a book_.
a. This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve as the
tense of _description_ (as opposed to mere _narration_).
2. From the notion of action _going on_, there easily develops the notion
of _repeated_ or _customary_ action; as,--
lēgātōs interrogābat, _he kept asking the envoys_;
C. Duīlium vidēbam puer, _as a boy I often used to see Gaius Duilius_.
3. The Imperfect often denotes an attempted action ('Conative Imperfect')
or an action as beginning ('Inceptive Imperfect'); as,--
hostēs nostrōs intrā mūnītiōnēs prōgredī prohibēbant, _the enemy tried
to prevent_ (prohibēbant) _our men from advancing within the
fortifications_ ('Conative');
ad proelium sē expediēbant, _they were beginning to get ready for
battle_ ('Inceptive').
4. The Imperfect, with jam, jam diū, jam dūdum, etc., is sometimes used of
an action which had been continuing some time; as,--
domicilium Rōmae multōs jam annōs habēbat, _he had had his residence at
Rome for many years_ (i.e. he had it at this time and had long had it).
Future Indicative.
261. 1. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than is the
English. We say: '_If he comes, I shall be glad_,' where we really mean:
'_If he shall come_,' etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the
Present, but generally employs the Future.
2. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dīcēs, _say!_
Perfect Indicative.
262. A. PRESENT PERFECT. Several Present Perfects denote the _state
resulting from a completed act_, and so seem equivalent to the Present;
as,--
nōvī, cognōvī, _I know_ (lit. _I have become acquainted with_);
cōnsuēvī, _I am wont_ (lit. _I have become accustomed_).
B. HISTORICAL PERFECT. The Historical Perfect is the tense of _narration_
(as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of _description_); as,--
Rēgulus in senātum vēnit, mandāta exposuit, reddī captivōs negāvit esse
ūtile, _Regulus came into the Senate, set forth his commission, said it
was useless for captives to be returned_.
1. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth ('Gnomic
Perfect').
Pluperfect Indicative.
263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act
_completed in the past_; as,--
Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat, sed nāvēs deerant, _Caesar had
decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats_.
a. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A), the
Pluperfect has the force of an Imperfect; as,--
nōveram, _I knew_.
Future Perfect Indicative.
264. The Future Perfect denotes an action _completed in future time_.
Thus:--
scrībam epistulam, cum redieris, _I will write the letter when you have
returned_ (lit. _when you shall have returned_).
a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Perfect than the
English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future
Perfect.
b. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A) the Future
Perfect has the force of a Future; as,--
nōverō, _I shall know_.
Epistolary Tenses.
265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appropriate at
the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is
received; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present,
and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect; as,--
nihil habēbam quod scrīberem, neque enim novī quidquam audieram et ad
tuās omnēs epistulās jam rescrīpseram, _I have nothing to write, for I
have heard no news and have already answered all your letters_.
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
266. A. In Independent sentences. See §§ 272-280.
B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the tenses of the
subjunctive usually conform to the so-called
Sequence of Tenses.
267. 1. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses,
the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.
2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are followed by Principal,
Historical by Historical. Thus:--
PRINCIPAL SEQUENCE,--
videō quid faciās, _I see what you are doing_.
vidēbō quid faciās, _I shall see what you are doing_.
vīderō quid faciās, _I shall have seen what you are doing_.
videō quid fēcerīs, _I see what you have done_.
vidēbō quid fēcerīs, _I shall see what you have done_.
vīderō quid fēcerīs, _I shall have seen what you have done_.
HISTORICAL SEQUENCE,--
vidēbam quid facerēs, _I saw what you were doing_.
vīdī quid facerēs, _I saw what you were doing_.
vīderam quid facerēs, _I had seen what you were doing_.
vidēbam quid fēcissēs, _I saw what you had done_.
vīdī quid fēcissēs, _I saw what you had done_.
vīderam quid fēcissēs, _I had seen what you had done_.
3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete action, the
Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative.
Peculiarities of Sequence.
268. 1. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even when
translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by the
Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive; as,--
dēmōnstrāvī quārē ad causam accēderem, _I have shown why I took the
case_ (lit. _I showed why_, etc.).
2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense
wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be
historical; as,--
videor ostendisse quālēs deī essent, _I seem to have shown of what
nature the gods are_ (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indicative,
ostendī, _I showed_).
3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense,
sometimes as historical. Thus:--
Sulla suōs hortātur ut fortī animō sint, _Sulla exhorts his soldiers to
be stout-hearted_;
Gallōs hortātur ut arma caperent, _he exhorted the Gauls to take arms_.
4. Conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type are not affected by
the principles for the Sequence of Tenses; as,--
honestum tāle est ut, vel sī ignōrārent id hominēs, suā tamen
pulchritūdine laudabīle esset, _virtue is such a thing that even if men
were ignorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own
loveliness_.
5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the Imperfect
Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as,--
sī sōlōs eōs dīcerēs miserōs, quibus moriendum esset, nēminem tū quidem
eōrum quī vīverent exciperēs, _if you called only those wretched who
must die, you would except no one of those who live_.
6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is
sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus:--
rēx tantum mōtus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem jūdicārit, _the king was
so much moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an enemy_.
This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and subsequent
historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a result simply
_as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act_, and therefore
corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct statement. Thus,
jūdicārit in the above example corresponds to adjūdicāvit, _he adjudged_.
To denote a result as _something continuous_, all writers use the Imperfect
Subjunctive after historical tenses.
7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence
be abandoned altogether. Thus:
a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an historical
tense; as,--
Verrēs Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restituī nōn possit, _Verres so
ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored_ (Direct statement: nōn potest
restitui);
ārdēbat Hortēnsius dīcendī cupiditāte sīc, ut in nūllō flagrantius
studium vīderim, _Hortensius burned so with eagerness to speak that I
have seen in no one a greater desire_ (Direct statement: in nūllō vīdī,
_I have seen in no one_).
NOTE.--This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of
Sequence, the Perfect is used, though a principal tense; there the Perfect
was used as an historical tense.
b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Subjunctive used
historically; as,--
nesciō quid causae fuerit cūr nūllās ad mē litterās darēs, _I do not
know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter_.
Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect
Subjunctive.
Method of Expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive.
269. The Future and Future Perfect, which are lacking to the Latin
Subjunctive, are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows:--
1. a) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses, by the
Imperfect after historical tenses.
b) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal tenses,
by the Pluperfect after historical tenses.
This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the
presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is to
future time. Thus:--
Gallī pollicentur sē factūrōs, quae Caesar imperet, _the Gauls promise
they will do what Caesar shall order_;
Gallī pollicēbantur sē factūrōs, quae Caesar imperāret, _the Gauls
promised they would do what Caesar should order_;
Gallī pollicentur sē factūrōs quae Caesar imperāverit, _the Gauls
promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered_;
Gallī pollicēbantur sē factūrōs quae Caesar imperāvisset, _the Gauls
promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered._
2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main
clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the
Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus:--
timeō nē veniat, _I am afraid he will come_;
Caesar exspectābat quid cōnsilī hostēs caperent, _Caesar was waiting to
see what plan the enemy would adopt_.
3. Where greater definiteness is necessary, the periphrastic forms in -ūrus
sim and -ūrus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect
Questions, and after nōn dubitō quīn; as,--
nōn dubitō quīn pater ventūrus sit, _I do not doubt that my father will
come_;
nōn dubitābam quīn pater ventūrus esset, _I did not doubt that my
father would come_.
4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle, or where it stands in
the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the
particles mox, brevī, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and
Imperfect Subjunctive; as,--
nōn dubitō quīn tē mox hūjus reī paeniteat, _I do not doubt that you
will soon repent of this thing;_
nōn dubitābam quīn haec rēs brevī cōnficerētur, _I did not doubt that
this thing would soon be fnished._
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.
270. 1. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but _with
reference to the verb on which they depend._ Thus:--
a) The Present Infinitive represents an act as _contemporaneous with_ the
time of the verb on which it depends; as,--
vidētur honōrēs adsequī, _he seems to be gaining honors_;
vidēbātur honōrēs adsequī, _he seemed to be gaining honors_.
b) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as _prior to_ the time of the
verb on which it depends; as,--
vidētur honōrēs adsecūtus esse, _he seems to have gained honors_;
vīsus est honōrēs adsecūtus esse, _he seemed to have gained honors_.
c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as _subsequent to_ that of the
verb on which it depends; as,--
vidētur honōrēs adsecūtūrus esse, _he seems to be about to gain
honors_;
vīsus est honōrēs adsecūtūrus esse, _he seemed to be about to gain
honors_.
2. Where the English says '_ought to have done_,' '_might have done_,'
etc., the Latin uses dēbuī, oportuit, potuī (dēbēbam, oportēbat, poteram),
with the Present Infinitive; as,--
dēbuit dīcere, _he ought to have said_ (lit. _owed it to say_);
opōrtuit venīre, _he ought to have come_;
potuit vidēre, _he might have seen_.
a. Oportuit, volō, nōlō (and in poetry some other verbs), may take a
Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as,--
hōc jam prīdem factum esse oportuit, _this ought long ago to have been
done_.
3. PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE INFINITIVE. Verbs that have no Participial Stem,
express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or futūrum esse
ut, with the Subjunctive; as,--
spērō fore ut tē paeniteat levitātis, _I hope you will repent of your
fickleness_ (lit. _hope it will happen that you repent_);
spērō futūrum esse ut hostēs arceantur, _I hope that the enemy will be
kept off_.
a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the
Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem; as,--
spērō fore ut hostēs vincantur, _I hope the enemy will be conquered_.
4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infinitive with
fore; as,--
spērō epistulam scrīptam fore, _I hope the letter will have been
written_;
dīcō mē satis adeptum fore, _I say that I shall have gained enough_.
THE MOODS.
MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.
The Indicative in Independent Sentences.
271. The Indicative is used for the _statement of facts_, _the supposition
of facts_, or _inquiry after facts_.
1. Note the following idiomatic uses:--
a) With possum; as,--
possum multa dīcere, _I might say much_;
poteram multa dīcere, _I might have said much_ (§ 270, 2).
b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est, difficile
est, ūtilius est, and some others; as,--
longum est ea dīcere, _it would be tedious to tell that_;
difficile est omnia persequī, _it would be difficult to enumerate
everything_.
The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences.
272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences to express
something--
1. As willed--Volitive Subjunctive;
2. As desired--Optative Subjunctive;
3. Conceived of as possible--Potential Subjunctive.
VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
273. The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action _as willed_. It always
implies authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following
varieties:--
A. HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE.
274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses _an exhortation_. This use is
confined to the first person plural of the Present. The negative is nē.
Thus:--
eāmus, _let us go_;
amēmus patriam, _let us love our country_;
nē dēspērēmus, _let us not despair_.
B. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a _command_. The Jussive stands
regularly in the Present Tense, and is used--
1. Most frequently in the third singular and the third plural; as,--
dīcat, _let him tell_;
dīcant, _let them tell_;
quārē sēcēdant improbī, _wherefore let the wicked depart!_
2. Less frequently in the second person, often with indefinite force; as,--
istō bonō ūtāre, _use that advantage_;
modestē vīvās, _live temperately_.
C. PROHIBITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
276. The Subjunctive is used in the second and third persons singular and
plural, with nē, to express _a prohibition_. Both Present and Perfect
occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning; as,--
nē repugnētis, _do not resist!_
tū vērō istam nē relīquerīs, _don't leave her!_
impiī nē plācāre audeant deōs, _let not the impious dare to appease the
gods!_
a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose.
b. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition in the second person is
by the use of nōlī (nōlīte) with a following infinitive, or by cavē or
cavē nē with the Subjunctive; as,--
nōlī hōc facere, _don't do this_ (lit. _be unwilling to do_)!
nōlīte mentīrī, _do not lie!_
cavē ignōscās, cavē tē misereat, _do not forgive, do not pity!_
cavē nē haec faciās, _do not do this_ (lit. _take care lest you do_)!
D. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used _in questions and exclamations
implying doubt, indignation, the impossibility of an act, obligation, or
propriety_. The Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect
referring to past. The negative is nōn. Thus:--
quid faciam, _what shall I do?_
ego redeam, _I go back!_
huic cēdāmus! hūjus condiciōnēs audiāmus! _are we to bow to him! are we
to listen to his terms!_
quid facerem, _what was I to do?_
hunc ego nōn dīligam, _should I not cherish this man?_
a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in
character, and do not expect an answer.
E. CONCESSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something _as granted or conceded
for the sake of argument_. The Present is used for present time, the
Perfect regularly for past. The negative is nē. Thus:--
sit hōc vērum, _I grant that this is true_ (lit. _let this be true_);
nē sint in senectūte vīrēs, _I grant there is not strength in old age_;
fuerit malus cīvis aliīs; tibi quandō esse coepit, _I grant that he was
a bad citizen to others; when did he begin to be so toward you?_
OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of _wishing_. The
negative is regularly nē.
1. The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish
is conceived of _as possible_.
dī istaec prohibeant, _may the gods prevent that!_
falsus utinam vātēs sim, _oh that I may be a false prophet!_
nē veniant, _may they not come!_
2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the _regret that
something is not so now_; the Pluperfect that something _was not so in the
past_. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam;
as,--
utinam istud ex animō dīcerēs, _would that you were saying that in
earnest_ (i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest);
Pēlīdēs utinam vītāsset Apollinis arcūs, _would that Achilles had
escaped the bow of Apollo_;
utinam nē nātus essem, _would that I had not been born_.
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.
280. The Potential Subjunctive expresses _a possibility_. The negative is
nōn. The following uses are to be noted:--
1. The 'May' Potential.--The Potential Subjunctive may designate _a mere
possibility_ (English auxiliary _may_). Both Present and Perfect occur, and
without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:--
dīcat aliquis, _some one may say_;
dīxerit aliquis, _some one may say_.
a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a
few phrases like those given as examples.
2. 'Should'-'Would' Potential.--The Potential Subjunctive may represent
something as _depending upon a condition expressed or understood_ (English
auxiliary _should_, _would_). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without
appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:--
fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās, _one would more quickly find
Fortune than keep it_ (i.e. if one should make the trial);
crēdiderim, _I should believe_.
a. Here belongs the use of velim, mālim, nōlim, as softened forms of
statement for volō, mālō, nōlō. Thus:--
velim mihi ignōscās, _I wish you would forgive me_;
nōlim putēs mē jocārī, _I don't want you to think I'm joking_.
b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular types of
Conditional Sentences (see § 303); as,--
diēs dēficiat, sī cōner ēnumerāre causās, _time would fail if I should
attempt to enumerate the reasons._
3. 'Can'-'Could' Potential.--In the Present and Imperfect the Potential
occurs in the second person singular (with _indefinite_ force; § 356, 3) of
a few verbs of _perceiving_, _seeing_, _thinking_, and the like; as,--
videās, cernās, _one can see_, _one can perceive_;
crēderēs, _one could believe_;
vidērēs, cernerēs, _one could see_, _perceive_;
putārēs, _one could imagine_.
4. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of
the contrary-to-fact type (see § 304) are also Potential in character. By
omission of the Protasis, such an Apodosis sometimes stands alone,
particularly vellem, nōllem, māllem; as,--
vellem id quidem, _I should wish that_ (i.e. were I bold enough).
The Imperative.
281. The Imperative is used in _commands_, _admonitions_ and _entreaties_
(negative nē), as,--
ēgredere ex urbe, _depart from the city_;
mihi ignōsce, _pardon me_;
valē, _farewell_.
1. The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used, but the
Future is employed--
a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in the
apodosis of conditional sentences; as,--
rem vōbīs prōpōnam; vōs eam penditōte, _I will lay the matter before
you; do you (then) consider it_;
sī bene disputābit, tribuitō litterīs Graecis, _if he shall speak well,
attribute it to Greek literature._
b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc.; as,--
cōnsulēs summum jūs habentō, _the consuls shall have supreme power_;
hominem mortuom in urbe nē sepelītō, _no one shall bury a dead body in
the city_;
amīcitia rēgī Antiochō cum populō Rōmānō hīs legibus et condiciōnibus
estō, _let there be friendship between Antiochus and the Roman people
on the following terms and conditions_;
quārtae estō partis Mārcus hērēs, _let Marcus be heir to a fourth (of
the property_);
ignōscitō saepe alterī, numquam tibi, _forgive your neighbor often,
yourself never_.
2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical
prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways. See § 276, b.
3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quīn (_why not?_) are often
equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,--
quīn abīs, _go away!_ (lit. _why don't you go away?_);
quīn vōcem continētis, _keep still!_ (lit. _why don't you stop your
voices?_);
quīn equōs cōnscendimus, _let us mount our horses_ (lit. _why do we not
mount our horses?_)
MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES.
Clauses of Purpose.
282. 1. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most commonly by ut (utī), quō
(_that_, _in order that_), nē (_in order that not, lest_), and stand in the
Subjunctive, as,--
edimus ut vīvāmus, _we eat that we may live;_
adjūtā mē quō hōc fīat facilius, _help me, in order that this may be
done more easily;_
portās clausit, nē quam oppidānī injūriam acciperent, _he closed the
gates, lest the townspeople should receive any injury._
a. Quō, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a
comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional exceptions occur; as,--
haec faciunt quō Chremētem absterreant, _they are doing this in order
to frighten Chremes._
b. Ut nē is sometimes found instead of nē. Thus:--
ut nē quid neglegenter agāmus, _in order that we may not do anything
carelessly_.
c. Ut nōn (not nē) is used where the negation belongs to some single
word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole. Thus:--
ut nōn ējectus ad aliēnōs, sed invītātus ad tuōs videāre, _that you may
seem not driven out among strangers, but invited to your own friends._
d. To say '_and that not_' or '_or that not_,' the Latin regularly uses
nēve (neu); as,--
ut eārum rērum vīs minuerētur, neu pontī nocērent, _that the violence
of these things might be lessened, and that they might not harm the
bridge_;
profūgit, nē caperētur nēve interficerētur, _he fled, that he might not
be captured or killed._
e. But neque (for nēve) is sometimes used in a second Purpose Clause when
ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first
clause is introduced by nē.
f. Purpose Clauses sometimes stand in apposition with a preceding noun or
pronoun: as,--
hāc causā, ut pācem habērent, _on this account, that they might have
peace._
2. A Relative Pronoun (quī) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quō) is frequently used
to introduce a Purpose Clause; as,--
Helvētiī lēgātōs mittunt, quī dīcerent, _the Helvetii sent envoys to
say_ (lit. _who should say_);
haec habuī, dē senectūte quae dīcerem, _I had these things to say about
old age_;
nōn habēbant quō sē reciperent, _they had no place to which to flee_
(lit. _whither they might flee_).
a. Quī in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc.; ubi to ut
ibi; unde to ut inde; quō to ut eō.
3. Relative Clauses of purpose follow dignus, indignus, and idōneus; as,--
idōneus fuit nēmō quem imitārēre, _there was no one suitable for you to
imitate_ (_cf_. nēmō fuit quem imitārēre, _there was no one for you to
imitate_);
dignus est quī aliquandō imperet, _he is worthy to rule sometime_.
4. Purpose Clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the
context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sentences; as,--
ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, _to pass over all this,_ (_I will say
that_) _we departed_.
Clauses of Characteristic.
283. 1. A relative clause used _to express a quality or characteristic of a
general or indefinite antecedent_ is called a Clause of Characteristic, and
usually stands in the Subjunctive; as,--
multa sunt, quae mentem acuant, _there are many things which sharpen
the wits._
Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are
used merely to state some fact about a definite antecedent, and which
therefore take the Indicative; as,--
Catō, senex jūcundus, quī Sapiēns appellātus est, _Cato, a delightful
old man, who was called 'The Wise.'_
The Clause of Characteristic implies '_a person of the sort that does
something_'; the Indicative relative clause implies '_a particular person
who does something_.'
2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions as,
est quī; sunt quī; nēmō est quī; nūllus est quī; ūnus est quī; sōlus est
quī; quis est quī; is quī; etc. Thus:--
sunt quī dīcant, _there are (some) who say_;
nēmō est quī nesciat, _there is nobody who is ignorant_;
sapientia est ūna quae maestitiam pellat, _philosophy is the only thing
that drives away sorrow_;
quae cīvitās est quae nōn ēvertī possit, _what state is there that
cannot be overthrown?_
nōn is sum quī improbōs laudem, _I am not the sort of man that praises
the wicked._
a. Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of
characteristic is used after comparatives; as,--
nōn longius hostēs aberant quam quō tēlum adigī posset, _the enemy were
not too far off for a dart to reach them_ (lit. _further off than [a
point] to which a dart could be cast_).
3. The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion of cause
(_since_) or opposition (_although_). Thus:--
a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut, quīppe,
utpote; as,--
ō fortūnāte adulēscēns, quī tuae virtūtis Homērum praecōnem invēnerīs,
_O fortunate man, since you have found a Homer as the herald of your
valor_;
ut quī optimō jūre eam prōvinciam obtinuerit, _since he held that
province by excellent right_.
b) Opposition:--
egomet quī sērō Graecās litterās attigissem, tamen complūrēs diēs
Athēnīs commorātus sum, _I, although I had taken up Greek literature
late in life, nevertheless tarried several days at Athens_.
4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quīn = quī (quae,
quod) nōn; as,--
nēmō est quīn saepe audierit, _there is no one who has not often
heard_;
nēmō fuit mīlitum quīn vulnerārētur, _there was no one of the soldiers
who was not wounded_.
5. Related to Clauses of Characteristic are also phrases of the type:
quod sciam, _so far as I know_; quem (quam, quod), audierim, _so far as
I have heard_.
Clauses of Result.
284. 1. Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut (_that_, _so that_),
negative ut nōn (_so that not_), and take the Subjunctive. The main clause
often contains tantus, tālis, tot, is (= tālis), tam, ita, sīc, adeō, or
some similar word. Thus:--
quis tam dēmēns est ut suā voluntāte maereat, _who is so senseless as
to mourn of his own volition?_
Siciliam ita vāstāvit ut restituī in antīquum statum nōn possit, _he so
ravaged Sicily that it cannot be restored to its former condition_;
mōns altissimus impendēbat, ut facile perpaucī prohibēre possent, _a
very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could easily stop
them_;
nōn is es ut tē pudor umquam ā turpitūdine āvocārit, _you are not so
constituted that shame ever called you back from baseness_.
2. A Result Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb, quī
(= ut is), quō (= ut eō), etc.; as,--
nēmō est tam senex quī sē annum nōn putet posse vīvere, _nobody is so
old as not to think he can live a year_;
habētis eum cōnsulem quī pārēre vestrīs dēcrētīs nōn dubitet, _you have
a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees_.
a. These Relative Clauses of Result are closely related to the Clause
of Characteristic, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the two
constructions. It is best to class the relative clause as one of
Characteristic, unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable.
3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quīn = ut nōn; as,--
nihil tam difficile est quīn quaerendō invēstīgārī possit, _nothing is
so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching_;
nēmō est tam fortis quīn reī novitāte perturbētur, _no one is so
steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange occurrence_.
4. Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone) to denote Result after
comparatives; as,--
urbs erat mūnītior quam ut prīmō impetū capī posset, _the city was too
strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack_ (lit. _more
strongly fortified than [so] that it could be taken, etc._).
Causal Clauses.
285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the following particles:--
1. Quod, quia, quoniam.
2. Cum.
3. Quandō.
286. The use of moods is as follows:--
1. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is _that of the
writer or speaker;_ they take the Subjunctive when the reason is viewed _as
that of another._ Thus:--
Parthōs timeō quod diffīdō cōpiīs nostrīs, _I fear the Parthians,
because I distrust our troops_.
Themistoclēs, quia nōn tūtus erat, Corcyram dēmigrāvit, _Themistocles,
since he was not safe, moved to Corcyra_.
neque mē vīxisse paenitet, quoniam bene vīxī, _I do not regret having
lived, since I have lived well_.
Sōcratēs accūsātus est quod corrumperet juventūtem, _Socrates was
arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young_. (Here the
reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser. Hence the
Subjunctive.)
Haeduī Caesarī grātiās ēgērunt quod sē perīculō līberāvisset, _the
Haedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from danger_. (The
reason of the Haedui.)
quoniam Miltiadēs dīcere nōn posset, verba prō eō fēcit Tīsagorās,
_since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him_. (The reason
of Tisagoras.)
noctū ambulābat Themistoclēs, quod somnum capere nōn posset,
_Themistocles used to walk at night because (as he said) he couldn't
sleep_.
a. Verbs of _thinking_ and _saying_ often stand in the Subjunctive in
causal clauses as though the act of thinking or saying, and not the
contents of the thought or language, constituted the reason. Thus:--
Bellovacī suum numerum nōn complēvērunt quod sē suō nōmine cum Rōmānīs
bellum gestūrōs dīcerent, _the Bellovaci did not furnish their
complement, because they said they were going to wage war with the
Romans on their own account_.
b. Nōn quod, nōn quō (by attraction for nōn eō quod), nōn quia, _not
that_, _not because_; and nōn quod nōn, nōn quō nōn, nōn quīn, _not that
... not_; _not because ... not_; _not but that_, are usually employed
merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the
Subjunctive; as,--
id fēcī, nōn quod vōs hanc dēfēnsiōnem dēsīderāre arbitrārer, sed ut
omnēs intellegerent, _this I did, not because I thought you needed this
defense, but that all might perceive_;
Crassō commendātiōnem nōn sum pollicitus, nōn quīn eam valitūram apud
tē arbitrārer, sed egēre mihi commendātiōne nōn vidēbātur, _I did not
promise a recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it would
have weight with you, but because he did not seem to me to need
recommendation_.
c. But clauses introduced by nōn quod, nōn quīa take the Indicative _if
they state a fact_, even though that fact is denied to be the reason for
something; as,--
hōc ita sentiō, nōn quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sīc exīstimāre nōs
est necesse, _this I think, not because I am myself an augur (which I
really am), but because it is necessary for us to think so_.
2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as,--
quae cum īta sint, _since this is so_;
cum sīs mortālis, quae mortālia sunt, cūrā, _since you are mortal, care
for what is mortal_.
a. Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum), _especially since;_
as,--
Haeduōs accūsat, praesertim cum eōrum precibus adductus bellum
suscēperit, _he blamed the Haedui, especially since he had undertaken
the war at their entreaties_.
3. Quandō (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs the
Indicative; as,--
id omittō, quandō vōbīs ita placet, _I pass over that, since you so
wish_.
Temporal Clauses introduced by
_Postquam_, _Ut_, _Ubi_, _Simul ac_,
etc.
287. 1. Postquam (posteāquam), _after_; ut, ubi, _when_; cum prīmum, simul,
simul ac (simul atque), _as soon as_, when used to refer _to a single past
act_ regularly take the Perfect Indicative; as,--
Epamīnōndās postquam audīvit vīcisse Boeōtiōs, 'Satis' inquit 'vīxī,'
_Epaminondas, after he heard that the Boeotians had conquered, said, 'I
have lived enough;'_
id ut audīvit, Corcyram dēmigrāvit, _when he heard this, he moved to
Corcyra_;
Caesar cum prīmum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, _Caesar, as soon as
he could, hurried to the army_;
ubi dē Caesaris adventū certiōrēs factī sunt, lēgātōs ad eum mittunt,
_when they were informed of Caesar's arrival, they sent envoys to him_.
a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this
construction.
2. To denote _the repeated occurrence_ of an act, ut, ubi, simul atque, _as
often as_, when following an historical tense, take the Pluperfect
Indicative (compare §§ 288, 3; 302, 3); as,--
ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumiās statim coniciēbātur,
_whenever anybody had offended Verres's feelings, he was forthwith put
in the stone-quarry_;
hostēs, ubi aliquōs ēgredientēs cōnspexerant, adoriēbantur, _whenever
the enemy had seen any men disembarking, they attacked them_.
a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect
Subjunctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act
('Indefinite Frequency'); as,--
id ubi dīxisset hastam mittēbat, _whenever he had said that, he hurled
a spear_.
3. Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluperfect
Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the case with postquam
in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days, months, years,
etc.), such as post tertium annum quam, trienniō postquam. Thus:--
quīnque post diēbus quam Lūcā discesserat, ad Sardiniam vēnit _five
days after he had departed from Luca he came to Sardinia_;
postquam occupātae Syrācūsae erant, profectus est Carthāginem, _after
Syracuse had been seized, he set out for Carthage_.
4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs, to denote _a continued
state;_ as,--
postquam Rōmam adventābant, senātus cōnsultus est, _after they were on
the march toward Rome, the Senate was consulted_;
postquam strūctī utrimque stābant, _after they had been drawn up on
both sides and were in position_.
5. Rarely postquam, posteāquam, following the analogy of cum, take the
Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses; as,--
posteāquam sūmptuōsa fieri fūnera coepissent, lēge sublāta sunt, _after
funerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away with by law_.
Temporal Clauses introduced by _Cum_.
A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST.
288. 1. Cum, when referring to the past, takes,--
A. The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or Pluperfect) to denote
_the point of time at which_ something occurs.
B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote _the situation or
circumstances under which_ something occurs.
Examples:--
INDICATIVE.
an tum erās cōnsul, cum in Palātiō mea domus ārdēbat, _or were you
consul at the time when my house burned up on the Palatine?_
crēdō tum cum Sicilia flōrēbat opibus et cōpiīs magna artificia fuisse
in eā īnsulā, _I believe that at the time when Sicily was powerful in
riches and resources there were great crafts in that island_;
eō tempore pāruit cum pārēre necesse erat, _he obeyed at the time when
it was necessary to obey_;
illō diē, cum est lāta lēx dē mē, _on that day when the law concerning
me was passed_.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Lysander cum vellet Lycūrgī lēgēs commūtāre, prohibitus est, _when
Lysander desired to change the laws of Lycurgus, he was prevented_;
Pythagorās cum in geōmetriā quiddam novī invēnisset, Mūsīs bovem
immolāsse dīcitur, _when Pythagoras had discovered something new in
geometry, he is said to have sacrificed an ox to the Muses_.
a. Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses than
the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases where the main
clause has tum, eō diē, eō annō, eō tempore or some similar correlative
of the cum. Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the
writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive.
2. Cum Inversum. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find
cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of
_when_, _when suddenly_. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix,
aegrē, nōndum; as,--
jam Gallī ex oppidō fugere apparābant, cum mātrēs familiae repente
prōcurrērunt, _the Gauls were already preparing to flee, when suddenly
the matrons rushed forth_ (logically, _the matrons rushed forth as the
Gauls were preparing to flee_);
Trēvirī Labiēnum adorīrī parābant, cum duās legiōnēs vēnisse
cognōscunt, _the Treviri were preparing to attack, when (suddenly) they
learned that two legions had arrived_.
3. To denote a _recurring action_ in the past, cum is followed by the
Indicative, particularly of the Pluperfect (compare §§ 287, 2; 302, 3);
as,--
cum ād aliquod oppidum vēnerat, eādem lectīcā ad cubiculum dēferēbātur,
_whenever he had arrived at some town, he was (always) carried in the
same litter to his room_;
cum equitātus noster sē in agrōs ējēcerat, essedāriōs ex silvīs
ēmittēbat, _whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields, he would
send his charioteers out from the woods_.
a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used; as,--
saepe cum aliquem vidēret minus bene vestītum, suum amiculum dedit,
_often, wherever he saw some one more poorly clothed, he gave him his
own mantle_;
cum prōcucurrissent, Numidae effugiēbant, _as often as they had
advanced, the Numidians ran away_.
This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians.
B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.
289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regularly takes the
Indicative; as,--
tum tua rēs agitur, pariēs cum proximus ārdet, _your own interests are
at stake when your neighbor's house is burning_;
cum vidēbis, tum sciēs, _when you see, then you will know._
a. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a _recurring
action;_ as,--
stabilitās amīcitiae cōnfirmārī potest, cum hominēs cupīdinibus
imperābunt, _firm friendship can be established whenever men shall
control their desires._
C. OTHER USES OF Cum.
290. 1. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is sometimes used to
indicate the identity of one act with another; as,--
cum tacent clāmant, _their silence is a shout_ (lit. _when they are
silent, they shout_).
2. Cum ... tum. When cum ... tum mean _both ... and_, the cum-clause is in
the Indicative; but when cum has the force of _while_, _though_, it may
take the Subjunctive; as,--
cum tē semper dīlēxerim, tum tuīs factīs incēnsus sum, _while I have
always loved you, at the same time I am stirred by your conduct_.
Clauses introduced by _Antequam_ and _Priusquam_.
A. WITH THE INDICATIVE.
291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante ... quam, prius ... quam)
take the Indicative to denote _an actual fact_.
1. Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect; as,--
prius respondēs quam rogō, _you answer before I ask_;
nihil contrā disputābō priusquam dīxerit, _I will say nothing in
opposition, before he speaks_.
2. Sometimes the Perfect, especially after negative clauses; as,--
nōn prius jugulandī fīnis fuit, quam Sulla omnēs suōs dīvitiīs
explēvit, _there was no end of murder until Sulla satisfied all his
henchmen with wealth_.
B. WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
292. Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive to denote an act as
_anticipated_.
1. Thus the Subjunctive may denote--
a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place; as,--
priusquam dīmicārent, foedus īctum est, _i.e. in anticipation of the
fight, a treaty was struck._
By an extension of this usage, the Subjunctive is sometimes used of
_general truths_, where the anticipatory notion has faded out; as,--
tempestās minātur antequam surgat, _the tempest threatens before it
rises_.
b) An act anticipated and forestalled; as,--
priusquam tēlum adicī posset, omnis aciēs terga vertit, _before a spear
could be hurled, the whole army fled._
c) An act anticipated and deprecated; as,--
animum omittunt priusquam locō dēmigrent, _they die rather than quit
their post._
2. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, especially by
some writers, where the notion of anticipation has practically vanished;
as,--
sōl antequam sē abderet fugientem vīdit Antōnium, _the sun before it
set saw Antony fleeing._
Clauses introduced by _Dum_, _Dōnec_, _Quoad_.
293. 1. Dum, _while_, regularly takes the Indicative of the Historical
Present; as,--
Alexander, dum inter prīmōrēs pugnat, sagittā ictus est, _Alexander,
while he was fighting in the van, was struck by an arrow_;
dum haec geruntur, in fīnēs Venellōrum pervēnit, _while these things
were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli_.
II. Dum, dōnec, and quoad, _as long as_, take the Indicative; as,--
dum anima est, spēs est, _as long as there is life, there is hope_;
Lacedaemoniōrum gēns fortis fuit, dum Lycūrgī lēgēs vigēbant, _the race
of the Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the laws of Lycurgus
were in force_;
Catō, quoad vīxit, virtūtum laude crēvit, _Cato, at long as he lived,
increased in the fame of his virtues_.
III. Dum, dōnec, and quoad, _until_, take:--
1. The Indicative, to denote _an actual event_; as,--
dōnec rediit, fuit silentium, _there was silence till he came_;
ferrum in corpore retinuit, quoad renūntiātum est Boeōtiōs vīcisse, _he
kept the iron in his body until word was brought that the Boeotians had
conquered_.
a. In Livy and subsequent historians dum and dōnec in this sense often
take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative; as,--
trepidātiōnis aliquantum ēdēbant dōnec timor quiētem fēcisset, _they
showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet_.
2. The Subjunctive, to denote _anticipation_ or _expectancy_; as,--
exspectāvit Caesar dum nāvēs convenīrent, _Caesar waited for the ships
to assemble_;
dum litterae veniant, morābor, _I shall wait for the letter to come_.
Substantive Clauses.
294. A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole serves as the Subject or
Object of a verb, or stands in some other case relation.
A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.
295. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volitive are used with the
following classes of verbs:--
1. With verbs signifying _to admonish_, _request_, _command_, _urge_,
_persuade_, _induce_,[51] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as,--
postulō ut fīat, _I demand that it be done_ (dependent form of the
Jussive fīat, _let it be done!_);
ōrat, nē abeās, _he begs that you will not go away_;
mīlitēs cohortātus est ut hostium impetum sustinērent, _he exhorted his
soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy_;
Helvētiīs persuāsit ut exīrent, _he persuaded the Helvetii to march
forth_.
a. Jubeō, _command_, _order_, regularly takes the Infinitive.
2. With verbs signifying _to grant_, _concede_, _permit_, _allow_,[52] etc.
(conjunction ut); as,--
huic concēdō ut ea praetereat, _I allow him to pass that by_ (dependent
form of the Jussive ea praetereat, _let him pass that by!_);
cōnsulī permissum est ut duās legiōnēs scrīberet, _the consul was
permitted to enroll two legions_.
3. With verbs of _hindering_, _preventing_,[53] etc. (conjunctions nē,
quōminus, quīn); as,--
nē lūstrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, _death prevented him from
finishing the lustrum_ (dependent form after past tense of nē lūstrum
perficiat, _let him not finish_, etc.);
prohibuit quōminus in ūnum coīrent, _he prevented them from coming
together_;
nec quīn ērumperet, prohibērī poterat, _nor could he be prevented from
rushing forth_.
a. Quīn is used only when the verb of _hindering_ is accompanied by a
negative, or stands in a question implying a negative; it is not
_necessarily_ used even then.
4. With verbs of _deciding_, _resolving_,[54] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or
ut nē); as,--
cōnstitueram ut prīdiē Īdūs Aquīnī manērem, _I had decided to remain at
Aquinum on the 12th_;
dēcrēvit senātus ut Opīmius vidēret, _the Senate decreed that Opimius
should see to it_;
convēnit ut ūnīs castrīs miscērentur, _it was agreed that they should
be united in one camp_.
5. With verbs of _striving_,[55] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē);
as,--
fac ut eum exōrēs, _see to it that you prevail upon him!_
cūrā ut vir sīs, _see to it that you are a man!_
labōrābat ut reliquās cīvitātēs adjungeret, _he was striving to join
the remaining states to him_.
a. Cōnor, _try_, always takes the Infinitive.
NOTE.--Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially
in poetry.
6. With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquus est,
sequitur, licet, oportet; as,--
sequitur ut doceam, _it remains for me to show_;
licet redeās, _you may return_;
oportet loquāmur, _we must speak_.
On the absence of ut with licet and oportet, see paragraph 8.
7. Here also belong phrases of the type: nūlla causa est cūr, quīn; nōn est
cūr, etc.; nihil est cūr, etc.; as,--
nūlla causa est cūr timeam, _there is no reason why I should fear_
(originally Deliberative: _why should I fear? There's no reason_);
nihil est quīn dīcam, _there is no reason why I should not say_.
8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Subjunctive
without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omission of ut, but
simply an earlier form of expression which existed before the ut-clause
arose. This is regularly the case with necesse est, licet, and oportet; see
6. Other examples are:--
eōs moneō dēsinant, _I warn them to stop_;
huic imperat adeat cīvitātēs, _he orders him to visit the states_.
B. Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative.
296. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Optative occur:--
1. With verbs of _wishing_, _desiring_, especially cupiō, optō, volō, mālō
(conjunctions ut, nē, ut nē); as,--
optō ut in hōc jūdiciō nēmō improbus reperiātur, _I hope that in this
court no bad man may be found_ (here ut reperiātur represents a simple
optative of direct statement, viz. reperiātur, _may no bad man be
found_!);
cupiō nē veniat, _I desire that he may not come_.
a. The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs of
this class. (See § 295, 8.) Examples are: velim scrībās, _I wish you
would write_; vellem scrīpsisset, _I wish he had written_.
2. With expressions of _fearing_ (timeō, metuō, vereor, etc.). Here nē
means _that_, _lest_, and ut means _that not_; as,--
timeō nē veniat, _I fear that he will come_ (originally: _may he not
come! I'm afraid_ [_he will_]);
timeō ut veniat, _I fear that he will not come_ (originally: _may he
come! I'm afraid_ [_he won't_]).
a. Nē nōn sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of
_fearing_ has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some
particular word in the dependent clause; as,--
nōn vereor ne hōc nōn fīat, _I am not afraid that this will not
happen;_
vereor nē exercitum fīrmum habēre nōn possit, _I fear that he is
unable_ (nōn possit) _to have a strong army._
C. Substantive Clauses of Result.
297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut, ut nōn) are a
development of pure Result clauses, and occur with the following classes of
words:--
1. As object clauses after verbs of _doing_, _accomplishing_ (especially
faciō, efficiō, cōnficiō). Thus:--
gravitās morbī facit ut medicīnā egeāmus, _the severity of disease
makes us need medicine._
2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, efficitur,
accidit, ēvenit, contingit, accēdit, fierī potest, fore, sequitur,
relinquitur. Thus:--
ex quō efficitur, ut voluptās nōn sit summum bonum, _from which it
follows that pleasure is not the greatest good_;
ita fit, ut nēmō esse possit beātus, _thus it happens that no one can
be happy_;
accēdēbat ut nāvēs deessent, _another thing was the lack of ships_
(lit. _it was added that ships were lacking_).
3. As predicate or appositive after expressions like jūs est, mōs est,
cōnsuētūdō est; also after neuter pronouns, hōc, illud, etc. Thus:--
est mōs hominum ut nōlint eundem plūribus rēbus excellere, _it is the
way of men not to wish the same person to excel in many things._
D. Substantive Clauses introduced by _Quīn_.
298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quīn (used sometimes as subject,
sometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of
_doubt_, _omission,_ and the like, particularly after nōn dubitō, _I do not
doubt_; quis dubitat, _who doubts?_; nōn (haud) dubium est, _there is no
doubt_. The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples:--
quis dubitat quīn in virtūte dīvitiae sint, _who doubts that in virtue
there are riches?_
nōn dubium erat quīn ventūrus esset, _there was no doubt that he was
about to come._
a. In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes
takes the place of the quīn-clause after nōn dubitō; as,--
nōn dubitāmus inventōs esse, _we do not doubt that men were found_
b. Nōn dubitō, _I do not hesitate_, is regularly followed by the
Infinitive, though sometimes by a quīn-clause.
E. Substantive Clauses Introduced by _Quod_.
299. 1. Quod, _the fact that_, _that_, introduces Substantive Clauses in
the Indicative. This construction occurs especially--
a) In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hōc, id, illud, illa,
ex eō, inde, etc. Thus:--
illud est admīrātiōne dignum, quod captīvōs retinendōs cēnsuit, _this
is especially worthy of admiration, that he thought the prisoners ought
to be kept_;
hōc ūnō praestāmus vel maximē ferīs, quod colloquimur inter nōs, _in
this one respect we are especially superior to the beasts, that we talk
with each other_.
b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, mīror, etc.;
as,--
bene mihi ēvenit, quod mittor ad mortem, _it is well for me that I am
sent to death_;
bene fēcistī quod mānsistī, _you did well in remaining._
2. Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of _as
regards the fact that_. Thus:--
quod multitūdinem Germānōrum in Galliam trādūcō, id meī mūniendī causā
faciō, _as regards the fact that I am transporting a multitude of
Germans into Gaul, I am doing it for the sake of strengthening myself;_
quod mē Agamemnona aemulārī putās, falleris, _as regards your thinking
that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken_.
F. Indirect Questions.
300. 1. Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used after verbs of
_asking_, _inquiring_, _telling_, and the like. They take their verb in the
Subjunctive[56]. Like Direct Questions (see § 162) they may be introduced--
a) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs; as,--
dīc mihi ubi fuerīs, quid fēcerīs, _tell me where you were, what you
did_;
oculīs jūdicārī nōn potest in utram partem fluat Arar, _it cannot be
determined by the eye in which direction the Arar flows_;
bis bīna quot essent, nesciēbat, _he did not know how many two times
two were_.
NOTE.--Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from Relative
Clauses. The difference between the two appears clearly in the following:--
effugere nēmō id potest quod futūrum est, _no one can escape what is
destined to come to pass;_ but saepe autem ne ūtile quidem est scīre
quid futūrum sit, _but often it is not even useful to know what is
coming to pass._
b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning; as,--
Epamīnōndās quaesīvit num salvus esset clipeus, or salvusne esset
clipeus, _Epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe_;
disputātur num interīre virtūs in homine possit, _the question is
raised whether virtue can die in a man_;
ex Sōcrate quaesītum est nōnne Archelāum beātum putāret, _the question
was asked of Socrates whether he did not think Archelaus happy_.
NOTE.--Nōnne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaerō, as in the last
example above.
2. Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive of the
direct discourse; as,--
nesciō quid faciam, _I do not know what to do._ (Direct: quid faciam,
_what shall I do!_)
3. After verbs of _expectation_ and _endeavor_ (exspectō, cōnor, experior,
temptō) we sometimes find an Indirect Question introduced by sī; as,--
cōnantur sī perrumpere possint, _they try whether they can break
through._
a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted; as,--
pergit ad proximam spēluncam sī forte eō vēstīgia ferrent, _he
proceeded to the nearest cave (to see) if the tracks led thither._
4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in the main by the same
particles as direct double questions (§ 162, 4); viz.;--
utrum ... an;
-ne ... an;
---- ... an;
---- ... ne.
Examples:--
quaerō utrum vērum an falsum sit, }
quaerō vērumne an falsum sit, } _I ask whether it_
quaerō vērum an falsum sit, } _is true or false?_
quaerō vērum falsumne sit, }
a. _'Or not'_ in the second member of the double question is ordinarily
expressed by necne, less frequently by an nōn; as,--
dī utrum sint necne, quaeritur, _it is asked whether there are gods or
not._
5. Haud sciō an, nesciō an, by omission of the first member of the double
question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense: _I am inclined to think,
probably, perhaps;_ as,--
haud sciō an ita sit, _I am inclined to think this is so._
6. In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in
indirect Questions.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
301. Conditional Sentences are compound sentences (§ 164) consisting of two
parts, the Protasis (or _condition_), usually introduced by sī, nisi, or
sīn, and the Apodosis (or _conclusion_). There are the following types of
Conditional Sentences:--
First Type.--Nothing Implied as to the Reality of the Supposed Case.
302. 1. Here we regularly have the Indicative in both Protasis and
Apodosis. Any tense may be used; as,--
sī hōc crēdis, errās, _if you believe this, you are mistaken_;
nātūram sī sequēmur, numquam aberrābimus, _if we follow Nature, we
shall never go astray_;
sī hōc dīxistī, errāstī, _if you said this, you were in error_.
2. Sometimes the Protasis takes the Indefinite Second Person Singular (§
356, 3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of the
Indicative; as,--
memoria minuitur, nisi eam exerceās, _memory is impaired unless you
exercise it_.
3. Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Protasis
denotes a repeated action (compare §§ 287, 2; 288, 3); as,--
sī quis equitum dēciderat, peditēs circumsistēbant, _if any one of the
horsemen fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about him_.
a. Instead of the Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ the
Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote repeated
action; as,--
sī dīcendō quis diem eximeret, _if (ever) anybody consumed a day in
pleading_; sī quandō adsidēret, _if ever he sat by_.
4. Where the sense demands it, the Apodosis in conditional sentences of the
First Type may be an Imperative or one of the Independent Subjunctives
(Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.); as,--
sī hōc crēditis, tacēte, _if you believe this, be silent_;
sī hōc crēdimus, taceāmus, _if we believe this, let us keep silent_.
Second Type.--'Should'-'Would' Conditions.
303. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Present or Perfect
tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis; as,--
sī hōc dīcās, errēs, or sī hōc dīxerīs, errāverīs, _if you should say
this, you would be mistaken_;
sī velim Hannibalis proelia omnia dēscrībere, diēs mē dēficiat, _if I
should wish to describe all the battles of Hannibal, time would fail
me_;
mentiar, sī negem, _I should lie, if I should deny it_;
haec sī tēcum patria loquātur, nōnne impetrāre dēbeat, _if your country
should plead thus with you, would she not deserve to obtain her
request?_
a. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type
is of the Potential variety.
b. Sometimes we find the Indicative in the Apodosis of sentences of the
Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the accomplishment of a
result more positively; as,--
aliter sī faciat, nūllam habet auctōritātem, _if he should do
otherwise, he has no authority_.
Third Type.--Supposed Case Represented as Contrary to Fact.
304. 1. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive in both Protasis and
Apodosis, the Imperfect referring _to present time_, and the Pluperfect
referring _to past_; as,--
sī amīcī meī adessent, opis nōn indigērem, _if my friends were here, I
should not lack assistance_;
sī hōc dīxissēs, errāssēs, _if you had said this, you would have
erred_;
sapientia nōn expeterētur, sī nihil efficeret, _philosophy would not be
desired, if it accomplished nothing_;
cōnsilium, ratiō, sententia nisi essent in senibus, nōn summum
cōnsilium majōrēs nostrī appellāssent senātum, _unless deliberation,
reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ancestors would not have
called their highest deliberative body a senate_.
2. Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is found referring to the past,
especially to denote _a continued act, or a state of things still
existing_; as,--
Laelius, Fūrius, Catō sī nihil litterīs adjuvārentur, numquam sē ad
eārum studium contulissent, _Laelius, Furius, and Cato would never have
devoted themselves to the study of letters, unless they had been
(constantly) helped by them_;
num igitur sī ad centēsimum annum vīxisset, senectūtis eum suae
paenitēret, _if he had lived to his hundredth year, would he have
regretted (and now be regretting) his old age?_
3. The Apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes stands in
the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz.--
a) Frequently in expressions of _ability_, _obligation_, or _necessity_;
as,--
nisi fēlīcitās in sōcordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuērunt, _unless
their prosperity had turned to folly, they could have thrown off the
yoke_;
NOTE.--In sentences of this type, however, it is not the _possibility_ that
is represented as-contrary-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought
from the context. Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is
_et exuissent_ understood (_and they would have shaken it off_). When the
_possibility_ itself is conditioned, the Subjunctive is used.
eum patris locō colere dēbēbās, sī ūlla in tē pietās esset, _you ought
to revere him as a father, if you had any sense of devotion_.
b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations; as,--
sī Sēstius occīsus esset, fuistisne ad arma itūrī, _if Sestius had been
slain, would you have proceeded to arms?_
sī ūnum diem morātī essētis, moriendum omnibus fuit, _if you had
delayed one day, you would all have had to die_.
Protasis expressed without _Sī_.
305. 1. The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with sī, but may
be implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context; as,--
aliōquī haec nōn scrīberentur, _otherwise_ (i.e. if matters were
otherwise) _these things would not be written_;
nōn potestis, voluptāte omnia dīrigentēs, retinēre virtūtem, _you
cannot retain virtue, if you direct everything with reference to
pleasure_.
2. Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive, serves as Protasis.
Thus:--
crās petitō, dabitur, _if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given you_
(lit. _ask to-morrow_, etc.);
haec reputent, vidēbunt, _if they consider this, they will see_ (lit.
_let them consider_, etc.);
rogēs Zēnōnem, respondeat, _if you should ask Zeno, he would answer_.
Use of _Nisi_, _Sī Nōn_, _Sīn_.
306. 1. Nisi, _unless_, negatives the entire protasis; sī nōn negatives a
single word; as,--
ferreus essem, nisi tē amārem, _I should be hard-hearted unless I loved
you_; but--
ferreus essem, sī tē nōn amārem, _I should be hard-hearted if I did
_NOT_ love you_.
In the first example, it is the notion of _loving you_ that is negatived,
in the second, the notion of _loving_.
2. Sī nōn (sī minus) is regularly employed:--
a) When an apodosis with at, tamen, certē follows; as,--
dolōrem sī nōn potuerō frangere, tamen occultābō, _if I cannot crush my
sorrow, yet I will hide it._
b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form; as,--
sī fēceris, magnam habēbō grātiam; sī nōn fēceris, ignōscam, _if you do
it, I shall be deeply grateful; if you do not do it, I shall pardon
you_.
a. But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus or sin
minus is admissible; as,--
hōc sī assecūtus sum, gaudeō; sī minus, mē cōnsōlor, _if I have
attained this, I am glad; if not, I console myself_.
3. Sīn. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in meaning, but
affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sīn; as,--
hunc mihi timōrem ēripe; sī vērus est, nē opprimar, sīn falsus, ut
timēre dēsinam, _relieve me of this fear; if it is well founded, that I
may not be destroyed; but if it is groundless, that I may cease to
fear_.
4. Nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives (nōn, nēmō, nihil);
as,--
nihil cōgitāvit nisi caedem, _he had no thought but murder_.
a. Nōn and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity.
5. Nisi forte, nisi vērō, nisi sī, _unless perchance, unless indeed_ (often
with ironical force), take the Indicative; as,--
nisi vērō, quia perfecta rēs nōn est, nōn vidētur pūnienda, _unless
indeed, because an act is not consummated, it does not seem to merit
punishment_.
Conditional Clauses of Comparison.
307. 1. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are introduced by the particles,
ac sī, ut sī, quasi, quam sī, tamquam sī, velut sī, or simply by velut or
tamquam. They stand in the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an
ellipsis (see § 374, 1), as indicated in the following examples:--
tantus patrēs metus cēpit, velut sī jam ad portās hostis esset, _as
great fear seized the senators as (would have seized them) if the enemy
were already at the gates_;
sed quid ego hīs testibus ūtor quasi rēs dubia aut obscūra sit, _but
why do I use these witnesses, as (I should do) if the matter were
doubtful or obscure_;
serviam tibi tam quasi ēmerīs mē argentō, _I will serve you as though
you had bought me for money_.
2. Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regular
principles for the Sequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses the
Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third examples),
where the English uses the Past and Past Perfect.
Concessive Clauses.
308. The term 'Concessive' is best restricted to those clauses developed
from the Jussive Subjunctive which have the force of _granted that_, etc.;
(see § 278) as,--
sit fūr, sit sacrilegus, at est bonus imperātor, _granted that he is a
thief and a robber, yet he is a good commander_;
haec sint falsa, _granted that this is false_;
nē sit summum malum dolor, malum certē est, _granted that pain is not
the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil_.
Adversative Clauses with _Quamvīs_, _Quamquam_, etc.
309. Clauses introduced by quamvīs, quamquam, etsī, tametsī, cum,
_although_, while often classed as 'Concessive,' are yet essentially
different from genuine Concessive clauses. As a rule, they do not _grant_
or _concede_ anything, but rather state that something is true _in spite of
something else_. They accordingly emphasize the adversative idea, and are
properly Subordinate Adversative Clauses. The different particles used to
introduce these clauses have different meanings and take different
constructions, as follows:--
1. Quamvīs, _however much_, _although_, does not introduce a statement of
fact, but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed by the
Subjunctive, usually of the present tense; as,--
hominēs quamvīs in turbidīs rēbus sint, tamen interdum animīs
relaxantur, _in however stirring events men may engage, yet at times
they relax their energies;_
nōn est potestās opitulandī reī pūblicae quamvīs ea premātur perīculīs,
_there is no opportunity to succor the state, though it be beset by
dangers._
2. Quamquam, etsī, tametsī, _although_, introduce a statement of fact, and
are followed by the Indicative (of any tense); as,--
quamquam omnis virtūs nōs allicit, tamen jūstitia id maximē efficit,
_although all virtue attracts us, yet justice does so especially;_
Caesar, etsī nōndum cōnsilium hostium cognōverat, tamen id quod accidit
suspicābātur, _Caesar, though he did not yet know the plans of the
enemy, yet was suspecting what actually occurred_.
a. Etsī, _although_, must be distinguished from etsī, _even if_. The
latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions
admissible for sī. (See §§ 302-304.)
3. Cum, _although_, is followed by the Subjunctive; as,--
Atticus honōrēs nōn petiit, cum eī patērent, _Atticus did not seek
honors, though they were open to him_.
4. Licet sometimes loses its verbal force (see § 295, 6) and sinks to the
level of a conjunction with the force of _although_. It takes the
Subjunctive, Present or Perfect; as,--
licet omnēs terrōrēs impendeant, succurram, _though all terrors hang
over me, (yet) I will lend aid_.
5. Quamquam, with the force _and yet_, is often used to introduce principal
clauses; as,--
quamquam quid loquor, _and yet why do I speak?_
6. In post-Augustan writers quamquam is freely construed with the
Subjunctive, while quamvīs is often used to introduce statements of fact,
and takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Thus:--
quamquam movērētur hīs vōcibus, _although he was moved by these words_;
quamvīs multī opīnārentur, _though many thought_;
quamvīs īnfēstō animō pervēnerās, _though you had come with hostile
intent_.
Clauses with _Dum_, _Modo_, _Dummodo_, denoting a Wish or a Proviso.
310. These particles are followed by the Subjunctive (negative nē) and have
two distinct uses:--
I. They are used to introduce clauses _embodying a wish_ entertained by the
subject of the leading verb; as,--
multī honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam cōnsequantur, _many neglect
honor in their desire to obtain power_ (_if only they may attain_);
omnia postposuī, dum praeceptīs patris pārērem, _I made everything else
secondary, in my desire to obey the injunctions of my father_;
nīl obstat tibi, dum nē sit dītior alter, _nothing hinders you in your
desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you_.
II. They are used to express a _proviso_ ('_provided that_'); as,--
ōderint, dum metuant, _let them hate, provided they fear_;
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria, _old men
retain their faculties, provided only they retain their interest and
vigor_;
nūbant, dum nē dōs fiat comes, _let them marry, provided no dowry goes
with it_.
Relative Clauses.
311. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pronouns, Adjectives, or
Adverbs.
312. 1. Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood, especially
clauses introduced by those General Relatives which are doubled or have the
suffix -oumque; as,--
quidquid id est, timeō Danaōs et dōna ferentēs, _whatever it is, I fear
the Greeks even when they offer gifts;_
quidquid oritur, quālecumque est, causam ā nātūrā habet, _whatever
comes into being, of whatever sort it is, has its primal cause in
Nature._
2. Any simple Relative may introduce a conditional sentence of any of the
three types mentioned in §§ 302-304; as,--
quī hōc dīcit, errat, _he who says this is mistaken_ (First Type);
quī hōc dīcat, erret, _he would be mistaken who should say this_
(Second Type);
quī hōc dīxisset, errāsset, _the man who had said this would have been
mistaken._
INDIRECT DISCOURSE (_ŌRĀTIŌ OBLĪQUA_).
313. When the language or thought of any person is reproduced without
change, that is called Direct Discourse (_Ōrātiō Recta_); as, _Caesar said,
'The die is cast.'_ When, on the other hand, one's language or thought is
made to depend upon a verb of _saying_, _thinking_, etc., that is called
Indirect Discourse (_Ōrātiō Oblīqua_); as, _Caesar said that the die was
cast; Caesar thought that his troops were victorious._
a. For the verbs most frequently employed to introduce Indirect
Discourse, see § 331.
MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Declarative Sentences.
314. 1. Declarative Sentences upon becoming Indirect change their main
clause to the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, while all subordinate
clauses take the Subjunctive; as,--
Rēgulus dīxit quam diū jūre jūrandō hostium tenērētur nōn esse sē
senātōrem, _Regulus said that as long as he was held by his pledge to
the enemy he was not a senator._ (Direct: quam diū teneor nōn sum
senātor.)
2. The verb of _saying_, _thinking_, etc., is sometimes to be inferred from
the context; as,--
tum Rōmulus lēgātōs circā vīcīnās gentēs mīsit quī societātem
cōnūbiumque peterent: urbēs quoque, ut cētera, ex īnfimō nāscī, _then
Romulus sent envoys around among the neighboring tribes, to ask for
alliance and the right of intermarriage, (saying that) cities, like
everything else, start from a modest beginning_.
3. Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of the writer
and so are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, or which
emphasize the fact stated, take the Indicative; as,--
nūntiātum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontiōnem, quod est oppidum
maximum Sēquanōrum contendere, _it was reported that Ariovistus was
hastening to seize Vesontio, which is the largest town of the Sequani_.
4. Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form, and in
sense is principal. It then takes the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where quī is equivalent
to et hīc, nam hīc, etc.; as,--
dīxit urbem Athēniēnsium prōpugnāculum oppositum esse barbarīs, apud
quam jam bis classēs rēgiās fēcisse naufragium, _he said the city of
the Athenians had been set against the barbarians like a bulwark, near
which (= and near it) the fleets of the King had twice met disaster_.
5. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted when it
refers to the same person as the subject of the leading verb, or can easily
be supplied from the context; as,--
cum id nescīre Māgō dīceret, _when Mago said he did not know this_ (for
sē nescīre).
Interrogative Sentences.
315. 1. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon becoming indirect, are
regularly put in the Subjunctive; as,--
Ariovistus Caesarī respondit: sē prius in Galliam vēnisse quam populum
Rōmānum. Quid sibi vellet? Cūr in suās possessiōnēs venīret,
_Ariovistus replied to Caesar that he had come into Gaul before the
Roman people. What did he (Caesar) mean? Why did he come into his
domain?_ (Direct: quid tibi vīs? cūr in meās possessiōnēs venīs?)
2. Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked merely for effect,
and being equivalent in force to emphatic statements, regularly stand in
the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse. Thus :--
quid est levius (lit. _what is more trivial_, = nothing is more
trivial) of the Direct Discourse becomes quid esse levius in the
Indirect.
3. Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain unchanged in
mood in the Indirect: as,--
quid faceret, _what was he to do?_ (Direct: quid faciat?)
Imperative Sentences.
316. All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse appear
as Subjunctives in the Indirect; as,--
mīlitēs certiōrēs fēcit paulisper intermitterent proelium, _he told the
soldiers to stop the battle for a little_. (Direct: intermittite.)
a. The negative in such sentences is nē; as,--
nē suae virtūtī tribueret, _let him not attribute it to his own valor!_
TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
A. Tenses of the Infinitive.
317. These are used in accordance with the regular principles for the use
of the Infinitive as given in § 270.
a. The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the Indicative
of Direct Discourse. Thus:--
sciō tē haec ēgisse may mean--
_I know you were doing this_.(Direct: haec agēbās.)
_I know you did this_. (Direct: haec ēgistī.)
_I know you had done this_. (Direct: haec ēgerās.)
B. Tenses of the Subjunctive.
318. These follow the regular principle for the Sequence of Tenses, being
Principal if the verb of _saying_ is Principal; Historical if it is
Historical. Yet for the sake of vividness, we often find the Present
Subjunctive used after an historical tense (_Repraesentātiō_); as,--
Caesar respondit, sī obsidēs dentur, sēsē pācem esse factūrum, _Caesar
replied that, if hostages be given, he would make peace_.
a. For the sequence after the Perfect Infinitive, see § 268, 2.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Conditional Sentences of the First Type.
319. A. THE APODOSIS. Any tense of the Indicative is changed to the
corresponding tense of the Infinitive (§§ 270; 317, a).
B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive which
are required by the Sequence of Tenses.
Examples:--
DIRECT. INDIRECT.
sī hōc crēdis, errās, dīcō, sī hōc crēdās, tē errāre;
dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errāre.
sī hōc crēdēs, errābis, dīcō, sī hōc crēdās, tē errātūrum
esse;
dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errātūrum
esse.
sī hōc crēdideris, errābis, dīcō, sī hōc crēderīs, tē errātūrum
esse;
dīxī, sī hōc crēdidissēs, tē errātūrum
esse.
sī hōc crēdēbās, errāvistī, dīcō, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errāvisse;
dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errāvisse.
a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse
regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after a
principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical
tense.
Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.
320. A. THE APODOSIS. The Present Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse
regularly becomes the Future Infinitive of the Indirect.
B. THE PROTASIS. The Protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive
demanded by the sequence of tenses.
Examples:--
sī hōc crēdās, errēs, dīcō, sī hōc crēdās, tē errātūrum
esse;
dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errātūrum
esse;
Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.
321. A. THE APODOSIS.
1. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes the Future
Infinitive.
a. But this construction is rare, being represented in the classical
Latinity by a single example (Caesar, V. 29. 2). Some scholars question
the correctness of this passage.
2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes:--
a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -ūrus fuisse.
b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futūrum fuisse ut with the
Imperfect Subjunctive.
B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis in Conditional Sentences of this type always
remains unchanged.
Examples:--
sī hōc crēderēs, errārēs, dīcō (dīxī), sī hōc crēderēs, tē
errātūrum esse;
sī hōc crēdidissēs, dīcō (dīxī), sī hōc crēdidissēs, tē
errāvissēs, errātūrum fuisse;
sī hōc dīxissēs, pūnītus dīcō (dīxī), sī hōc dīxissēs, futūrum
essēs. fuisse ut pūnīrēris.
322. When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third Type referring
to the past is at the same time a Result clause or a quīn-clause (after nōn
dubitō, etc.), it stands in the Perfect Subjunctive in the form -ūrus
fuerim; as,--
ita territī sunt, ut arma trāditūrī fuerint,[57] nisi Caesar subitō
advēnisset, _they were so frightened that they would have given up
their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived_;
nōn dubitō quīn, sī hōc dīxissēs, errātūrus fuerīs,[57] _I do not doubt
that, if you had said this, you would have made a mistake_.
a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive, such
sentences, when they become dependent, remain unchanged; as,--
nōn dubitō quīn, sī hōc dīxissēs, vituperātus essēs, _I do not doubt
that, if you had said this, you would have been blamed_.
b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a conditional
sentence of the Third Type, -ūrus fuerim (rarely -ūrus fuissem) is used;
as,--
quaerō, num, sī hōc dīxissēs, errātūrus fuerīs (or fuissēs).
c. Potuī, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this Type,
usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive; as,--
concursū tōtīus civitātis dēfēnsī sunt, ut frīgidissimōs quoque
ōrātōrēs populī studia excitāre potuerint, _they were defended before a
gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people would
have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators_.
IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose indirect
character is _merely implied by the context_; as,--
dēmōnstrābantur mihi praetereā, quae Sōcratēs dē immortālitāte animōrum
disseruisset, _there were explained to me besides, the arguments which
Socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul_ (i.e.
the arguments which, it was said, Socrates had set forth);
Paetus omnēs librōs quōs pater suus relīquisset mihi dōnāvit, _Paetus
gave me all the books which (as he said) his father had left_.
SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION.
324. 1. Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive are frequently
attracted into the same mood especially when they do not express a fact,
but constitute _an essential part of one complex idea_; as,--
nēmō avārus adhūc inventus est, cui, quod habēret, esset satis, _no
miser has yet been found who was satisfed with what he had_;
cum dīversās causās afferrent, dum fōrmam suī quisque et animī et
ingeniī redderent, _as they brought forward different arguments, while
each mirrored his own individual type of mind and natural bent_;
quod ego fatear, pudeat? _should I be ashamed of a thing which I
admit?_
2. Similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive is put in
the Subjunctive when the two form one closely united whole; as,--
mōs est Athēnīs quotannīs in cōntiōne laudārī eōs quī sint in proeliīs
interfectī, _it is the custom at Athens every year for those to be
publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle_. (Here the notion of
'praising those who fell in battle' forms an inseparable whole.)
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.
325. These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and Supine. All of these
partake of the nature of the Verb, on the one hand, and of the Noun or
Adjective, on the other. Thus:--
As Verbs,--
a) They may be limited by adverbs;
b) They admit an object;
c) They have the properties of voice and tense.
As Nouns or Adjectives,--
a) They are declined;
b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions.
THE INFINITIVE.
Infinitive without Subject Accusative.
326. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or
Appositive.
NOTE.--The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still
to be seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express _purpose_; as,
nec dulcēs occurrent ōscula nātī praeripere, _and no sweet children will
run to snatch kisses_.
_A. As Subject._
327. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Subject of
esse and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est,
oportet, juvat, dēlectat, placet, libet, licet, praestat, decet, pudet,
interest, etc.; as,--
dulce et decōrum est prō patriā morī, _it is sweet and noble to die for
one's country_;
virōrum est fortium toleranter dolōrem patī, _it is the part of brave
men to endure pain with patience_;
senātuī placuit lēgātōs mittere, _the Senate decided_ (lit. _it pleased
the Senate_) _to send envoys_.
2. Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may take a
Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative; as,--
aliud est īrācundum esse, aliud īrātum, _it is one thing to be
irascible, another to be angry_;
impūne quaelibet facere, id est rēgem esse, _to do whatever you please
with impunity, that is to be a king_.
a. But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate Noun
or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as, licuit esse
ōtiōsō Themistoclī, lit. _it was permitted to Themistocles to be at
leisure_. So sometimes with other Impersonals.
_B. As Object._
328. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Object of
many verbs, to denote another action of the same subject, particularly
after--
volō, cupiō, mālō, nōlō, dēbeo, cōgitō, meditor, _purpose_,
_ought_; _intend_;
statuō, cōnstituō, _decide_; neglegō, _neglect_;
audeō, _dare_; vereor, timeō, _fear_;
studeō, contendō, _strive_; mātūrō, festīnō, properō, contendō,
parō, _prepare_ (so parātus); _hasten_;
incipiō, coepī, īnstituō, assuēscō, cōnsuēscō, _accustom
_begin_; myself_ (so assuētus, īnsuētus,
pergō, _continue_; assuēfactus);
dēsinō, dēsistō, _cease_; discō, _learn_;
possum, _can_; sciō, _know how_;
cōnor, _try_; soleō, _am wont_;
as,--
tū hōs intuērī audēs, _do you dare to look on these men_?
Dēmosthenēs ad flūctūs maris dēclāmāre solēbat, _Demosthenes used to
declaim by the waves of the sea_.
2. A Predicate Noun or Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted into
the Nominative; as,--
beātus esse sine virtūte nēmō potest, _no one can be happy without
virtue_;
Catō esse quam vidērī bonus mālēbat, _Cato preferred to be good rather
than to seem so_.
Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
329. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or
Appositive.
_A. As Subject._
330. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the simple Infinitive) is
used as Subject with esse and Impersonal verbs, particularly with aequum
est, ūtile est, turpe est, fāma est, spēs est, fās est, nefās est, opus
est, necesse est, oportet, cōnstat, praestat, licet, etc.; as,--
nihil in bellō oportet contemnī, _nothing ought to be despised in war_;
apertum est sibi quemque nātūrā esse cārum, _it is manifest that by
nature everybody is dear to himself_.
_B. As Object._
331. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as Object after the
following classes of verbs:
1. Most frequently after verbs of _saying_, _thinking_, _knowing_,
_perceiving_, and the like (_Verba Sentiendi et Dēclārandī_). This is the
regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse. Verbs that
take this construction are, among others, the following: sentiō, audiō,
videō, cognōscō; putō, jūdicō, spērō, cōnfīdō; sciō, meminī; dicō, affīrmō,
negō (_say that ... not_), trādō, nārrō, fateor, respondeō, scrībō,
prōmittō, glōrior. Also the phrases: certiōrem faciō (_inform_), memoriā
teneō (_remember_), etc.
Examples:--
Epicūrēī putant cum corporibus simul animōs interīre, _the Epicureans
think that the soul perishes with the body_;
Thalēs dīxit aquam esse initium rērum, _Thales said that water was the
first principle of the universe_;
Dēmocritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum, _Democritus says nothing is
everlasting;_
spērō eum ventūrum esse, _I hope that he will come_.
II. With jubeō, _order_, and vetō, _forbid_; as,--
Caesar mīlitēs pontem facere jussit, _Caesar ordered the soldiers to
make a bridge_.
a. When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do
something is omitted, the Infinitive with jubeō and vetō is put in the
Passive; as, Caesar pontem fierī jussit.
III. With patior and sinō, _permit_, _allow_; as,--
nūllō sē implicārī negōtiō passus est, _he did not permit himself to be
involved in any difficulty_.
IV. With volō, nōlō, mālō, cupiō, when the Subject of the Infinitive is
different from that of the governing verb; as,--
nec mihi hunc errōrem extorquērī volō, _nor do I wish this error to be
wrested from me_;
eās rēs jactārī nōlēbat, _he was unwilling that these matters should be
discussed_;
tē tuā fruī virtūte cupimus, _we desire that you enjoy your worth_.
a. When the Subject of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive is
regularly used in accordance with § 328, 1. But exceptions occur,
especially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives as,--
cupiō mē esse clēmentem, _I desire to be lenient_;
Tīmoleōn māluit sē diligī quam metuī, _Timoleon preferred to be loved
rather than feared_.
b. Volō also admits the Subjunctive, with or without ut; nōlō the
Subjunctive alone. (See § 296, 1, a.)
V. With Verbs of _emotion_ (_joy_, _sorrow_, _regret_, etc.), especially
gaudeō, laetor, doleō; aegrē ferō, molestē ferō, graviter ferō, _am
annoyed_, _distressed_; mīror, queror, indignor; as,--
gaudeō tē salvum advenīre, _I rejoice that you arrive safely_;
nōn molestē ferunt sē libīdinum vinculīs laxātōs ēsse, _they are not
troubled at being released from the bonds of passion_;
mīror tē ad mē nihil scrībere, _I wonder that you write me nothing_.
a. Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a quod-
clause as Object. (See § 299.) Thus:--
mīror quod nōn loqueris, _I wonder that you do not speak_.
VI. Some verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and the other
of the Thing (§ 178, 1), may substitute an Infinitive for the second
Accusative; as,--
cōgō tē hōc facere, _I compel you to do this_ (_cf._ tē hōc cōgō);
docuī tē contentum esse, _I taught you to be content_ (_cf._ tē
modestiam docuī, _I taught you temperance_).
Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.
332. Those verbs which in the Active are followed by the Infinitive with
Subject Accusative, usually admit the personal construction of the Passive.
This is true of the following and of some others:--
a) jubeor, vetor, sinor; as,--
mīlitēs pontem facere jussī sunt, _the soldiers were ordered to build a
bridge_;
pōns fierī jussus est, _a bridge was ordered built_;
mīlitēs castrīs exīre vetitī sunt, _the troops were forbidden to go out
of the camp_;
Sēstius Clōdium accūsāre nōn est situs, _Sestius was not allowed to
accuse Clodius_.
b) videor, _I am seen_, _I seem_; as,--
vidētur comperisse, _he seems to have discovered_.
c) dīcor, putor, exīstimor, jūdicor (in all persons); as,--
dīcitur in Italiam vēnisse, _he is said to have come into Italy_;
Rōmulus prīmus rēx Rōmānōrum fuisse putātur, _Romulus is thought to
have been the first king of the Romans_.
d) fertur, feruntur, trāditur, trāduntur (only in the third person);
as,--
fertur Homērus caecus fuisse, _Homer is said to have been blind_;
carmina Archilochī contumēliīs referta esse trāduntur, _Archilochus's
poems are reported to have been full of abuse_.
NOTE.--In compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of
verbs, c), d), more commonly take the impersonal construction; as--
trāditum est Homērum caecum fuisse, _the story goes that Homer was
blind_.
Infinitive with Adjectives.
333. The Infinitive with Adjectives (except parātus, assuētus, etc.; see §
328, 1) occurs only in poetry and post-Augustan prose writers; as,--
contentus dēmōnstrāsse, _contented to have proved_;
audāx omnia perpetī, _bold for enduring everything_.
Infinitive in Exclamations.
334. The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying _scorn_,
_indignation_, or _regret_. An intensive -ne is often attached to some word
in the clause. Examples:--
huncine sōlem tam nigrum surrēxe mihi, _to think that to-day's sun rose
with such evil omen for me!_
sedēre tōtōs diēs in vīllā, _to stay whole days at the villa_.
Historical Infinitive.
335. The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the
Imperfect Indicative. The Subject stands in the Nominative; as,--
interim cottīdiē Caesar Haeduōs frūmentum flāgitāre, _meanwhile Caesar
was daily demanding grain of the Haedui_.
PARTICIPLES.
Tenses of the Participle.
336. 1. The tenses of the Participle, like those of the infinitive (see §
270), express time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb upon
which the Participle depends.
2. The Present Participle denotes action _contemporary with_ that of the
verb. Thus:--
audiō tē loquentem = _you_ ARE _speaking and I hear you_;
audiēbam tē loquentem = _you_ WERE _speaking and I heard you_;
audiam tē loquentem = _you_ WILL BE _speaking and I shall hear you._
a. The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative force;
as,--
assurgentem rēgem resupīnat, _as the king was trying to rise, he threw
him down._
3. The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action _prior to_ that of the
verb. Thus:--
locūtus taceō = _I_ HAVE _spoken and am silent_;
locūtus tacui = _I_ HAD _spoken and then was silent_;
locūtus tacēbō = _I_ SHALL _speak and then shall be silent._
4. The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, is
determined entirely by the finite verb with which it is connected.
5. Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs
are used as Presents; viz. arbitrātus, ausus, ratus, gāvīsus, solitus,
ūsus, cōnfīsus, diffīsus, secūtus, veritus.
Use of Participles.
337. As an Adjective the Participle may be used either as an attributive or
predicate modifier of a Substantive.
1. Attributive Use. This presents no special peculiarities. Examples are:--
glōria est cōnsentiēns laus bonōrum, _glory is the unanimous praise of
the good_;
Conōn mūrōs ā Lysandrō dīrutōs reficit, _Conon restored the walls
destroyed by Lysander._
2. Predicate Use. Here the Participle is often equivalent to a subordinate
clause. Thus the Participle may denote:--
a) Time; as,--
omne malum nāscēns facile opprimitur, _every evil is easily crushed at
birth._
b) A Condition; as,--
mente ūtī nōn possumus cibō et pōtiōne complētī, _if gorged with food
and drink, we cannot use our intellects_.
c) Manner; as,--
Solōn senēscere sē dīcēbat multa in diēs addiscentem, _Solon said he
grew old learning many new things daily._
d) Means; as,--
sōl oriēns diem cōnficit, _the sun, by its rising, makes the day._
e) Opposition ('_though_'); as,--
mendācī hominī nē vērum quidem dīcentī crēdimus, _we do not believe a
liar, though he speaks the truth._
f) Cause; as,--
perfidiam veritus ad suōs recessit, _since he feared treachery, he
returned to his own troops._
3. Videō and audiō, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Participle in
the Predicate use; as,--
videō tē fugientem, _I see you fleeing._
a. So frequently faciō, fingō, indūcō, etc.; as,--
eīs Catōnem respondentem facimus, _we represent Cato replying to them_;
Homērus Laërtem colentem agrum facit, _Homer represents Laërtes tilling
the field._
4. The Future Active Participle (except futūrus) is regularly confined to
its use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later writers it
is used independently, especially to denote _purpose_; as,--
vēnērunt castra oppugnātūrī, _they came to assault the camp._
5. The Perfect Passive Participle is often equivalent to a coördinate
clause; as,--
urbem captam dīruit, _he captured and destroyed the city_ (lit. _he
destroyed the city captured_).
6. The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is sometimes
equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive; as,--
post urbem conditam, _after the founding of the city_;
Quīnctius dēfēnsus, _the defense of Quinctius_;
quibus animus occupātus, _the preoccupation of the mind with which._
7. Habeō sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predicate
construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect or
Pluperfect Indicative; as,--
equitātus quem coāctum habēbat, _the cavalry which he had collected._
8. The Gerundive denotes _obligation_, _necessity_, etc. Like other
Participles it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate.
a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus:--
liber legendus, _a book worth reading_;
lēgēs observandae, _laws deserving of observance_.
b) More frequently as Predicate.
1) In the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (amandus est, etc.). In this
use Intransitive Verbs can be used only impersonally, but admit their
ordinary case-construction (Gen., Dat., Abl.); as,--
veniendum est, _it is necessary to come_;
oblīvīscendum est offēnsārum, _one must forget injuries_;
numquam prōditōrī crēdendum est, _you must never trust a traitor_;
suō cuique ūtendum est jūdiciō, _every man must use his own judgment_.
2) After cūrō, _provide for_; dō, trādō, _give over_; relinquō,
_leave_; concēdō, _hand over_, and some other verbs, instead of an
object clause, or to denote purpose; as,--
Caesar pontem in Ararī faciendum cūrāvit, _Caesar provided for the
construction of a bridge over the Arar_;
imperātor urbem mīlitibus dīripiendam concessit, _the general handed
over the city to the soldiers to plunder_.
9. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see § 339, 1.
THE GERUND.
338. As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun constructions as follows:--
1. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used--
a) With Nouns, as objective or Appositional Genitive (see §§ 200, 202);
as,--
cupiditās dominandī, _desire of ruling_;
ars scrībendī, _the art of writing_.
b) With Adjectives; as,--
cupidus audiendī, _desirous of hearing_.
c) With causā, grātiā; as,--
discendī causā, _for the sake of learning_.
2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used--
a) With Adjectives; as,--
aqua ūtilis est bibendō, _water is useful for drinking_.
b) With Verbs (rarely); as,--
adfuī scrībendō, _I was present at the writing_.
3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions,
chiefly ad and in to denote purpose; as,--
homō ad agendum nātus est, _man is born for action_.
4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used--
a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc. (see §§
218, 219); as,--
mēns discendō alitur et cōgitandō, _the mind is nourished by learning
and reflection_.
Themistoclēs maritimōs praedōnēs cōnsectandō mare tūtum reddidit,
_Themistocles made the sea safe by following up the pirates_.
b) After the prepositions ā, dē, ex, in; as,--
summa voluptās ex discendō capitur, _the keenest pleasure is derived
from learning_;
multa dē bene beātēque vīvendō ā Platōne disputāta sunt, _there was
much discussion by Plato on the subject of living well and happily_.
5. As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative (without a
preposition) admit a Direct Object.
Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund.
339. 1. Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a Direct
Object, another construction _may be, and very often is, used_. This
consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund (Gen. or
Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it. This is called the
Gerundive Construction. Thus:--
GERUND CONSTRUCTION. GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION.
cupidus urbem videndī, _desirous of cupidus urbis videndae;
seeing the city_.
dēlector ōrātōrēs legendō, _I am dēlector ōrātōribus legendīs
charmed with reading the orators_.
2. The Gerundive Construction _must be used_ to avoid a Direct Object with
the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon a Preposition;
as,--
locus castrīs mūniendīs aptus, _a place adapted to fortifying a camp_;
ad pācem petendam vēnērunt, _they came to ask peace_;
multum temporis cōnsūmō in legendīs poētīs, _I spend much time in
reading the poets_.
3. In order to avoid ambiguity (see § 236, 2), the Gerundive Construction
must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used substantively. Thus
regularly--
philosophī cupidī sunt vērum invēstīgandī, _philosophers are eager for
discovering truth_ (rarely vērī invēstīgandī);
studium plūra cognōscendī, _a desire of knowing more_ (not plūrium
cognōscendōrum).
4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used in the
Gerundive construction; but ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior (originally
transitive) regularly admit it; as,--
hostēs in spem potiundōrum castrōrum vēnerant, _the enemy had conceived
the hope of gaining possession of the camp_.
5. The Genitives meī, tuī, suī, nostrī, vestrī, when used in the Gerundive
Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number,
since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjectives used substantively.
Thus:--
mulier suī servandī causā aufūgit, _the woman fled for the sake of
saving herself_;
lēgātī in castra vēnērunt suī pūrgandī causā, _the envoys came into
camp for the purpose of clearing themselves_.
So nostrī servandī causā, _for the sake of saving ourselves_.
6. Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used to
denote _purpose_; as,--
quae ille cēpit lēgum ac lībertātis subvertundae, _which he undertook
for the purpose of overthrowing the laws and liberty_.
7. The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some expressions
which have the character of formulas; as,--
decemvirī lēgibus scrībundīs, _decemvirs for codifying the laws_;
quīndecimvirī sacrīs faciundīs, _quindecimvirs for performing the
sacrifices_.
THE SUPINE.
340. 1. The Supine in -um is used after Verbs of motion to express
_purpose_; as,--
lēgātī ad Caesarem grātulātum convēnērunt, _envoys came to Caesar to
congratulate him_.
a. The Supine in -um may take an Object; as,--
pācem petītum ōrātōrēs Rōmam mittunt, _they send envoys to Rome to ask
for peace_.
b. Note the phrase:--
dō (collocō) fīliam nūptum, _I give my daughter in marriage_.
2. The Supine in -ū is used as an Ablative of Specification with facilis,
difficilis, incrēdibilis, jūcundus, optimus, etc.; also with fās est, nefās
est, opus est; as,--
haec rēs est facilis cognitū, _this thing is easy to learn_;
hōc est optimum factū, _this is best to do_.
a. Only a few Supines in -ū are in common use, chiefly audītū, cognitū,
dictū, factū, vīsū.
b. The Supine in -ū never takes an Object.
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