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NEW LATIN GRAMMAR
BY
CHARLES E. BENNETT
Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin in Cornell University
_Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta_
_Percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles:_
_Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat._
--HORACE, _Ars Poetica_.
COPYRIGHT, 1895; 1908; 1918 BY CHARLES E. BENNETT
* * * * *
PREFACE.
The present work is a revision of that published in 1908. No radical
alterations have been introduced, although a number of minor changes will
be noted. I have added an Introduction on the origin and development of the
Latin language, which it is hoped will prove interesting and instructive to
the more ambitious pupil. At the end of the book will be found an Index to
the Sources of the Illustrative Examples cited in the Syntax.
C.E.B.
ITHACA, NEW YORK,
May 4, 1918
* * * * *
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
The present book is a revision of my _Latin Grammar_ originally published
in 1895. Wherever greater accuracy or precision of statement seemed
possible, I have endeavored to secure this. The rules for syllable division
have been changed and made to conform to the prevailing practice of the
Romans themselves. In the Perfect Subjunctive Active, the endings _-īs_,
_-īmus_, _-ītis_ are now marked long. The theory of vowel length before the
suffixes -gnus, -gna, -gnum, and also before j, has been discarded. In the
Syntax I have recognized a special category of Ablative of Association, and
have abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the
Prohibitive.
Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential modifications have
been introduced. In its main lines the work remains unchanged.
ITHACA, NEW YORK,
October 16, 1907.
* * * * *
FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
The object of this book is to present _the essential facts_ of Latin
grammar in a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest compass
consistent with scholarly standards. While intended primarily for the
secondary school, it has not neglected the needs of the college student,
and aims to furnish such grammatical information as is ordinarily required
in undergraduate courses.
The experience of foreign educators in recent years has tended to restrict
the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation of
the main principles of the language in compact manuals of 250 pages. Within
the past decade, several grammars of this scope have appeared abroad which
have amply met the most exacting demands.
The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope
seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent editions of
classic texts summarize in introductions the special idioms of grammar and
style peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense
with the enumeration of many _minutiae_ of usage which would otherwise
demand consideration in a student's grammar.
In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment
of the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as well as of the measures of
the comic poets. Our standard editions of these authors all give such
thorough consideration to versification that repetition in a separate place
seems superfluous.
ITHACA, NEW YORK,
December 15, 1894.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Introduction--The Latin language
PART I.
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC.
The Alphabet § 1
Classification of Sounds § 2
Sounds of the Letters § 3
Syllables § 4
Quantity § 5
Accent § 6
Vowel Changes § 7
Consonant Changes § 8
Peculiarities of Orthography § 9
PART II.
INFLECTIONS.
CHAPTER I.--_Declension._
A. NOUNS. § 10
Gender of Nouns § 13
Number § 16
Cases § 17
The Five Declensions § 18
First Declension § 20
Second Declension § 23
Third Declension § 28
Fourth Declension § 48
Fifth Declension § 51
Defective Nouns § 54
B. ADJECTIVES. § 62
Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions § 63
Adjectives of the Third Declension § 67
Comparison of Adjectives § 71
Formation and Comparison of Adverbs § 76
Numerals § 78
C. PRONOUNS. § 82
Personal Pronouns § 84
Reflexive Pronouns § 85
Possessive Pronouns § 86
Demonstrative Pronouns § 87
The Intensive Pronoun § 88
The Relative Pronoun § 89
Interrogative Pronouns § 90
Indefinite Pronouns § 91
Pronominal Adjectives § 92
CHAPTER II.--_Conjugation. § 93_
Verb Stems § 97
The Four Conjugations § 98
Conjugation of _Sum_ § 100
First Conjugation § 101
Second Conjugation § 103
Third Conjugation § 105
Fourth Conjugation § 107
Verbs in _-iō_ of the Third Conjugation § 109
Deponent Verbs § 112
Semi-Deponents § 114
Periphrastic Conjugation § 115
Peculiarities of Conjugation § 116
Formation of the Verb Stems § 117
List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts § 120
Irregular Verbs § 124
Defective Verbs § 133
Impersonal Verbs § 138
PART III.
PARTICLES. § 139
Adverbs § 140
Prepositions § 141
Interjections § 145
PART IV.
WORD FORMATION.
I. DERIVATIVES. § 146
Nouns § 147
Adjectives § 150
Verbs § 155
Adverbs § 157
II. COMPOUNDS. § 158
Examples of Compounds § 159
PART V.
SYNTAX.
CHAPTER I.--_Sentences._
Classification of Sentences § 161
Form of Interrogative Sentences § 162
Subject and Predicate § 163
Simple and Compound Sentences § 164
CHAPTER II.--_Syntax of Nouns._
Subject § 166
Predicate Nouns § 167
Appositives § 169
The Nominative § 170
The Accusative § 172
The Dative § 186
The Genitive § 194
The Ablative § 213
The Locative § 232
CHAPTER III.--_Syntax of Adjectives._
Agreement of Adjectives § 234
Adjectives used Substantively § 236
Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs § 239
Comparatives and Superlatives § 240
Other Peculiarities § 241
CHAPTER IV.--_Syntax of Pronouns._
Personal Pronouns § 242
Possessive Pronouns § 243
Reflexive Pronouns § 244
Reciprocal Pronouns § 245
Demonstrative Pronouns § 246
Relative Pronouns § 250
Indefinite Pronouns § 252
Pronominal Adjectives § 253
CHAPTER V.--_Syntax of Verbs._
Agreement of Verbs § 254
Voices § 256
Tenses
-- Of the Indicative § 257
-- Of the Subjunctive § 266
-- Of the Infinitive § 270
Moods
-- In Independent Sentences § 271
-- -- Volitive Subjunctive § 273
-- -- Optative Subjunctive § 279
-- -- Potential Subjunctive § 280
-- -- Imperative § 281
-- In Dependent Clauses
-- -- Clauses of Purpose § 282
-- -- Clauses of Characteristic § 283
-- -- Clauses of Result § 284
-- -- Causal Clauses § 285
-- -- Temporal Clauses
-- -- -- Introduced by _Postquam_, _Ut_, _Ubi_, etc. § 287
-- -- -- _Cum_-Clauses § 288
-- -- -- Introduced by _Antequam_ and _Priusquam_ § 291
-- -- -- Introduced by _Dum_, _Dōnec_, _Quoad_ § 293
-- -- Substantive Clauses § 294
-- -- -- Developed from the Volitive § 295
-- -- -- Developed from the Optative § 296
-- -- -- Of Result § 297
-- -- -- After _nōn dubito_, etc. § 298
-- -- -- Introduced by _Quod_ § 299
-- -- -- Indirect Questions § 300
-- -- Conditional Sentences § 301
-- -- Use of _Sī_, _Nisi_, _Sīn_ § 306
-- -- Conditional Clauses of Comparison § 307
-- -- Concessive Clauses § 308
-- -- Adversative Clauses with _Quamvīs_, _Quamquam_, etc. § 309
-- -- Clauses of Wish and Proviso § 310
-- -- Relative Clauses § 311
-- -- Indirect Discourse § 313
-- -- -- Moods in Indirect Discourse § 314
-- -- -- Tenses in Indirect Discourse § 317
-- -- -- Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse § 319
-- -- Implied Indirect Discourse § 323
-- -- Subjunctive by Attraction § 324
Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb § 325
-- Infinitive § 326
-- Participles § 336
-- Gerund § 338
-- Supine § 340
CHAPTER VI.--_Particles._
Coördinate Conjunctions § 341
Adverbs § 347
CHAPTER VII.--_Word-Order and Sentence-Structure._
Word-Order § 348
Sentence-Structure § 351
CHAPTER VIII.--_Hints on Latin Style. § 352_
Nouns § 353
Adjectives § 354
Pronouns § 355
Verbs § 356
The Cases § 357
PART VI.
PROSODY. § 360
Quantity of Vowels and Syllables § 362
Verse-Structure § 366
The Dactylic Hexameter § 368
The Dactylic Pentameter § 369
Iambic Measures § 370
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.
I. Roman Calendar § 371
II. Roman Names § 373
III. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric § 374
* * * * *
Index to the Illustrative Examples Cited in the Syntax
Index to the Principal Parts of Latin Verbs
General Index
Footnotes
* * * * *
INTRODUCTION.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
1. The Indo-European Family of Languages.--Latin belongs to one group of a
large family of languages, known as _Indo-European_.[1] This Indo-European
family of languages embraces the following groups:
ASIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.
a. _The Sanskrit_, spoken in ancient India. Of this there were several
stages, the oldest of which is the Vedic, or language of the Vedic Hymns.
These Hymns are the oldest literary productions known to us among all the
branches of the Indo-European family. A conservative estimate places them
as far back as 1500 B.C. Some scholars have even set them more than a
thousand years earlier than this, i.e. anterior to 2500 B.C.
The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be spoken in India,
and is represented to-day by a large number of dialects descended from the
ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by millions of people.
b. _The Iranian_, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related to the
Sanskrit. There were two main branches of the Iranian group, viz. the Old
Persian and the Avestan. The Old Persian was the official language of the
court, and appears in a number of so-called cuneiform[2] inscriptions, the
earliest of which date from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.). The
other branch of the Iranian, the Avestan,[3] is the language of the Avesta
or sacred books of the Parsees, the followers of Zoroaster, founder of the
religion of the fire-worshippers. Portions of these sacred books may have
been composed as early as 1000 B.C.
Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian speech. It has
naturally been much modified by time, particularly through the introduction
of many words from the Arabic.
c. _The Armenian_, spoken in Armenia, the district near the Black Sea and
Caucasus Mountains. This is closely related to the Iranian, and was
formerly classified under that group. It is now recognized as entitled to
independent rank. The earliest literary productions of the Armenian
language date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era. To
this period belong the translation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian
Chronicle. The Armenian is still a living language, though spoken in widely
separated districts, owing to the scattered locations in which the
Armenians are found to-day.
d. _The Tokharian_. This language, only recently discovered and identified
as Indo-European, was spoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea
(modern Turkestan). While in some respects closely related to the three
Asiatic branches of the Indo-European family already considered, in others
it shows close relationship to the European members of the family. The
literature of the Tokharian, so far as it has been brought to light,
consists mainly of translations from the Sanskrit sacred writings, and
dates from the seventh century of our era.
EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.
e. _The Greek_. The Greeks had apparently long been settled in Greece and
Asia Minor as far back as 1500 B.C. Probably they arrived in these
districts much earlier. The earliest literary productions are the Iliad and
the Odyssey of Homer, which very likely go back to the ninth century B.C.
From the sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous. Modern
Greek, when we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably
similar to the classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.
f. _The Italic Group._ The Italic Group embraces the Umbrian, spoken in the
northern part of the Italian peninsula (in ancient Umbria); the Latin,
spoken in the central part (in Latium); the Oscan, spoken in the southern
part (in Samnium, Campania, Lucania, etc.). Besides these, there were a
number of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc. Of all these
(barring the Latin), there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions.
Latin literature begins shortly after 250 B.C. in the works of Livius
Andronicus, Naevius, and Plautus, although a few brief inscriptions are
found belonging to a much earlier period.
g. _The Celtic._ In the earliest historical times of which we have any
record, the Celts occupied extensive portions of northern Italy, as well as
certain areas in central Europe; but after the second century B.C., they
are found only in Gaul and the British Isles. Among the chief languages
belonging to the Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul; the
Breton, still spoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the Irish,
which is still extensively spoken in Ireland among the common people, the
Welsh; and the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders.
h. _The Teutonic._ The Teutonic group is very extensive. Its earliest
representative is the Gothic, preserved for us in the translation of the
scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375 A.D.). Other languages
belonging to this group are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and
from which are descended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish;
German; Dutch; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the modern English.
i. _The Balto-Slavic._ The languages of this group belong to eastern
Europe. The Baltic division of the group embraces the Lithuanian and
Lettic, spoken to-day by the people living on the eastern shores of the
Baltic Sea. The earliest literary productions of these languages date from
the sixteenth century. The Slavic division comprises a large number of
languages, the most important of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the
Serbian, the Bohemian, the Polish. All of these were late in developing a
literature, the earliest to do so being the Old Bulgarian, in which we find
a translation of the Bible dating from the ninth century.
j. _The Albanian_, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece, Italy, and
Sicily. This is most nearly related to the Balto-Slavic group, and is
characterized by the very large proportion of words borrowed from Latin,
Turkish, Greek, and Slavic. Its literature does not begin till the
seventeenth century.
2. Home of the Indo-European Family.--Despite the many outward differences
of the various languages of the foregoing groups, a careful examination of
their structure and vocabulary demonstrates their intimate relationship and
proves overwhelmingly their descent from a common parent. We must believe,
therefore, that at one time there existed a homogeneous clan or tribe of
people speaking a language from which all the above enumerated languages
are descended. The precise location of the home of this ancient tribe
cannot be determined. For a long time it was assumed that it was in central
Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains, but this view has long been rejected
as untenable. It arose from the exaggerated importance attached for a long
while to Sanskrit. The great antiquity of the earliest literary remains of
the Sanskrit (the Vedic Hymns) suggested that the inhabitants of India were
geographically close to the original seat of the Indo-European Family.
Hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau to the north. To-day it
is thought that central or southeastern Europe is much more likely to have
been the cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech, though anything like a
logical demonstration of so difficult a problem can hardly be expected.
As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the Indo-European
languages have sprung, we can only speculate. It probably was not large,
and very likely formed a compact racial and linguistic unit for centuries,
possibly for thousands of years.
The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the various individual
languages began their separate existence, is likewise shrouded in
obscurity. When we consider that the separate existence of the Sanskrit may
antedate 2500 B.C., it may well be believed that people speaking the
Indo-European parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C.,
or possibly earlier.
3. Stages in the Development of the Latin Language.--The earliest remains
of the Latin language are found in certain very archaic inscriptions. The
oldest of these belong to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C. Roman
literature does not begin till several centuries later, viz. shortly after
the middle of the third century B.C. We may recognize the following clearly
marked periods of the language and literature:
a. _The Preliterary Period_, from the earliest times down to 240 B.C., when
Livius Andronicus brought out his first play. For this period our knowledge
of Latin depends almost exclusively upon the scanty inscriptions that have
survived from this remote time. Few of these are of any length.
b. _The Archaic Period_, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to Cicero (81
B.C.). Even in this age the language had already become highly developed as
a medium of expression. In the hands of certain gifted writers it had even
become a vehicle of power and beauty. In its simplicity, however, it
naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days. To
this period belong:
Livius Andronicus, about 275-204 B.C. (Translation of Homer's Odyssey;
Tragedies).
Plautus, about 250-184 B.C. (Comedies).
Naevius, about 270-199 B.C. ("Punic War"; Comedies).
Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ("Annals"; Tragedies).
Terence, about 190-159 B.C. (Comedies).
Lucilius, 180-103 B.C. (Satires).
Pacuvius, 220-about 130 B.C. (Tragedies).
Accius, 170-about 85 B.C. (Tragedies).
c. _The Golden Age_, from Cicero (81 B.C.) to the death of Augustus (14
A.D.). In this period the language, especially in the hands of Cicero,
reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection. Its vocabulary, however, has
not yet attained its greatest fullness and range. Traces of the diction of
the Archaic Period are often noticed, especially in the poets, who
naturally sought their effects by reverting to the speech of olden times.
Literature reached its culmination in this epoch, especially in the great
poets of the Augustan Age. The following writers belong here:
Lucretius, about 95-55 B.C. (Poem on Epicurean Philosophy).
Catullus, 87-about 54 B.C. (Poet).
Cicero, 106-43 B.C. (Orations; Rhetorical Works; Philosophical Works;
Letters).
Caesar, 102-44 B.C. (Commentaries on Gallic and Civil Wars),
Sallust, 86-36 B.C. (Historian).
Nepos, about 100-about 30 B.C. (Historian).
Virgil, 70-19 B.C. ("Aeneid"; "Georgics"; "Bucolics").
Horace, 65-8 B.C. (Odes; Satires, Epistles).
Tibullus, about 54-19 B.C. (Poet).
Propertius, about 50-about 15 B.C. (Poet).
Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. ("Metamorphoses" and other poems).
Livy. 59 B.C.-17 A.D. (Historian).
d. _The Silver Latinity_, from the death of Augustus (14 A.D.) to the death
of Marcus Aurelius (180 A.D.), This period is marked by a certain reaction
against the excessive precision of the previous age. It had become the
practice to pay too much attention to standardized forms of expression, and
to leave too little play to the individual writer. In the healthy reaction
against this formalism, greater freedom of expression now manifests itself.
We note also the introduction of idioms from the colloquial language, along
with many poetical words and usages. The following authors deserve mention:
Phaedrus, flourished about 40 A.D. (Fables in Verse)
Velleius Paterculus, flourished about 30 A.D. (Historian).
Lucan, 39-65 A.D. (Poem on the Civil War).
Seneca, about 1-65 A.D. (Tragedies; Philosophical Works).
Pliny the Elder, 23-79 A.D. ("Natural History").
Pliny the Younger, 62-about 115 A.D. ("Letters").
Martial, about 45-about 104 A.D. (Epigrams).
Quintilian, about 35-about 100 A.D. (Treatise on Oratory and Education).
Tacitus, about 55-about 118 A.D. (Historian).
Juvenal, about 55-about 135 A.D. (Satirist).
Suetonius, about 73-about 118 A.D. ("Lives of the Twelve Caesars").
Minucius Felix, flourished about 160 A.D. (First Christian Apologist).
Apuleius, 125-about 200 A.D. ("Metamorphoses," or "Golden Ass").
e. _The Archaizing Period._ This period is characterized by a conscious
imitation of the Archaic Period of the second and first centuries B.C.; it
overlaps the preceding period, and is of importance from a linguistic
rather than from a literary point of view. Of writers who manifest the
archaizing tendency most conspicuously may be mentioned Fronto, from whose
hand we have a collection of letters addressed to the Emperors Antoninus
Pius and Marcus Aurelius; also Aulus Gellius, author of the "Attic Nights."
Both of these writers flourished in the second half of the second century
A.D.
f. _The Period of the Decline_, from 180 to the close of literary activity
in the sixth century A.D. This period is characterized by rapid and radical
alterations in the language. The features of the conversational idiom of
the lower strata of society invade the literature, while in the remote
provinces, such as Gaul, Spain, Africa, the language suffers from the
incorporation of local peculiarities. Representative writers of this period
are:
Tertullian, about 160-about 240 A.D. (Christian Writer).
Cyprian, about 200-258 A.D. (Christian Writer).
Lactantius, flourished about 300 A.D. (Defense of Christianity).
Ausonius, about 310-about 395 A.D. (Poet).
Jerome, 340-420 A.D. (Translator of the Scriptures).
Ambrose, about 340-397 (Christian Father).
Augustine, 354-430 (Christian Father--"City of God").
Prudentius, flourished 400 A.D. (Christian Poet).
Claudian, flourished 400 A.D. (Poet).
Boëthius, about 480-524 A.D. ("Consolation of Philosophy ").
4. Subsequent History of the Latin Language.--After the sixth century A.D.
Latin divides into two entirely different streams. One of these is the
literary language maintained in courts, in the Church, and among scholars.
This was no longer the language of people in general, and as time went on,
became more and more artificial. The other stream is the colloquial idiom
of the common people, which developed ultimately in the provinces into the
modern so-called Romance idioms. These are the Italian, Spanish,
Portuguese, French, Provençal (spoken in Provence, i.e. southeastern
France), the Rhaeto-Romance (spoken in the Canton of the Grisons in
Switzerland), and the Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and adjacent
districts. All these Romance languages bear the same relation to the Latin
as the different groups of the Indo-European family of languages bear to
the parent speech.
* * * * *
PART I.
* * * * *
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.
* * * * *
THE ALPHABET.
1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has
no w.
1. K occurs only in _Kalendae_ and a few other words; y and z were
introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign
words--chiefly Greek.
2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as
vowel and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to
distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the
former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u
in the function of consonants as well as vowels.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.
2. 1. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants.
The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui.
2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and
Spirants.
3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of these,--
a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,[4] i.e. sounded _without_ voice or
vibration of the vocal cords.
b) b, d, g are voiced,[5] i.e. sounded _with_ vibration of the vocal
cords.
c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclusively to
words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + h, c + h,
i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in
Eng. _loop-hole_, _hot-house_, _block-house_.
4. The Mutes admit of classification also as
Labials, p, b, ph.
Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th.
Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch.
5. The Liquids are l, r. These sounds were voiced.
6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n,
when followed by a guttural mute also had another sound,--that of ng in
_sing_,--the so-called n _adulterīnum_; as,--
anceps, _double_, pronounced angceps.
7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were
voiceless.
8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced.
9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while
the equivalence of z is uncertain. See § 3, 3.
10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant
sounds:--
VOICELESS. VOICED. ASPIRATES.
p, b, ph, (Labials).
Mutes, t, d, th, (Dentals).
c, k, q, g, ch, (Gutturals).
Liquids, l, r,
Nasals, m, n,
f, (Labial).
Spirants, s, (Dental).
h, (Guttural).
Semivowels, j, v.
a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of
classification in the above table.
SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.
3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that
employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization; i.e., roughly,
from 50 B.C. to 50 A.D.
1. Vowels.
ā as in _father_; ă as in the first syllable _ahá_;
ē as in _they_; ĕ as in _met_;
ī as in _machine_; ĭ as in _pin_;
ō as in _note_; ŏ as in _obey_, _melody_;
ū as in _rude_; ŭ as in _put_;
y like French _u_, German
_ü_.
2. Diphthongs.
ae like _ai_ in eu with its two elements, ĕ and ŭ,
_aisle_; pronounced in rapid succession;
oe like _oi_ in _oil_; ui occurs almost exclusively in
ei as in _rein_; _cui_ and _huic_. These words may
au like _ow_ in _how_; be pronounced as though written
_kwee_ and _wheek_.
3. Consonants.
b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that
bs, bt are pronounced _ps_, _pt_.
c is always pronounced as _k_.
t is always a plain _t_, never with the sound of _sh_ as in Eng.
_oration_.
g always as in _get_; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of
_gw_, as in anguis, languidus.
j has the sound of _y_ as in _yet_.
r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue.
s always voiceless as in _sin_; in suādeō, suāvis, suēscō, and in
compounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of _sw_.
v like _w_.
x always like _ks_; never like Eng. _gz_ or _z_.
z uncertain in sound; possibly like Eng. _zd_, possibly like _z_. The
latter sound is recommended.
The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed
Eng. _p_, c, _t_--so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter
sounds suffice.
Doubled letters, like ll, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both
members of the combination are distinctly articulated.
SYLLABLES.
4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels
and diphthongs.
In the division of words into syllables,--
1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit,
pe-rit, a-dest.
2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta,
mis-sus.
3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated,
and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding
vowel; as, ma-gis-trī, dig-nus, mōn-strum, sis-te-re.
4. An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consist of a mute
followed by l or r (pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.). In such cases both
consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel; as, a-grī,
vo-lu-cris, pa-tris, mā-tris. Yet if the l or r introduces the second part
of a compound, the two consonants are separated; as, ab-rumpō, ad-lātus.
5. The double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel; as, ax-is,
tēx-ī.
QUANTITY.
5. A. Quantity of Vowels.
A vowel is _long_ or _short_ according to the length of time required for
its pronunciation. No absolute rule can be given for determining the
quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure,
by experience; but the following principles are of aid:--
1. A vowel is long,[6]--
a) before nf or ns; as, īnfāns, īnferior, cōnsūmō, cēnseō, īnsum.
b) when the result of contraction; as, nīlum for nihilum.
2. A vowel is short,--
a) before nt, nd; as, amant, amandus. A few exceptions occur in compounds
whose first member has a long vowel; as, nōndum (nōn dum).
b) before another vowel, or h; as, meus, trahō. Some exceptions occur,
chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek; as, Aenēās.
B. Quantity of Syllables.
Syllables are distinguished as _long_ or _short_ according to the length of
time required for their pronunciation.
1. A syllable is long,[7]--
a) if it contains a long vowel; as, māter, rēgnum, dīus.
b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.
c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two consonants
(except a mute with l or r); as, axis, gaza, restō.
2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or
by a single consonant; as, mea, amat.
3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, _viz_. when its vowel is short
and is followed by a mute with l or r, i.e. by pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr,
etc.; as, ăgrī, volŭcris.[8] Such syllables are called _common_. In prose
they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at
the option of the poet.
NOTE.--These distinctions of _long_ and _short_ are not arbitrary and
artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short
vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable
requires _more time_ for its pronunciation; while a syllable containing a
short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes _less
time_ to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables, the mute and the
liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes no more time
than a single consonant. Yet by separating the two elements (as ag-rī) the
poets were able to use such syllables as long.
ACCENT.
6. 1. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, tégit,
mō´rem.
2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to
the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the antepenult (second
from the last); as, amā´vī, amántis, míserum.
3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to
words, if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally or
as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented; as, miserō´que,
hominísque. But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has
been added, it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent
on the antepenult. Thus, pórtaque; but míseráque.
4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting
the accent; as, tantō´n, istī´c, illū´c.
5. In utră´que, _each_, and plēră´que, _most_, -que is not properly an
enclitic; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of
their other cases,--utérque, utrúmque, plērúmque.
VOWEL CHANGES.[9]
7.. 1. In Compounds,
a) ĕ before a single consonant becomes ĭ; as,--
colligō for con-legō.
b) ă before a single consonant becomes ĭ: as,--
adigō for ad-agō.
c) ă before two consonants becomes ē; as,--
expers for ex-pars.
d) ae becomes ī; as,--
conquīrō for con-quaerō.
e) au becomes ū, sometimes ō; as,--
conclūdō for con-claudō;
explōdō for ex-plaudō.
2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long
vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed; as,--
trēs for tre-es; cōpia for co-opia;
mālō for ma(v)elō; cōgō for co-agō;
amāstī for amā(v)istī; cōmō for co-emō;
dēbeō for dē(h)abeō; jūnior for ju(v)enior.
nīl for nihil;
3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic
vowel sometimes develops; as,--
vinculum for earlier vinclum.
So perīculum, saeculum.
4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as,--
ārdor for āridor (compare _āridus_);
valdē for validē (compare _validus_).
CONSONANT CHANGES[10]
8. 1. Rhotacism. An original s between vowels became r; as,--
arbōs, Gen. arboris (for arbosis);
genus, Gen. generis (for genesis);
dirimō (for dis-emō).
2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss; as,--
pēnsum for pend-tum;
versum for vert-tum;
mīles for mīlet-s;
sessus for sedtus;
passus for pattus.
3. Final consonants were often omitted; as,--
cor for cord;
lac for lact.
4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated to a
following sound. Thus: accurrō (adc-); aggerō (adg-); asserō (ads-);
allātus (adl-); apportō (adp-); attulī (adt-); arrīdeō (adr-); afferō
(adf-); occurrō (obc-); suppōnō (subp-); offerō (obf-); corruō (comr-);
collātus (coml-); etc.
5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial.
Thus:--
a) b before s or t becomes p; as,--
scrīpsī (scrīb-sī), scrīptum (scrīb-tum).
b) g before s or t becomes c; as,--
āctus (āg-tus).
c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n; as,--
eundem (eum-dem); prīnceps (prīm-ceps).
PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.
9. Many words have variable orthography.
1. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the
language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevailing forms
almost down to the Augustan age; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult,
etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubīdō, etc. down to about the same era;
later, optimus, maximus, libet, libīdō, etc.
2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the
language. Examples are exspectō, expectō; exsistō, existō; epistula,
epistola; adulēscēns, adolēscēns; paulus, paullus; cottīdiē, cotīdiē; and,
particularly, prepositional compounds, which often made a concession to the
etymology in the spelling; as,--
ad-gerō or aggerō; ad-serō or asserō;
ad-liciō or alliciō; in-lātus or illātus;
ad-rogāns or arrogāns; sub-moveō or summoveō;
and many others.
3. Compounds of jaciō were usually written ēiciō, dēiciō, adiciō, obiciō,
etc., but were probably pronounced as though written adjiciō, objiciō, etc.
4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uus, -uum preserved
the earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom; -uos, -uom, down through the
Ciceronian age; as, antīquos, antīquom; saevos; perpetuos; equos; servos.
Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the
terminations -quont, -quontur; -vont, -vontur; -uont, -uontur, for the same
period; as, relinquont, loquontur; vīvont, metuont.
The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and
Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts.
* * * * *
PART II.
* * * * *
INFLECTIONS.
* * * * *
10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in English, viz. Nouns,
Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and
Interjections; but the Latin has no article.
11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of
Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form to express modifications of
meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called
Declension; in case of verbs, Conjugation.
* * * * *
CHAPTER I.--_Declension._
A. NOUNS.
12. A Noun is the name of a _person_, _place_, _thing_, or _quality_; as,
Caesar, _Caesar_; Rōma, _Rome_; penna, _feather_; virtūs, _courage_.
1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are permanent names of
persons or places; as, Caesar, Rōma. Other nouns are Common: as, penna,
virtūs.
2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.
a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects; as, mōns,
_mountain_; pēs, _foot_; diēs, _day_; mēns, _mind_.
Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legiō,
_legion_; comitātus, _retinue_.
b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, cōnstantia, _steadfastness_;
paupertās, _poverty_.
GENDER OF NOUNS.
13. There are three Genders,--Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in
Latin is either natural or grammatical.
Natural Gender.
14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural
gender is confined entirely to names of persons; and these are--
1. Masculine, if they denote males; as,--
nauta, _sailor_; agricola, _farmer_.
2. Feminine, if they denote females; as,--
māter, _mother_; rēgīna, _queen_.
Grammatical Gender.
15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general
signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By
grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine
or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the
Nominative Singular. The following are the general principles for
determining grammatical gender:--
_A. Gender determined by Signification._
1. Names of _Rivers_, _Winds_, and _Months_ are Masculine; as,--
Sēquana, _Seine_; Eurus, _east wind_; Aprīlis, _April_.
2. Names of _Trees_, and such names of _Towns_ and _Islands_ as end in -us,
are Feminine; as,--
quercus, _oak_; Corinthus, _Corinth_; Rhodus, _Rhodes_.
Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see
_B_, below); as,--
Delphī, n.; Leuctra, n.; Tībur, n.; Carthāgō, f.
3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as,--
nihil, _nothing_; nefās, _wrong_; amāre, _to love_.
NOTE.--Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia (the
river), f.
_B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular._
The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative
Singular.[11]
NOTE 1.--_Common Gender._ Certain nouns are sometimes Masculine, sometimes
Feminine. Thus, sacerdōs may mean either _priest_ or _priestess_, and is
Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also cīvis, _citizen_; parēns,
_parent_; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be _common_.
NOTE 2.--Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the
ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either
the male or female; as, ānser, m., _goose_ or _gander_. So vulpēs, f.,
_fox_; aquīla, f., _eagle_.
NUMBER.
16. The Latin has two Numbers,--the Singular and Plural. The Singular
denotes one object, the Plural, more than one.
CASES.
17. There are six Cases in Latin:--
Nominative, Case of Subject;
Genitive, Objective with _of_, or Possessive;
Dative, Objective with _to_ or _for_;
Accusative, Case of Direct Object;
Vocative, Case of Address;
Ablative, Objective with _by_, _from_, _in_,
_with_.
1. LOCATIVE. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where),
occur in names of towns and in a few other words.
2. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called
Oblique Cases.
3. STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS. The different cases are formed by appending
certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.[12] Thus,
_portam_ (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to
the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has
coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become
more or less obscured. The _apparent case-ending_ thus resulting is called
a termination.
THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.
18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by
the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive
Singular, as follows:--
DECLENSION. FINAL LETTER OF STEM. GEN. TERMINATION.
First ā -ae
Second ŏ -ī
Third ĭ / Some consonant -īs
Fourth ŭ -ūs
Fifth ē -ēī / -ĕī
Cases alike in Form.
19. 1. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the
singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension.
2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.
3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the
Plural end in -ă.
4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is
regularly like the Nominative.
* * * * *
FIRST DECLENSION.
ā-Stems.
20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regularly end, in the
Nominative Singular, in -ă, weakened from -ā, and are of the Feminine
Gender. They are declined as follows:--
Porta, _gate_; stem, portā-.
SINGULAR.
CASES. MEANINGS. TERMINATIONS.
_Nom._ porta _a gate_ (as subject) -ă
_Gen._ portae _of a gate_ -ae
_Dat._ portae _to_ or _for a gate_ -ae
_Acc._ portam _a gate_ (as object) -am
_Voc._ porta _O gate!_ -ă
_Abl._ portā _with, by, from, in a gate_ -ā
PLURAL.
_Nom._ portae _gates_ (as subject) -ae
_Gen._ portārum _of gates_ -ārum
_Dat._ portīs _to_ or _for gates_ -īs
_Acc._ portās _gates_ (as object) -ās
_Voc._ portae _O gates!_ -ae
_Abl._ portīs _with, by, from, in gates_ -īs
1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either _a gate_ or _the
gate_; and in the Plural, _gates_ or _the gates_.
Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension.
21. 1. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, nauta,
_sailor_; agricola, _farmer_; also, Hadria, _Adriatic Sea_.
2. Rare Case-Endings,--
a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -ās is preserved in the
combination pater familiās, _father of a family_; also in māter familiās,
fīlius familiās, fīlia familiās. But the regular form of the Genitive in
-ae is also admissible in these expressions; as, pater familiae.
b) In poetry a Genitive in -āī also occurs; as, aulāī.
c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as, Rōmae, _at Rome_.
d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -ārum sometimes occurs; as,
Dardanidum instead of Dardanidārum. This termination -um is not a
contraction of -ārum, but represents an entirely different case-ending.
e) Instead of the regular ending -īs, we usually find -ābus in the Dative
and Ablative Plural of dea, _goddess_, and fīlia, _daughter_, especially
when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding
forms of deus, _god_, and fīlius, _son_. A few other words sometimes have
the same peculiarity; as, lībertābus (from līberta, _freedwoman_),
equābus (_mares_), to avoid confusion with lībertīs (from lībertus,
_freedman_) and equīs (from equus, _horse_).
Greek Nouns.
22. These end in -ē (Feminine); -ās and -ēs (Masculine). In the Plural they
are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the
Singular they are declined as follows:--
Archiās, Epitomē, Comētēs, _comet_.
_Archias_. _epitome_.
_Nom._ Archiās epitomē comētēs
_Gen._ Archiae epitomēs comētae
_Dat._ Archiae epitomae comētae
_Acc._ Archiam (or -ān) epitomēn comētēn
_Voc._ Archiā epitomē comētē (or -ă)
_Abl._ Archiā epitomē comētē (or -ā)
1. But most Greek nouns in -ē become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are
declined like porta; as, grammatica, _grammar_; mūsica, _music_; rhētorica,
_rhetoric_.
2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.
* * * * *
SECOND DECLENSION.
ŏ-Stems.
23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir,
Masculine; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculine
was -os; and -um of the Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative.
Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows:--
Hortus, _garden_; Bellum, _war_;
stem, hortŏ-. stem, bellŏ-.
SINGULAR.
TERMINATION. TERMINATION.
_Nom._ hortus -us bellum -um
_Gen._ hortī -ī bellī -ī
_Dat._ hortō -ō bellō -ō
_Acc._ hortum -um bellum -um
_Voc._ horte -e bellum -um
_Abl._ hortō -ō bellō -ō
PLURAL.
_Nom._ hortī -ī bella -a
_Gen._ hortōrum -ōrum bellōrum -ōrum
_Dat._ hortīs -īs bellīs -īs
_Acc._ hortōs -ōs bella -a
_Voc._ hortī -ī bella -a
_Abl._ hortīs -īs bellīs -īs
Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows:--
Puer, _boy_; Ager, _field_; Vir, _man_;
stem, puerŏ- stem, agrŏ- stem, virŏ-
SINGULAR. TERMINATION.
_Nom._ puer ager vir Wanting
_Gen._ puerī agrī virī -ī
_Dat._ puerō agrō virō -ō
_Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um
_Voc._ puer ager vir Wanting
_Abl._ puerō agrō virō -ō
PLURAL.
_Nom._ puerī agrī virī -ī
_Gen._ puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum
_Dat._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs
_Acc._ puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs
_Voc._ puerī agrī virī -ī
_Abl._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs
1. Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel of the
stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular.
In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further
modified by the development of e before r.
2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer: adulter, _adulterer_;
gener, _son-in-law_; Līber, _Bacchus_; socer, _father-in-law_; vesper,
_evening_; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger.
Nouns in _-vus_, _-vum_, _-quus_.
24. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited
two types of inflection in the classical Latin,--an earlier and a
later,--as follows:--
_Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and Cicero)._
Servos, m., Aevom, n., Equos, m.,
_slave_. _age_. _horse_.
SINGULAR.
_Nom._ servos aevom equos
_Gen._ servī aevī equī
_Dat._ servō aevō equō
_Acc._ servom aevom equom
_Voc._ serve aevom eque
_Abl._ servō aevō equō
_Later inflection (after Cicero)._
SINGULAR.
_Nom._ servus aevum equus
_Gen._ servī aevī equī
_Dat._ servō aevō equō
_Act._ servum aevum equum
_Voc._ serve aevum eque
_Abl._ servō aevō equō
1. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform.
Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension.
25. 1. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -ī
(instead of -iī), and the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); as Vergílī,
_of Virgil_, or _O Virgil_ (instead of Vergiliī, Vergilie). In such words
the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. Nouns in
-ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -aī, -eī, as Pompejus, Pompeī.
2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of
Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -i (instead
of -iī); as,--
_Nom._ ingenium fīlius
_Gen._ ingénī fīlī
These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short.
3. Fīlius forms the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); _viz_. fīlī, _O
son!_
4. Deus, _god_, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected as
follows:--
_Nom._ dī (deī)
_Gen._ deōrum (deum)
_Dat._ dīs (deīs)
_Acc._ deōs
_Voc._ dī (deī)
_Abl._ dīs (deīs)
5. The Locative Singular ends in -ī; as, Corinthī, _at Corinth_.
6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -ōrum,--
a) in words denoting money and measure; as, talentum, _of talents_;
modium, _of pecks_; sēstertium, _of sesterces_.
b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum.
c) sometimes in other words; as, līberum, _of the children_; socium, _of
the allies_.
Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension.
26. 1. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception:--
a) Names of towns, islands, trees--according to the general rule laid
down in § 15, 2; also some names of countries; as Aegyptus, _Egypt_.
b) Five special words,--
alvus, _belly_;
carbasus, _flax_;
colus, _distaff_;
humus, _ground_;
vannus, _winnowing-fan_.
c) A few Greek Feminines; as,--
atomus, _atom_;
diphthongus, _diphthong_.
2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter:--
pelagus, _sea_;
vīrus, _poison_;
vulgus, _crowd_.
Greek Nouns of the Second Declension.
27. These end in -os, -ōs, Masculine or Feminine; and -on, Neuter. They are
mainly proper names, and are declined as follows:--
Barbitos, m. Androgeōs, m., Īlion, n.,
and f., _Androgeos._ _Troy._
_lyre._
_Nom._ barbitos Androgeōs Īlion
_Gen._ barbitī Androgeō, -ī Īliī
_Dat._ barbitō Androgeō Īliō
_Acc._ barbiton Androgeō, -ōn Īlion
_Voc._ barbite Androgeōs Īlion
_Abl._ barbitō Androgeō Īliō
1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um instead of
-on; as, Dēlum, _Delos_.
2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular.
3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be consulted.
* * * * *
THIRD DECLENSION.
28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -ī, -ō, -y, -c, -l, -n,
-r, -s, -t, -x. The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of
Stems,--
I. Pure Consonant-Stems.
II. ĭ-Stems.
III. Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the
inflection of ĭ-Stems.
IV. A very few stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong.
V. Irregular Nouns.
I. Consonant-Stems.
29. 1. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique
cases, so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized.
2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the
stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant.
_A. Mute-Stems._
30. Mute-Stems may end,--
1. In a Labial (p); as, prīncep-s.
2. In a Guttural (g or c); as, rēmex (rēmeg-s); dux (duc-s).
3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); mīles (mīlet-s).
1. STEMS IN A LABIAL MUTE (p).
31. Prīnceps, m., _chief_.
SINGULAR. TERMINATION.
_Nom._ prīnceps -s
_Gen._ prīncipis -is
_Dat._ prīncipī -ī
_Acc._ prīncipem -em
_Voc._ prīnceps -s
_Abl._ prīncipe -e
PLURAL.
_Nom._ prīncipēs -ēs
_Gen._ prīncipum -um
_Dat._ prīncipibus -ibus
_Acc._ prīncipēs -ēs
_Voc._ prīncipēs -ēs
_Abl._ prīncipibus -ibus
2. STEMS IN A GUTTURAL MUTE (g, c).
32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the
guttural, thus producing -x.
Rēmex, m., _rower_. Dux, c., _leader_.
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ rēmex rēmigēs dux ducēs
_Gen._ rēmigis rēmigum ducis ducum
_Dat._ rēmigī rēmigibus ducī ducibus
_Acc._ rēmigem rēmigēs ducem ducēs
_Voc._ rēmex rēmigēs dux ducēs
_Abl._ rēmige rēmigibus duce ducibus
3. STEMS IN A DENTAL MUTE (d, t).
33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nominative
Singular before the ending -s.
Lapis, m., _stone_. Mīles, m., _soldier_.
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ lapis lapidēs mīles mīlitēs
_Gen._ lapidis lapidum mīlitis mīlitum
_Dat._ lapidī lapidibus mīlitī mīlitibus
_Acc._ lapidem lapidēs mīlitem mīlitēs
_Voc._ lapis lapidēs mīles mīlitēs
_Abl._ lapide lapidibus mīlite mīlitibus
_B. Liquid Stems._
34. These end in -l or -r.
Vigil, m., Victor, m., Aequor, n.,
_watchman_. _conqueror_. _sea_.
SINGULAR.
_Nom._ vigil victor aequor
_Gen._ vigilis victōris aequoris
_Dat._ vigilī victōrī aequorī
_Acc._ vigilem victōrem aequor
_Voc._ vigil victor aequor
_Abl._ vigile victōre aequore
PLURAL.
_Nom._ vigilēs victōrēs aequora
_Gen._ vigilum victōrum aequorum
_Dat._ vigilibus victōribus aequoribus
_Acc._ vigilēs victōrēs aequora
_Voc._ vigilēs victōrēs aequora
_Abl._ vigilibus victōribus aequoribus
1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nominative and
Vocative Singular without termination.
2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative and
Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension.
_C. Nasal Stems._
35. These end in -n,[13] which often disappears in the Nom. Sing.
Leō, m., _lion_. Nōmen, n., _name_
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ leō leōnēs nōmen nōmina
_Gen._ leōnis leōnum nōminis nōminum
_Dat._ leōnī leōnibus nōminī nōminibus
_Acc._ leōnem leōnēs nōmen nōmina
_Voc._ leō leōnēs nōmen nōmina
_Abl._ leōne leōnibus nōmine nōminibus
_D. s-Stems._
36. Mōs, m. Genus, n., Honor, m.,
_custom_. _race_. _honor_.
SINGULAR.
_Nom._ mōs genus honor
_Gen._ mōris generis honōris
_Dat._ mōrī generī honōrī
_Acc._ mōrem genus honōrem
_Voc._ mōs genus honor
_Abl._ mōre genere honōre
PLURAL.
_Nom._ mōrēs genera honōrēs
_Gen._ mōrum generum honōrum
_Dat._ mōribus generibus honōribus
_Acc._ mōrēs genera honōrēs
_Voc._ mōrēs genera honōrēs
_Abl._ mōribus generibus honōribus
1. Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the
oblique cases. In many words (honor, color, and the like) the r of the
oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative, displacing the
earlier s, though the forms honōs, colōs, etc., also occur, particularly in
early Latin and in poetry.
II. ĭ-Stems.
_A. Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems._
37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singular, and always have
-ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in
-im, the Ablative Singular in -ī, and the Accusative Plural in -īs; but
these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -ēs, the endings
of Consonant-Stems.
38. Tussis, f., Īgnis, m., Hostis, c.,
_cough_; stem, _fire_; stem, _enemy_; stem,
tussi-. īgni-. hosti-.
SINGULAR. TERMINATION.
_Nom._ tussis īgnis hostis -is
_Gen._ tussis īgnis hostis -is
_Dat._ tussī īgnī hostī -ī
_Acc._ tussim īgnem hostem -im, -em
_Voc._ tussis īgnis hostis -is
_Abl._ tussī īgnī or e hoste -ī, -e
PLURAL.
_Nom._ tussēs īgnēs hostēs -ēs
_Gen._ tussium īgnium hostium -ium
_Dat._ tussibus īgnibus hostibus -ibus
_Acc._ tussīs or -ēs īgnīs or -ēs hostīs or -ēs -īs, -ēs
_Voc._ tussēs īgnēs hostēs -ēs
_Abl._ tussibus īgnibus hostibus -ibus
1. To the same class belong--
apis, _bee_. crātis, _hurdle_. †*secūris, _axe_.
auris, _ear_. *febris, _fever_. sēmentis, _sowing_.
avis, _bird_. orbis, _circle_. †*sitis, _thirst_.
axis, _axle_. ovis, _sheep_. torris, _brand_.
*būris, _plough-beam_. pelvis, _basin_. †*turris, _tower_.
clāvis, _key_. puppis, _stern_. trudis, _pole_.
collis, _hill_. restis, _rope_. vectis, _lever_.
and many others.
Words marked with a star regularly have Acc. -im; those marked with a †
regularly have Abl. -ī. Of the others, many at times show -im and -ī. Town
and river names in -is regularly have -im, -ī.
2. Not all nouns in -is are ĭ-Stems. Some are genuine consonant-stems, and
have the regular consonant terminations throughout, notably, canis, _dog_;
juvenis, _youth_.[14]
3. Some genuine ĭ-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular;
as, pars, _part_, for par(ti)s; anas, _duck_, for ana(ti)s; so also mors,
_death_; dōs, _dowry_; nox, _night_; sors, _lot_; mēns, _mind_; ars, _art_;
gēns, _tribe_; and some others.
_B. Neuter ĭ-Stems._
39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar. They always
have -ī in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and
Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more
steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems.
Sedile, Animal, Calcar,
_seat_; _animal_; _spur_;
stem, sedīli-. stem, stem,
animāli-. calcāri-.
SINGULAR. TERMINATION.
_Nom._ sedīle animal calcar -e or wanting
_Gen._ sedīlis animālis calcāris -is
_Dat._ sedīlī animālī calcārī -ī
_Acc._ sedīle animal calcar -e or wanting
_Voc._ sedīle animal calcar -e or wanting
_Abl._ sedīlī animālī calcārī -ī
PLURAL.
_Nom._ sedīlia animālia calcāria -ia
_Gen._ sedīlium animālium calcārium -ium
_Dat._ sedīlibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus
_Acc._ sedīlia animālia calcāria -ia
_Voc._ sedīlia animālia calcāria -ia
_Abl._ sedīlibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus
1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the
Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e.
2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e; as, Sōracte, _Mt.
Soracte_; so also sometimes mare, _sea_.
III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves
to the Inflection of _ĭ_-Stems.
40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted themselves to the inflection
of ĭ-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural, and -īs in the
Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is
shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singular, or
-ī in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this
class:--
Caedēs, f., Arx, f., Linter, f.,
_slaughter_; _citadel_; _skiff_;
stem, caed-. stem, arc-. stem, lintr-.
SINGULAR.
_Nom._ caedēs arx linter
_Gen._ caedis arcis lintris
_Dat._ caedī arcī lintrī
_Acc._ caedem arcem lintrem
_Voc._ caedēs arx linter
_Abl._ caede arce lintre
PLURAL.
_Nom._ caedēs arcēs lintrēs
_Gen._ caedium arcium lintrium
_Dat._ caedibus arcibus lintribus
_Acc._ caedēs, -īs arcēs, -īs lintrēs, -īs
_Voc._ caedēs arcēs lintrēs
_Abl._ caedibus arcibus lintribus
1. The following classes of nouns belong here:--
a) Nouns in -ēs, with Genitive in -is; as, nūbēs, aedēs, clādēs, etc.
b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants; as,
urbs, mōns, stirps, lanx.
c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs as, cliēns, cohors.
d) Ūter, venter; fūr, līs, mās, mūs, nix; and the Plurals faucēs,
penātēs, Optimātēs, Samnitēs, Quirītēs.
e) Sometimes nouns in -tās with Genitive -tātis; as, cīvitās, aetās.
Cīvitās _usually_ has cīvitātium.
IV. Stems in _-ī_, _-ū_, and Diphthongs.
41. Vis, f., Sūs, c., Bōs, c., _ox_, Juppiter, m.,
_force_; _swine_; _cow_; _Jupiter_;
stem, vī-. stem, sū-. stem, bou-. stem, Jou-.
SINGULAR.
_Nom._ vīs sūs bōs Juppiter
_Gen._ ---- suis bovis Jovis
_Dat._ ---- suī bovī Jovī
_Acc._ vim suem bovem Jovem
_Voc._ vīs sūs bōs Juppiter
_Abl._ vī sue bove Jove
PLURAL.
_Nom._ vīrēs suēs bovēs
_Gen._ vīrium suum bovum, boum
_Dat._ vīribus suibus, subus bōbus, būbus
_Acc._ vīrēs suēs bovēs
_Voc._ vīrēs suēs bovēs
_Abl._ vīribus suibus, subus bōbus, būbus
1. Notice that the oblique cases of sūs have ŭ in the root syllable.
2. Grūs is declined like sūs, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural
are always gruibus.
3. Juppiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in
Jov-is, Jov-ī, etc.
Nāvis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over
to the ĭ-stems (§ 37). Its ablative often ends in -ī.
V. Irregular Nouns.
42. Senex, m., Carō, f., Os, n.,
_old man_. _flesh_. _bone_.
SINGULAR.
_Nom._ senex carō os
_Gen._ senis carnis ossis
_Dat._ senī carnī ossī
_Acc._ senem carnem os
_Voc._ senex carō os
_Abl._ sene carne osse
PLURAL.
_Nom._ senēs carnēs ossa
_Gen._ senum carnium ossium
_Dat._ senibus carnibus ossibus
_Acc._ senēs carnēs ossa
_Voc._ senēs carnēs ossa
_Abl._ senibus carnibus ossibus
1. Iter, itineris, n., _way_, is inflected regularly throughout from the
stem itiner-.
2. Supellex, supellectilis, f., _furniture_, is confined to the Singular.
The oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The ablative has
both -ī and -e.
3. Jecur, n., _liver_, forms its oblique cases from two stems,--jecor- and
jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris.
4. Femur, n., _thigh_, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem
femor-, but sometimes from the stem femin-. Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis.
General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension.
43. 1. Nouns in -ō, -or, -ōs, -er, -ĕs are Masculine.
2. Nouns in -ās, -ēs, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -dō, -gō
(Genitive -inis); -iō (abstract and collective), -ūs (Genitive -ātis or
-ūdis) are Feminine.
3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -o, -l, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -ŭs are
Neuter.
Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension.
44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines.
1. Nouns in -ō.
a. Feminine: carō, _flesh_.
2. Nouns in -or.
a. Feminine: arbor, _tree_.
b. Neuter: aequor, _sea_; cor, _heart_; marmor, _marble_.
3. Nouns in -ōs.
a. Feminine: dōs, _dowry_.
b. Neuter: ōs (ōris), _mouth_.
4. Nouns in -er.
a. Feminine: linter, _skiff_.
b. Neuter: cadāver, _corpse_; iter, _way_; tūber, _tumor_; ūber, _udder_.
Also botanical names in -er; as, acer, _maple_.
5. Nouns in -ĕs.
a. Feminine: seges, _crop_.
45. Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines.
1. Nouns in -ās.
a. Masculine: vās, _bondsman_.
b. Neuter: vās, _vessel_.
2. Nouns in -ēs.
a. Masculine: ariēs, _ram_; pariēs, _wall_; pēs, _foot_.
3. Nouns in -is.
a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis; as, amnis, _river_; īgnis,
_fire_; pānis, _bread_; sanguis, _blood_; unguis, _nail_.
Also--
axis, _axle_. piscis, _fish_.
collis, _hill_. postis, _post_.
fascis, _bundle_. pulvis, _dust_.
lapis, _stone_. orbis, _circle_.
mēnsis, _month_. sentis, _brier_.
4. Nouns in -x.
a. Masculine: apex, _peak_; cōdex, _tree-trunk_; grex, _flock_; imbrex,
_tile_; pollex, _thumb_; vertex, _summit_; calix, _cup_.
5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant.
a. Masculine: dēns, _tooth_; fōns, _fountain_; mōns, _mountain_; pōns,
_bridge_.
6. Nouns in -dō.
a. Masculine: cardō, _hinge_; ōrdō, _order_.
46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters.
1. Nouns in -l.
a. Masculine: sōl, _sun_; sāl, _salt_.
2. Nouns in -n.
a. Masculine: pecten, _comb_.
3. Nouns in -ur.
a. Masculine: vultur, _vulture_.
4. Nouns in -ŭs.
a. Masculine: lepus, _hare_.
Greek Nouns of the Third Declension.
47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these:--
1. The ending -ă in the Accusative Singular; as, aetheră, _aether_;
Salamīnă, _Salamis_.
2. The ending -ĕs in the Nominative Plural; as, Phrygĕs, _Phrygians_.
3. The ending -ăs in the Accusative Plural; as, Phrygăs, _Phrygians_.
4. Proper names in -ās (Genitive -antis) have -ā in the Vocative Singular;
as, Atlās (Atlantis), Vocative Atlā, _Atlas_.
5. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -īs instead of -ibus in the Dative
and Ablative Plural; as, poēmatīs, _poems_.
6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative
Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.). But in prose the other cases usually follow
the second declension; as, Orpheī, Orpheō, etc.
7. Proper names in -ēs, like Periclēs, form the Genitive Singular sometimes
in -is, sometimes in -ī, as, Periclis or Periclī.
8. Feminine proper names in -ō have -ūs in the Genitive, but -ō in the
other oblique cases; as,--
_Nom._ Didō _Acc._ Didō
_Gen._ Didūs _Voc._ Didō
_Dat._ Didō _Abl._ Didō
9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns.
* * * * *
FOURTH DECLENSION.
_ŭ_-Stems.
48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Masculine, and -ū Neuter.
They are declined as follows:--
Frūctus, m., _fruit_. Cornū, n., _horn_.
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ frūctus frūctūs cornū cornua
_Gen._ frūctūs frūctuum cornūs cornuum
_Dat._ frūctuī frūctibus cornū cornibus
_Acc._ frūctum frūctūs cornū cornua
_Voc._ frūctus frūctūs cornū cornua
_Abl._ frūctū frūctibus cornū cornibus
Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension.
49. 1. Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive
Singular in -ī, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second
Declension; as, senātī, ōrnātī. This is usually the case in Plautus and
Terence.
2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -ū in the Dative Singular, instead of -uī;
as, frūctū (for frūctuī).
3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative
Plural of artūs (Plural), _limbs_; tribus, _tribe_; and in dis-syllables in
-cus; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But with the exception of
tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus.
4. Domus, _house_, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has
also the following forms of the Second:--
domī (locative), _at home_;
domō, _from home_;
domum, _homewards_, _to one's home_;
domōs, _homewards_, _to their_ (etc.) _homes_
5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are: cornū, _horn_;
genū, _knee_; and verū, _spit_.
Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.
50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, _needle_; domus,
_house_; manus, _hand_; porticus, _colonnade_; tribus, _tribe_; Īdūs
(Plural), _Ides_; also names of trees (§ 15, 2).
* * * * *
FIFTH DECLENSION.
ē-Stems.
51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -ēs, and are declined as
follows:--
Diēs, m., _day_. Rēs, f., _thing_.
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ diēs diēs rēs rēs
_Gen._ diēī diērum rĕī rērum
_Dat._ diēī diēbus rĕī rēbus
_Acc._ diem diēs rem rēs
_Voc._ diēs diēs rēs rēs
_Abl._ diē diēbus rē rēbus
Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension.
52. 1. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -ĕī, instead of
-ēī, when a consonant precedes; as, spĕī, rĕī, fidĕī.
2. A Genitive ending -ī (for -ĕī) is found in plēbī (from plēbēs = plēbs)
in the expressions tribūnus plēbī, _tribune of the people_, and plēbī
scītum, _decree of the people_; sometimes also in other words.
3. A Genitive and Dative form in -ē sometimes occurs; as, aciē.
4. With the exception of diēs and rēs, most nouns of the Fifth Declension
are not declined in the Plural. But aciēs, seriēs, speciēs, spēs, and a few
others are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural.
Gender in the Fifth Declension.
53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except diēs,
_day_, and merīdiēs, _mid-day_. But diēs is sometimes Feminine in the
Singular, particularly when it means an _appointed day_.
* * * * *
DEFECTIVE NOUNS.
54. Here belong--
1. Nouns used in the Singular only.
2. Nouns used in the Plural only.
3. Nouns used only in certain cases.
4. Indeclinable Nouns.
Nouns used in the Singular only.
55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used
in the Singular only. Thus:--
1. Proper names; as, Cicerō, _Cicero_; Italia, _Italy_.
2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, _copper_; lac, _milk_.
3. Abstract nouns; as, ignōrantia, _ignorance_; bonitās, _goodness_.
4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural. Thus:--
a) Proper names,--to denote different members of a family, or specimens
of a type; as, Cicerōnēs, _the Ciceros_; Catōnēs, _men like Cato_.
b) Names of materials,--to denote objects made of the material, or
different kinds of the substance; as, aera, _bronzes_ (i.e. bronze
figures); ligna, _woods_.
c) Abstract nouns,--to denote instances of the quality; as, ignōrantiae,
_cases of ignorance_.
Nouns used in the Plural only.
56. Here belong--
1. Many geographical names; as, Thēbae, _Thebes_; Leuctra, _Leuctra_;
Pompejī, _Pompeii_.
2. Many names of festivals; as, Megalēsia, _the Megalesian festival_.
3. Many special words, of which the following are the most important:--
angustiae, _narrow pass_. mānēs, _spirits of the
arma, _weapons_. dead_.
dēliciae, _delight_. moenia, _city walls_.
dīvitiae, _riches_. minae, _threats_.
Īdūs, _Ides_. nūptiae, _marriage_.
indūtiae, _truce_. posterī, _descendants_.
īnsidiae, _ambush_. reliquiae, _remainder_.
majōrēs, _ancestors_. tenebrae, _darkness_.
verbera, _blows_.
Also in classical prose regularly--
cervīcēs, _neck_. nārēs, _nose_.
fidēs, _lyre_. vīscerā, _viscera_.
Nouns used only in Certain Cases.
57. 1. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found
only in the Ablative Singular as, jussū, _by the order_; injussū, _without
the order_; nātū, _by birth_.
2. Used in Two Cases.
a. Fors (_chance_), Nom. Sing.; forte, Abl. Sing.
b. Spontis (_free-will_), Gen. Sing.; sponte, Abl. Sing.
3. Used in Three Cases. Nēmō, _no one_ (Nom.), has also the Dat. nēminī and
the Acc. nēminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases
of nūllus; viz. nūllīus and nūllō.
4. Impetus has the Nom., Acc., and Abl. Sing., and the Nom. and Acc. Plu.;
viz. impetus, impetum, impetū, impetūs.
5. a. Precī, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing.
b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing.
6. Opis, dapis, and frūgis,--all lack the Nom. Sing.
7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.: as, cor,
lūx, sōl, aes, ōs (ōris), rūs, sāl, tūs.
Indeclinable Nouns.
58. Here belong--
fās, n., _right_. nefās, n., _impiety_.
īnstar, n., _likeness_. nihil, n., _nothing_.
māne, n., _morning_. secus, n., _sex_.
1. With the exception of māne (which may serve also as Ablative, _in the
morning_), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the
Nominative and Accusative Singular.
Heteroclites.
59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of
another. Thus:--
1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the
Plural is of another; as,--
vās, vāsis (_vessel_); Plu., vāsa, vāsorōum, vāsīs, etc.
jūgerum, jūgerī (_acre_); Plu., jūgera, jūgerum, jūgeribus, etc.
2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have
certain special forms belonging to another. Thus:--
a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and
Acc. of the Fifth; as, māteriēs, māteriem, _material_, as well as
māteria, māteriam.
b) Famēs, _hunger_, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. famē
of the Fifth.
c) Requiēs, requiētis, _rest_, regularly of the Third Declension, takes
an Acc. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requiētem.
d) Besides plēbs, plēbis, _common people_, of the Third Declension, we
find plēbēs, plēbĕī (also plēbī, see § 52, 2), of the Fifth.
Heterogeneous Nouns.
60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus:--
1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,--one Masc. in
-us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, _shield_; carrus, carrum,
_cart_.
2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural;
as,--
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
balneum, n., _bath_; balneae, f., _bath-house_.
epulum, n., _feast_; epulae, f., _feast_.
frēnum, n., _bridle_; frēnī, m.(rarely frēna, n.), _bridle_.
jocus, m., _jest_; joca, n. (also jocī, m.), _jests_.
locus, m., _place_; loca, n., _places_; locī, m., _passages
or topics in an author_.
rāstrum, n., _rake_; rāstrī, m.; rāstra, n., _rakes_.
a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case
of the first two examples above.
Plurals with Change of Meaning.
61. The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in
the Plural:--
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
aedēs, _temple_; aedēs, _house_.
auxilium, _help_; auxilia, _auxiliary troops_.
carcer, _prison_; carcerēs, _stalls for racing-chariot_.
castrum, _fort_; castra, _camp_.
cōpia, _abundance_; cōpiae, _troops_, _resources_.
fīnis, _end_; fīnēs, _borders_, _territory_.
fortūna, _fortune_; fortūnae, _possessions_, _wealth_.
grātia, _favor_, grātiae, _thanks_.
_gratitude_;
impedīmentum, impedīmenta, _baggage_.
_hindrance_;
littera, _letter_ (of the litterae, _epistle; literature_.
alphabet);
mōs, _habit_, _custom_; mōrēs, _character_.
opera, _help_, _service_; operae, _laborers_.
(ops) opis, _help_; opēs, _resources_.
pars, _part_; partēs, _party_; _rôle_.
sāl, _salt_; sălēs, _wit_.
* * * * *
B. ADJECTIVES.
62. Adjectives denote _quality_. They are declined like nouns, and fall
into two classes,--
1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.
2. Adjectives of the Third Declension.
* * * * *
ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.
63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the
Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum. Thus, Masculine like
hortus:--
Bonus, _good_.
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ bonus bona bonum
_Gen._ bonī bonae bonī
_Dat._ bonō bonae bonō
_Acc._ bonum bonam bonum
_Voc._ bone bona bonum
_Abl._ bonō bonā bonō
PLURAL.
_Nom._ bonī bonae bona
_Gen._ bonōrum bonārum bonōrum
_Dat._ bonīs bonīs bonīs
_Acc._ bonōs bonās bona
_Voc._ bonī bonae bona
_Abl._ bonīs bonīs bonīs
1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in -iī (not in
-ī as in case of Nouns; see § 25, 1; 2). So also the Voc. Sing. of such
Adjectives ends in -ie, not in ī. Thus eximius forms Gen. eximiī; Voc.
eximie.
2. Distributives (see § 78, 1, c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc. and
Neut. in -um instead of -ōrum (compare § 25, 6); as, dēnum centēnum; but
always singulōrum.
64. Masculine like puer:--
Tener, _tender_.
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE NEUTER.
_Nom._ tener tenera tenerum
_Gen._ tenerī tenerae tenerī
_Dat._ tenerō tenerae tenerō
_Acc._ tenerum teneram tenerum
_Voc._ tener tenera tenerum
_Abl._ tenerō tenerā tenerō
PLURAL.
_Nom._ tenerī tenerae tenera
_Gen._ tenerōrum tenerārum tenerōrum
_Dat._ tenerīs tenerīs tenerīs
_Acc._ tenerōs tenerās tenera
_Voc._ tenerī tenerae tenera
_Abl._ tenerīs tenerīs tenerīs
65. Masculine like ager:--
Sacer, _sacred_.
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ sacer sacra sacrum
_Gen._ sacrī sacrae sacrī
_Dat._ sacrō sacrae sacrō
_Acc._ sacrum sacram sacrum
_Voc._ sacer sacra sacrum
_Abl._ sacrō sacrā sacrō
PLURAL.
_Nom._ sacrī sacrae sacra
_Gen._ sacrōrum sacrārum sacrōrum
_Dat._ sacrīs sacrīs sacrīs
_Acc._ sacrōs sacrās sacra
_Voc._ sacrī sacrae sacra
_Abl._ sacrīs sacrīs sacrīs
1. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following however,
are declined like tener: asper, _rough_; lacer, _torn_; līber, _free_;
miser, _wretched_; prōsper, _prosperous_; compounds in -fer and -ger;
sometimes dexter, _right_.
2. Satur, _full_, is declined: satur, satura, saturum.
Nine Irregular Adjectives.
66. Here belong--
alius, _another_; alter, _the other_;
ūllus, _any_; nūllus, _none_;
uter, _which?_ (of two); neuter, _neither_;
sōlus, _alone_; tōtus, _whole_;
ūnus, _one_, _alone_.
They are declined as follows:--
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ alius alia aliud
_Gen._ alterĭus alterĭus alterĭus[15]
_Dat._ aliī aliī aliī
_Acc._ alium aliam aliud
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ aliō aliā aliō
_Nom._ alter altera alterum
_Gen._ alterĭus alterĭus alterĭus
_Dat._ alterī alterī[16] alterī
_Acc._ alterum alteram alterum
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ alterō alterā alterō
_Nom._ uter utra utrum
_Gen._ utrīus utrīus utrīus
_Dat._ utrī utrī utrī
_Acc._ utrum utram utrum
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ utrō utrā utrō
_Nom._ tōtus tōta tōtum
_Gen._ tōtīus tōtīus tōtīus
_Dat._ tōtī tōtī tōtī
_Acc._ tōtum tōtam tōtum
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ tōtō tōtā tōtō
1. All these words lack the Vocative. The Plural is regular.
2. Neuter is declined like uter.
* * * * *
ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
67. These fall into three classes,--
1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular,--one for
each gender.
2. Adjectives of two terminations.
3. Adjectives of one termination.
a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned
below in § 70, 1, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the
inflection of ĭ-stems; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -ī, the
Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -īs (as well as -ēs) in
the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in
-ia in Neuters.
Adjectives of Three Terminations.
68. These are declined as follows:--
Ācer, _sharp_.
SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ ācer ācris ācre
_Gen._ ācris ācris ācris
_Dat._ ācrī ācrī ācrī
_Acc._ ācrem ācrem ācre
_Voc._ ācer ācris ācre
_Abl._ ācrī ācrī ācrī
PLURAL.
_Nom._ ācrēs ācrēs ācria
_Gen._ ācrium ācrium ācrium
_Dat_, ācribus ācribus ācribus
_Acc._ ācrēs, -īs ācrēs, -īs ācria
_Voc._ ācrēs ācrēs ācria
_Abl._ ācribus ācribus ācribus
1. Like ācer are declined alacer, _lively_; campester, _level_; celeber,
_famous_; equester, _equestrian_; palūster, _marshy_; pedester,
_pedestrian_; puter, _rotten_; salūber, _wholesome_; silvester, _woody_;
terrester, _terrestrial_; volucer, _winged_; also names of months in -ber,
as September.
2. Celer, celeris, celere, _swift_, retains the e before r, but lacks the
Genitive Plural.
3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Feminine form
is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of salūbris,
silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use
of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late
Latin, and to poetry.
Adjectives of Two Terminations.
69. These are declined as follows:--
Fortis, _strong._ Fortior, _stronger._
SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.
_Nom._ fortis forte fortior fortius
_Gen._ fortis fortis fortiōris fortiōris
_Dat._ fortī fortī fortiōrī fortiōrī
_Acc._ fortem forte fortiōrem fortius
_Voc._ fortis forte fortior fortius
_Abl._ fortī fortī fortiōre fortiōre
PLURAL.
_Nom._ fortēs fortia fortiōrēs fortiōra
_Gen._ fortium fortium fortiōrum fortiōrum
_Dat._ fortibus fortibus fortiōribus fortiōribus
_Acc._ fortēs, -īs fortia fortiōrēs, -īs fortiōra
_Voc._ fortēs fortia fortiōrēs fortiōra
_Abl._ fortibus fortibus fortiōribus fortiōribus
1. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly
declined in the same way. The Acc. Plu. in -īs is rare.
Adjectives of One Termination.
70. Fēlīx, _happy._. Prūdēns, _prudent._
SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.
_Nom._ fēlīx fēlīx prūdēns prūdēns
_Gen._ fēlīcīs fēlīcis prūdentis prūdentis
_Dat._ fēlīcī fēlīcī prūdentī prūdentī
_Acc._ fēlīcem fēlīx prūdentem prūdēns
_Voc._ fēlīx fēlīx prūdēns prūdēns
_Abl._ fēlīcī fēlīcī prūdentī prūdentī
PLURAL.
_Nom._ fēlīcēs fēlīcia prūdentēs prūdentia
_Gen._ fēlīcium fēlīcium prūdentium prūdentium
_Dat._ fēlīcibus fēlīcibus prūdentibus prūdentibus
_Acc._ fēlīcēs, -īs fēlīcia prūdentēs, -īs prūdentia
_Voc._ fēlīcēs fēlīcia prūdentēs prūdentia
_Abl._ fēlīcibus fēlīcibus prūdentibus prūdentibus
Vetus, _old_. Plūs, _more_.
SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.
_Nom._ vetus vetus ---- plūs
_Gen._ veteris veteris ---- plūris
_Dat._ veterī veterī ---- ----
_Acc._ veterem vetus ---- plūs
_Voc._ vetus vetus ---- ----
_Abl._ vetere vetere ---- plūre
PLURAL.
_Nom._ veterēs vetera plūrēs plūra
_Gen._ veterum veterum plūrium plūrium
_Dat._ veteribus veteribus plūribus plūribus
_Acc._ veterēs vetera plūrēs, -īs plūra
_Voc._ veterēs vetera ---- ----
_Abl._ veteribus veteribus plūribus plūribus
1. It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant-Stem;
i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural
Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -ēs only. In
the same way are declined compos, _controlling_; dīves, _rich_; particeps,
_sharing_; pauper, _poor_; prīnceps, _chief_; sōspes, _safe_; superstes,
_surviving_. Yet dīves always has Neut. Plu. dītia.
2. Inops, _needy_, and memor, _mindful_, have Ablative Singular inopī,
memorī, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum.
3. Participles in -āns and -ēns follow the declension of ī-stems. But they
do not have -ī the Ablative, except when employed as adjectives; when used
as participles or as substantives, they have -e; as,--
ā sapientī virō, _by a wise man_; but
ā sapiente, _by a philosopher._
Tarquiniō rēgnante, _under the reign of Tarquin._
4. Plūs, in the Singular, is always a noun.
5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives,--
a) usually retain the adjective declension; as,--
aequālis, _contemporary_, Abl. aequālī.
cōnsulāris, _ex-consul_, Abl. cōnsulārī
So names of Months; as, Aprīlī, _April_; Decembrī, _December_.
b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular;
as, Celere, Celer; Juvenāle, _Juvenal_.
c) Patrials in -ās, -ātis and -īs, -ītis, when designating places
regularly have -ī; as, in Arpīnātī, _on the estate at Arpinum_, yet -e,
when used of persons; as, ab Arpīnāte, _by an Arpinatian_.
6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frūgī,
_frugal_; nēquam, _worthless_.
7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form the Gen.
Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venientum, _of those coming_.
* * * * *
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
71. 1. There are three degrees of Comparison,--the Positive, the
Comparative, and the Superlative.
2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the
Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive
deprived of its final vowel; as,--
altus, _high_, altior, _higher_, altissimus, _highest_,
_very high_.
fortis, _brave_, fortior, fortissimus.
fēlīx, _fortunate_, fēlīcior, fēlīcissimus.
So also Participles, when used as Adjectives; as,--
doctus, _learned_, doctior, doctissimus.
egēns, _needy_, egentior, egentissimus.
3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the
Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus:--
asper, _rough_, asperior, asperrimus.
pulcher, _beautiful_, pulchrior, pulcherrimus.
ācer, _sharp_, ācrior, ācerrimus.
celer, _swift_, celerior, celerrimus.
a. Notice mātūrus, mātūrior, mātūrissimus or mātūrrimus.
4. Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the
Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Comparative is
regular. Thus:--
facilis, _easy_, facilior, facillimus.
difficilis, _diffcult_, difficilior, difficillimus.
similis, _like_, similior, simillimus.
dissimilis, _unlike_, dissimilior, dissimillimus.
humilis, _low_, humilior, humillimus.
5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative and
Superlative as though from forms in -dīcēns, -ficēns, -volēns. Thus:--
maledicus, _slanderous_, maledīcentior, maledīcentissimus.
magnificus, _magnificent_, magnificentior, magnificentissimus.
benevolus, _kindly_, benevolentior, benevolentissimus.
a. Positives in -dīcēns and -volēns occur in early Latin; as maledīcēns,
benevolēns.
6. Dīves has the Comparative dīvitior or dītior; Superlative dīvitissimus
or dītissimus.
Irregular Comparison.
72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; _viz_.--
bonus, _good_, melior, optimus.
malus, _bad_, pejor, pessimus.
parvus, _small_, minor, minimus.
magnus, _large_, major, maximus.
multus, _much_, plūs, plūrimus,
frūgī, _thrifty_, frūgālior, frūgālissimus,
nēquam, _worthless_, nēquior, nēquissimus.
Defective Comparison.
73. 1. Positive lacking entirely,--
(Cf. prae, _in front prior, _former_, prīmus, _first_
of_.)
(Cf. citrā, _this side citerior, _on this citimus, _near_.
of_.) side_,
(Cf. ultrā, _beyond_.) ulterior, _farther_, ultimus, _farthest_.
(Cf. intrā, _within_.) interior, _inner_, intimus, _inmost_
(Cf. prope, _near_.) propior, _nearer_, proximus, _nearest_.
(Cf. dē, _down_.) dēterior, _inferior_, dēterrimus, _worst_.
(Cf. archaic potis, potior, _preferable_, potissimus, _chiefest_
_possible_.)
2. Positive occurring only in special cases,--
posterō diē, annō, posterior, _later_, postrēmus, _latest_,
etc. _the following _last_.
day_, etc., postumus, _late-born_,
posterī, _posthumous_.
_descendants_,
exteri, exterior, _outer_ extrēmus, extimus,
_foreigners_, _outermost_.
nātiōnēs exterae,
_foreign nations_,
inferī, _gods of the īnferior, _lower_, īnfimus, īmus,
lower world_, _lowest_.
Mare Inferum,
_Mediterranean Sea_,
superī, _gods superior, _higher_, suprēmus, _last_.
above_, summus, _highest_.
Mare Superum,
_Adriatic Sea_,
3. Comparative lacking.
vetus, _old_, ----[17] veterrimus.
fīdus, _faithful_, ---- fīdissimus.
novus, _new_, ----[18] novissimus,[19] _last_.
sacer, _sacred_, ---- sacerrimus.
falsus, _false_, ---- falsissimus.
Also in some other words less frequently used.
4. Superlative lacking.
alacer, _lively_, alacrior, ----
ingēns, _great_, ingentior, ----
salūtāris, _wholesome_, salūtārior, ----
juvenis, _young_, jūnior, ----[20]
senex, _old_, senior. ----[21]
a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -ālis, -īlis,
-ĭlis, -bilis, and in a few others.
Comparison by _Magis_ and _Maximē_.
74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison, but form the
Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (_more_) and maximē
(_most_). Here belong--
1. Many adjectives ending in -ālis, -āris, -idus, -īlis, -icus, imus, īnus,
-ōrus.
2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idōneus, _adapted_; arduus,
_steep_; necessārius, _necessary_.
a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first
u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant.
Adjectives not admitting Comparison.
75. Here belong--
1. Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do not
admit of comparison; as, hodiernus, _of to-day_; annuus, _annual_;
mortālis, _mortal_.
2. Some special words; as, mīrus, gnārus, merus; and a few others.
* * * * *
FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives, and depend upon
them for their comparison.
1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form
the Positive by changing -ī of the Genitive Singular to -ē; those derived
from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive
Singular to -iter; as,--
cārus, cārē, _dearly_;
pulcher, pulchrē, _beautifully_;
ācer, ācriter, _fiercely_;
levis, leviter, _lightly_.
a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead of -iter),
to form the Adverb; as,--
sapiēns, sapienter, _wisely_;
sollers, sollerter, _skillfully_.
Note audāx, audācter, _boldly_.
2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accusative
Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective; while the Superlative
of the Adverb is formed by changing the -ī of the Genitive Singular of the
Superlative of the Adjective to -ē. Thus--
(cārus) cārē, _dearly_, cārius, cārissimē.
(pulcher) pulchrē, _beautifully_, pulchrius, pulcherrimē.
(ācer) ācriter, _fiercely_, ācrius, ācerrimē.
(levis) leviter, _lightly_, levius, levissimē.
(sapiēns) sapienter, _wisely_, sapientius, sapientissimē.
(audāx) audācter, _boldly_, audācius, audācissimē.
Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation.
77. 1., _well_, melius, optimē.
malĕ, _ill_, pejus, pessimē.
magnopere, _greatly_, magis, maximē.
multum, _much_, plūs, plūrimum.
nōn multum, _little_, minus, minimē.
parum,
diū, _long_, diūtius, diūtissimē.
nēquiter, _worthlessly_, nēquius, nēquissimē.
saepe, _often_, saepius, saepissimē.
mātūrē, _betimes_, mātūrius, mātūrrimē.
mātūrissimē.
prope, _near_, propius, proximē.
nūper, _recently_, ---- nūperrimē.
---- potius, _rather_, potissimum,
_especially_.
---- prius, _previously_, prīmum, _first_.
_before_,
secus, _otherwise_, sētius, _less_.
2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an
Adverb in -ō, instead of -ē; as,--
crēbrō, _frequently_; falsō, _falsely_;
continuō, subitō, _suddenly_;
_immediately_;
rārō, _rarely_, and a few
others.
a. cito, quickly, has -ŏ.
3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the Positive
of the Adverb; as,--
multum, _much_; paulum, facile,
_little_; _easily_.
4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive
in -iter; as,--
fīrmus, fīrmiter, _firmly_; hūmānus, hūmāniter, _humanly_;
largus, largiter, _copiously_; alius, aliter, _otherwise_.
a. violentus has violenter.
5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of which are
-tus and -tim; as, antīquitus, _anciently_; paulātim, _gradually_.
* * * * *
NUMERALS.
78. Numerals may be divided into--
I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising--
a. _Cardinals_; as, ūnus, _one_; duo, _two_; etc.
b. _Ordinals_; as, prīmus, _first_; secundus, _second_; etc.
c. _Distributives_; as, singulī, _one by one_; bīnī, _two by two_; etc.
II. Numeral Adverbs; as, semel, _once_; bis, _twice_; etc.
79. TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.
CARDINALS. ORDINALS.
1. ūnus, ūna, ūnum prīmus, _first_
2. duo, duae, duo secundus, _second_
3. trēs, tria tertius, _third_
4. quattuor quārtus, _fourth_
5. quīnque quīntus, _fifth_
6. sex sextus
7. septem septimus
8. octo octāvus
9. novem nōnus
10. decem decimus
11. ūndecim ūndecimus
12. duodecim duodecimus
13. tredecim tertius decimus
14. quattuordecim quārtus decimus
15. quīndecim quīntus decimus
16. sēdecim, sextus decimus
sexdecim
17. septendecim septimus decimus
18. duodēvīgintī duodēvīcēsimus
19. ūndēvīgintī ūndēvīcēsimus
20. vīgintī vīcēsimus
21. vīgintī ūnus, vīcēsimus prīmus,
ūnus et vīgintī ūnus et vīcēsimus
22. vīgintī duo, vīcēsimus secundus,
duo et vīgintī alter et vīcēsimus
30. trīgintā trīcēsimus
40. quadrāgintā quadrāgēsimus
50. quīnquāgintā quīnquāgēsimus
60. sexāgintā sexāgēsimus
70. septuāgintā septuāgēsimus
80. octōgintā octōgēsimus
90. nōnāgintā nōnāgēsimus
100. centum centēsimus
101. centum ūnus, centēsimus prīmus,
centum et ūnus centēsimus et prīmus
200. ducentī, -ae, -a ducentēsimus
300. trecentī trecentēsimus
400. quadringentī quadringentēsimus
500. quīngentī quīngentēsimus
600. sescentī sescentēsimus
700. septingentī septingentēsimus
800. octingentī octingentēsimus
900. nōngentī nōngentēsimus
1,000. mīlle mīllēsimus
2,000. duo mīlia bis mīllēsimus
100,000. centum mīlia centiēs mīllēsimus
1,000,000. deciēs centēna mīlia deciēs centiēs mīllēsimus
DISTRIBUTIVES. ADVERBS.
1. singuli, _one by one_ semel, _once_
2. bīnī, _two by two_ bis
3. ternī (trīnī) ter
4. quaternī quater
5. quīnī quīnquiēs
6. sēnī sexiēs
7. septēnī septiēs
8. octōnī octiēs
9. novēnī noviēs
10. dēnī deciēs
11. ūndēnī ūndeciēs
12. duodēnī duodeciēs
13. ternī denī terdeciēs
14. quaternī denī quaterdeciēs
15. quīnī dēnī quīnquiēs deciēs
16. sēnī dēnī sexiēs deciēs
17. septēnī dēnī septiēs deciēs
18. duodēvicēnī octiēs deciēs
19. ūndēvīcēnī noviēs deciēs
20. vīcēnī vīciēs
21. vīcēnī singulī, vīciēs semel
singulī et vīcēnī
22. vīcēni bīnī, vīciēs bis
bīnī et vīcēnī
30. trīcēnī trīciēs
40. quadrāgēnī quadrāgiēs
50. quīnquāgēnī quīnquāgiēs
60. sexāgēnī sexāgiēs
70. septuāgēnī septuāgiēs
80. octōgēnī octōgiēs
90. nōnāgēnī nōnāgiēs
100. centēnī centiēs
101. centēnī singulī, centiēs semel
centēnī et singulī
200. ducēnī ducentiēs
300. trecēnī trecentiēs
400. quadringēnī quadringentiēs
500. quīngēnī quīngentiēs
600. sescēnī sescentiēs
700. septingēnī septingentiēs
800. octingēnī octingentiēs
900. nōngēnī nōngentiēs
1,000. singula mīlia mīliēs
2,000. bīna mīlia bis mīliēs
100,000. centēna mīlia centiēs mīliēs
1,000,000. deciēs centēna mīlia deciēs centiēs mīliēs
NOTE.-- -ēnsimus and -iēns are often written in the numerals instead of
-ēsimus and -iēs.
Declension of the Cardinals.
80. 1. The declension of ūnus has already been given under § 66.
2. Duo is declined as follows:--
_Nom._ duo duae duo
_Gen._ duōrum duārum duōrum
_Dat._ duōbus duābus duōbus
_Acc._ duōs, duo duās duo
_Abl._ duōbus duābus duōbus
a. So ambō, _both_, except that its final o is long.
3. Trēs is declined,--
_Nom._ trēs tria
_Gen._ trium trium
_Dat._ tribus tribus
_Acc._ trēs (trīs) tria
_Abl._ tribus tribus
4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of bonus.
5. Mīlle is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable. In
the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive of the objects
enumerated; § 201, 1), and is declined,--
_Nom._ mīlia _Acc._ mīlia
_Gen._ mīlium _Voc._ mīlia
_Dat._ mīlibus _Abl._ mīlibus
Thus mīlle hominēs, _a thousand men_; but duo mīlia hominum, _two thousand
men_, literally _two thousands of men_.
a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction; as, mīlle
hominum.
6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives are
declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.
Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals.
81. 1. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with the larger
or the smaller numeral first. In the latter case, et is used. Thus:--
trīgintā sex or sex et trīgintā, _thirty-six_.
2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed by
subtraction; as,--
duodēvīgintī, _eighteen_ (but also octōdecim);
ūndēquadrāgintā, _thirty-nine_ (but also trīgintā novem or novem et
trīgintā).
3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first; the others
follow without et; as,--
centum vīgintī septem, _one hundred and twenty-seven_.
annō octingentēsimō octōgēsimō secundō, _in the year 882_.
Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit or one of
the tens; as,--
centum et septem, _one hundred and seven_;
centum et quadrāgintā, _one hundred and forty_.
4. The Distributives are used--
a) To denote _so much each_, _so many apiece_; as,--
bīna talenta eīs dedit, _he gave them two talents each_.
b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but Singular in
meaning, are employed in a Plural sense; as,--
bīnae litterae, _two epistles_.
But in such cases, ūnī (not singulī) is regularly employed for _one_, and
trīnī (not ternī) for three; as,--
ūnae litterae, _one epistle_; trīnae litterae, _three epistles_.
c) In multiplication; as,--
bis bīna sunt quattuor, _twice two are four_.
d) Often in poetry, instead of the cardinals; as,--
bīna hastīlia, _two spears_.
* * * * *
C. PRONOUNS.
82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something without naming it.
83. There are the following classes of pronouns:--
I. Personal. V. Intensive.
II. Reflexive. VI. Relative.
III. Possessive. VII. Interrogative.
IV. Demonstrative. VIII. Indefinite.
I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
84. These correspond to the English _I_, _you_, _he_, _she_, _it_, etc.,
and are declined as follows:--
First Person. Second Person. Third Person.
SINGULAR.
_Nom._ ego, _I_ tū, _thou_ is, _he_; ea, _she_; id,
_it_
_Gen._ meī tuī (For declension see § 87.)
_Dat._ mihi[22] tibi[22]
_Acc._ mē tē
_Voc._ ---- tū
_Abl._ mē tē
PLURAL.
_Nom._ nōs, _we_ vōs, _you_
_Gen._ nostrum, nostrī vestrum, vestrī
_Dat._ nōbīs vōbīs
_Acc._ nōs vōs
_Voc._ ---- vōs
_Abl._ nōbīs vōbīs
1. A Dative Singular mī occurs in poetry.
2. Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as, egomet, _I myself_;
tibimet, _to you yourself_; tū has tūte and tūtemet (written also tūtimet).
3. In early Latin, mēd and tēd occur as Accusative and Ablative forms.
* * * * *
II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they
stand; like _myself_, _yourself_, in '_I see myself_,' etc. They are
declined as follows:--
_First Person._ _Second Person._ _Third Person._
Supplied by oblique Supplied by oblique
cases of ego. cases of tū.
_Gen._ meī, _of myself_ tuī, _of thyself_ suī
_Dat._ mihi, _to myself_ tibi, _to thyself_ sibi[22]
_Acc._ mē, _myself_ tē, _thyself_ sē or sēsē
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ mē, _with myself_, tē, _with thyself_, sē or sēsē
etc. etc.
1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for _all genders_ and for _both
numbers_. Thus sui may mean, _of himself_, _herself_, _itself_, or _of
themselves_; and so with the other forms.
2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a _reciprocal_ force; as,--
inter sē pugnant, _they fight with each other_.
3. In early Latin, sēd occurs as Accusative and Ablative.
* * * * *
III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and
are inflected as such. They are--
_First Person._ _Second Person._
meus, -a, -um, _my_; tuus, -a, -um, _thy_;
noster, nostra, nostrum, vester, vestra, vestrum,
_our_; _your_;
_Third Person._
suus, -a, -um, _his_, _her_, _its_, _their_.
1. Suus is exclusively Reflexive; as,--
pater līberōs suōs amat, _the father loves his children_.
Otherwise, _his_, _her_, _its_ are regularly expressed by the Genitive
Singular of is, viz. ejus; and _their_ by the Genitive Plural, eōrum,
eārum.
2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mī.
3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the
Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis. This is particularly
common in case of suō, suā; as, suōpte, suāpte.
* * * * *
IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
87. These point out an object as here or there, or as previously mentioned.
They are--
hīc, _this_ (where I am);
iste, _that_ (where you are);
ille, _that_ (something distinct from the speaker);
is, _that_ (weaker than ille);
īdem, _the same_.
Hīc, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First,
Second, and Third Persons respectively.
Hīc, _this_.
SINGULAR PLURAL.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ hīc haec hōc hī hae haec
_Gen._ hūjus[23] hūjus hūjus hōrum hārum hōrum
_Dat._ huic huic huic hīs hīs hīs
_Acc._ hunc hanc hōc hōs hās haec
_Abl._ hōc hāc hōc hīs hīs hīs
Iste, _that_, _that of yours._
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ iste ista istud[24] istī istae ista[24]
_Gen._ istīus istīus istīus istōrum istārum istōrum
_Dat._ istī istī istī istīs istīs istīs
_Acc._ istum istam istud istōs istās ista[24]
_Abl._ istō istā istō istīs istīs istīs
Ille (archaic olle), _that_, _that one_, _he_, is declined like iste.[25]
Is, _he_, _this_, _that_.
SINGULAR PLURAL.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom_. is ea id eī, iī, eae ea
(ī)
_Gen._ ejus ejus ejus eōrum eārum eōrum
_Dat._ eī eī eī eīs, iīs eīs, iīs eīs, iīs
_Acc._ eum eam id eōs eās ea
_Abl._ eō eā eō eīs, iīs eīs, iīs eīs, iīs
Īdem, _the same_.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom_. īdem eadem idem eīdem, eaedem eadem
iīdem
_Gen._ ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eōrundem eārundem eōrundem
_Dat._ eīdem eīdem eīdem eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem
_Acc._ eundem eandem idem eōsdem eāsdem eadem
_Abl._ eōdem eādem eōdem eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem
The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has īdem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu. īsdem or iīsdem
* * * * *
V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.
88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corresponds to the English
_myself_, etc., in '_I myself_, _he himself._'
SINGULAR PLURAL.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ ipse ipsa ipsum ipsī ipsae ipsa
_Gen._ ipsīus ipsīus ipsīus ipsōrum ipsārum ipsōrum
_Dat._ ipsī ipsī ipsī ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs
_Acc._ ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsōs ipsās ipsa
_Abl._ ipsō ipsā ipsō ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs
* * * * *
VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.
89. The Relative Pronoun is quī, who. It is declined:--
SINGULAR PLURAL.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ quī quae quod quī quae quae
_Gen._ cūjus cūjus cūjus quōrum quārum quōrum
_Dat._ cui cui cui quibus[26] quibus quibus
_Acc._ quem quam quod quōs quās quae
_Abl._ quō[27] quā[27] quō quibus[26] quibus quibus
* * * * *
VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quis, _who?_ (substantive) and quī,
_what? what kind of?_ (adjective).
1. Quis, _who_?
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
MASC. AND FEM. NEUTER
_Nom._ quis quid The rare Plural
_Gen._ cūjus cūjus follows the declension
_Dat._ cui cui of the Relative Pronoun.
_Acc._ quem quid
_Abl._ quō quō
2. Quī, _what? what kind of?_ is declined precisely like the Relative
Pronoun; viz. quī, quae, quod, etc.
a. An old Ablative quī occurs, in the sense of _how? why?_
b. Quī is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions.
c. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective.
But in such cases quis homō = _what man?_ whereas quī homō = _what sort
of man?_
d. Quis and quī may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus:--
Substantive: quisnam, _who, pray?_ quidnam, _what, pray?_
Adjective: quīnam, quaenam, quodnam, _of what kind, pray?_
* * * * *
VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
91. These have the general force of _some one_, _any one_.
SUBSTANTIVES. ADJECTIVES.
M. AND F. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.
quis, quid, quī, quae, qua, quod,
_any one_, _anything_. _any_.
aliquis, aliquid, aliquī, aliqua, aliquod,
_some one_, _any_.
_something_.
quisquam, quidquam, quisquam, quidquam,
_any one_, _anything_. _any_ (rare)
quispiam, quidpiam, quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam,
_any one_, _anything_. _any_.
quisque, quidque, quisque, quaeque, quodque,
_each_. _each_.
quīvīs, quaevīs, quidvīs, quīvis, quaevīs, quodvis,
quīlibet, quaelibet, quidlibet quilibet, quaelibet, quodlibet,
_any one_ (_anything_) _any you wish_
_you wish_
quīdam, quaedam, quiddam, quīdam, quaedam, quoddam,
_a certain person_, or _a certain_
_thing_.
1. In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined. Thus:
Genitive Singular alicūjus, cūjuslibet, etc.
2. Note that aliquī has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Feminine, also in
the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. Quī has both qua and quae in
these same cases.
3. Quīdam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam; Genitive Plural
quōrundam, quārundam; the m being assimilated to n before d.
4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliquī
substantively.
5. In combination with nē, sī, nisi, num, either quis or quī may stand as a
Substantive. Thus: sī quis or sī quī.
6. Ecquis, _any one_, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has
interrogative force. It has both substantive and adjective
forms,--substantive, ecquis, ecquid; adjective, ecquī, ecquae and ecqua,
ecquod.
7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural.
8. There are two Indefinite Relatives,--quīcumque and quisquis, _whoever_.
Quīcumque declines only the first part; quisquis declines both but has only
quisquis, quidquid, quōquō, in common use.
* * * * *
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
92. The following adjectives, also, frequently have pronominal force:--
1. alius, _another;_ alter, _the other;_
uter, _which of two?_ (interr.); neuter, _neither;_
_whichever of two_ (rel.);
ūnus, _one_; nūllus, _no one_ (in oblique
cases)
2. The compounds,--
uterque, utraque, utrumque, _each of two;_
utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, _whoever of two;_
uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, _either one you please;_
utervīs, utravīs, utrumvīs, _either one you please;_
alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, _the one or the other_.
In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains unchanged,
except in case of alteruter, which may decline both parts; as,--
_Nom._ alteruter altera utra alterum utrum
_Gen._ alterius utrīus, etc.
* * * * *
CHAPTER II.--_Conjugation._
93. A Verb is a word which asserts something; as, est, _he is_; amat, _he
loves_. The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation.
94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person:--
1. Two Voices,--Active and Passive.
2. Three Moods,--Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.
3. Six Tenses,--
Present, Perfect,
Imperfect, Pluperfect,
Future, Future
Perfect.
But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect; while the
Imperative employs only the Present and Future.
4. Two Numbers,--Singular and Plural.
5. Three Persons,--First, Second, and Third.
95. These make up the so-called _Finite Verb_. Besides this, we have the
following Noun and Adjective Forms:--
1. Noun Forms,--Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine.
2. Adjective Forms,--Participles (including the Gerundive).
96. The Personal Endings of the Verb are,--
Active. Passive.
_Sing_. 1. -ō; -m; -ī (Perf. Ind.); -r.
2. -s; -stī (Perf Ind.); -rīs, -re;
-tō or wanting (Impv.); -re, -tor (Impv.).
3. -t; -tō (Impv.); -tur; -tor (Impv.).
_Plu_. 1. -mus; -mur.
2. -tis; -stis (Perf. Ind.); -minī.
-te, -tōte (Impv.);
3. -nt; -ērunt (Perf Ind.); -ntur; -ntor (Impv.).
-ntō (Impv.);
VERB STEMS.
97. Conjugation consists in appending certain endings to the Stem. We
distinguish three different stems in a fully inflected verb,--
I. Present Stem, from which are formed--
1. Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative,
2. Present and Imperfect Subjunctive,
3. The Imperative,
4. The Present Infinitive,
- (Active and Passive.)
5. The Present Active Participle, the Gerund, and Gerundive.
II. Perfect Stem, from which are formed--
1. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative,
2. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,
3. Perfect Infinitive,
- (Active.)
III. Participial Stem, from which are formed--
1. Perfect Participle,
2. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative,
3. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,
4. Perfect Infinitive,
- (Passive.)
Apparently from the same stem, though really of different origin, are the
Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive Active and
Passive.
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
98. There are in Latin four regular Conjugations, distinguished from each
other by the vowel of the termination of the Present Infinitive Active, as
follows:--
INFINITIVE DISTINGUISHING
CONJUGATION. TERMINATION. VOWEL.
I. -āre ā
II. -ēre ē
III. -ĕre ĕ
IV. -īre ī
99. PRINCIPAL PARTS. The Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect
Indicative, and the Perfect Participle[28] constitute the Principal Parts
of a Latin verb,--so called because they contain the different stems, from
which the full conjugation of the verb may be derived.
* * * * *
CONJUGATION OF SUM.
100. The irregular verb sum is so important for the conjugation of all
other verbs that its inflection is given at the outset.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. FUT. PARTIC.[29]
sum esse fuī futūrus
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
sum, _I am_, sumus, _we are_,
es, _thou art_, estis, _you are_,
est, _he is_; sunt, _they are_.
IMPERFECT.
eram, _I was_, erāmus, _we were_,
erās, _thou wast_, erātis, _you were_,
erat, _he was_; erant, _they were_.
FUTURE.
erō, _I shall be_, erimus, _we shall be_,
eris, _thou wilt be_, eritis, _you will be_,
erit, _he will be_; erunt, _they will be_.
PERFECT.
fuī, _I have been_, _I was_, fuimus, _we have been_, _we were_,
fuistī, _thou hast been_, _thou fuistis, _you have been_, _you
wast_, were_,
fuit, _he has been_, _he was_; fuērunt, fuēre,
_they have been_, _they were_.
PLUPERFECT.
fueram, _I had been_, fuerāmus, _we had been_,
fuerās, _thou hadst been_, fuerātis, _you had been_,
fuerat, _he had been_; fuerant, _they had been_.
FUTURE PERFECT.
fuerō, _I shall have been_, fuerimus, _we shall have been_,
fueris, _thou wilt have been_, fueritis, _you will have been_,
fuerit, _he will have been_; fuerint, _they will have been_.
SUBJUNCTIVE.[30]
PRESENT.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
sim, _may I be_, sīmus, _let us be_,
sīs, _mayst thou be_, sītis, _be ye_, _may you be_,
sit, _let him be_, _may he be_; sint, _let them be_.
IMPERFECT.
essem,[31] _I should be_, essēmus, _we should be_,
essēs,[31] _thou wouldst be_, essētis, _you would be_,
esset,[31] _he would be_; essent,[31] _they would be_.
PERFECT.
fuerim, _I may have been_, fuerīmus, _we may have been_,
fuerīs, _thou mayst have been_, fuerītis, _you may have been_,
fuerit, _he may have been_; fuerint, _they may have been_.
PLUPERFECT.
fuissem, _I should have been_, fuissēmus, _we should have been_.
fuissēs, _thou wouldst have been_, fuissētis, _you would have been_,
fuisset, _he would have been_; fuissent, _they would have been_.
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ es, _be thou_; este, _be ye_,
_Fut._ estō, _thou shalt be_, estōte, _ye shall be_,
estō, _he shall be_; suntō, _they shall be_.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ esse, _to be_.
_Perf._ fuisse, _to have been_.
_Fut._ futūrus esse,[32] _to be _Fut._ futūrus,[33] _about to be_.
about to be_.
* * * * *
FIRST (OR Ā-) CONJUGATION.
101. Active Voice.--Amō, _I love_.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC.
amō amāre amāvī amātus
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
amō, _I love_, amāmus, _we love_,
amās, _you love_, amātis, _you love_,
amat, _he loves_; amant, _they love_.
IMPERFECT.
amābam, _I was loving_,[34] amābāmus, _we were loving_,
amābās, _you were loving_, amābātis, _you were loving_,
amābat, _he was loving_; amābant, _they were loving_
FUTURE.
amābō, _I shall love_, amābimus, _we shall love_,
amābis, _you will love_, amābitis, _you will love_,
amābit, _he will love_; amābunt, _they will love_.
PERFECT.
amāvī, _I have loved_, _I loved_, amāvimus, _we have loved_, _we
loved_,
amāvistī, _you have loved_, _you amāvistis, _you have loved_, _you
loved_ loved_,
amāvit, _he has loved_, _he loved_; amāvērunt, -ēre, _they have
loved_, _they loved_.
PLUPERFECT.
amāveram, _I had loved_, amāverāmus, _we had loved_,
amāverās, _you had loved_, amāverātis, _you had loved_,
amāverat, _he had loved_; amāverant, _they had loved_.
FUTURE PERFECT.
amāverō, _I shall have loved_, amāverimus, _we shall have
loved_,
amāveris, _you will have loved_, amāveritis, _you will have
loved_,
amāverit, _he will have loved_; amāverint, _they will have
loved_.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
amem, _may I love_, amēmus, _let us love_,
amēs, _may you love_, amētis, _may you love_,
amet, _let him love_; ament, _let them love_.
IMPERFECT.
amārem, _I should love_, amārēmus, _we should love_,
amārēs, _you would love_, amārētis, _you would love_,
amāret, _he would love_; amārent, _they would love_.
PERFECT.
amāverim, _I may have loved_, amāverīmus, _we may have loved_,
amāverīs, _you may have loved_, amāverītis, _you may have loved_,
amāverit, _he may have loved_; amāverint, _they may have loved_.
PLUPERFECT.
amāvissem, _I should have loved_, amāvīssēmus, _we should have
loved_,
amāvissēs, _you would have loved_, amāvissētis, _you would have
loved_,
amāvisset, _he would have loved_; amāvissent, _they would have
loved_.
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ amā, _love thou_; amāte, _love ye_.
_Fut._ amātō, _thou shalt love_, amātōte, _ye shall love_,
amātō, _he shall love_; amantō, _they shall love_.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ amāre, _to love_. _Pres._ amāns,[35] _loving_.
_Perf._ amāvisse, _to have loved_. (Gen. amantis.)
_Fut._ amātūrus esse, _to be _Fut._ amātūrus, _about to love_.
about to love_
GERUND. SUPINE.
_Gen._ amandī, _of loving_,
_Dat._ amandō, _for loving_,
_Acc._ amandum, _loving_, _Acc._ amātum, _to love_,
_Abl._ amandō, _by loving_. _Abl._ amātū, _to love_, _be
loved_.
102. Passive Voice.--Amor, _I am loved_.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND.
amōr amārī amātus sum
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
_I am loved._
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
amor amāmur
amāris amāminī
amātur amantur
IMPERFECT
_I was loved._
amābar amābāmur
amābāris, _or_ -re amābāmini
amābātur amābantur
FUTURE.
_I shall be loved._
amābor amābimur
amāberis, _or_ -re amābiminī
amābitur amābuntur
PERFECT
_I have been loved_, or _I was loved._
amātus (-a, -um) sum[36] amātī (-ae, -a) sumus
amātus es amātī estis
amātus est amātī sunt
PLUPERFECT.
_I had been loved._
amātus eram[36] amātī erāmus
amātus erās amātī erātis
amātus erat amātī erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
_I shall have been loved._
amātus erō[36] amātī erimus
amātus eris amātī eritis
amātus erit amātī erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
_May I be loved_, _let him be loved._
amer amēmur
amēris, _or_ -re amēmini
amētur amentur
IMPERFECT.
_I should be loved_, _he would be loved._
amārer amārēmur
amārēris, _or_ -re amārēminī
amārētur amārentur
PERFECT.
_I may have been loved._
amātus sim[37] amātī sīmus
amātus sīs amāti sītis
amātus sit amāti sint
PLUPERFECT.
_I should have been loved_, _he would have been loved._
amātus essem[37] amātī essēmus
amātus essēs amātī essētis
amātus esset amāti essent
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ amāre,[38] _be thou amāminī, _be ye loved._
loved_;
_Fut._ amātor, _thou shalt be
loved_,
amātor, _he shall be amantor, _they shall be loved_.
loved_;
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ amārī, _to be loved_.
_Perf._ amātus esse, _to have been _Perfect._ amātus, _loved_,
loved_. _having been loved_.
_Fut._ amātum īrī, _to be about _Gerundive._ amandus, _to be
to be loved_. loved_, _deserving to
be loved._
* * * * *
SECOND (OR Ē-) CONJUGATION.
103. Active voice.--Moneō, _I advise._
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC.
moneō monēre monuī monitus
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
_I advise._
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
moneō monēmus
monēs monētis
monet monent
IMPERFECT.
_I was advising_, or _I advised._
monēbam monēbāmus
monēbās monēbātis
monēbat monēbant
FUTURE.
_I shall advise._
monēbō monēbimus
monēbis monēbitis
monēbit monēbunt
PERFECT.
_I have advised_, or _I advised._
monuī monuimus
monuistī monuistis
monuit monuērunt, _or_ -ēre
PLUPERFECT.
_I had advised._
monueram monuerāmus
monuerās monuerātis
monuerat monuerant
FUTURE PERFECT.
_I shall have advised._
monuerō monuerimus
monueris monueritis
monuerit monuerint
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
_May I advise_, _let him advise._
moneam moneāmus
moneās moneātis
moneat moneant
IMPERFECT.
_I should advise_, _he would advise._
monērem monērēmus
monērēs monērētis
monēret monērent
PERFECT.
_I may have advised._
monuerim monuerīmus
monuerīs monuerītis
monuerit monuerint
PLUPERFECT.
_I should have advised_, _he would have advised._
monuissem monuissēmus
monuissēs monuissētis
monuisset monuissent
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ monē, _advise thou_; monēte, _advise ye_.
_Fut._ monētō, _thou shall monētōte, _ye shall advise_,
advise_,
monētō, _he shall advise_; monentō, _they shall advise._
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ monēre, _to advise_. _Pres._ monēns, _advising_.
_Perf._ monuisse, _to have (Gen. monentis.)
advised_.
_Fut._ monitūrus esse, _to be _Fut._ monitūrus, _about to
about to advise_. advise_.
GERUND. SUPINE.
_Gen._ monendī, _of advising_,
_Dat._ monendō, _for advising_,
_Acc._ monendum, _advising_, _Acc._ monitum, _to advise_,
_Abl._ monendō, _by advising_. _Abl._ monitū, _to advise_,
_be advised_.
104. Passive voice.--Moneor, _I am advised_.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND.
moneor monērī monitus sum
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
_I am advised._
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
moneor monēmur
monēris monēminī
monētur monentur
IMPERFECT.
_I was advised._
monēbar monēbāmur
monēbāris, _or_ -re monēbāminī
monēbātur monēbantur
FUTURE.
_I shall be advised._
monēbor monēbimur
monēberis, _or_ -re monēbiminī
monēbitur monēbuntur
PERFECT.
_I have been advised_, _I was advised._
monitus sum monitī sumus
monitus es monitī estis
monitus est monitī sunt
PLUPERFECT.
_I had been advised._
monitus eram monitī erāmus
monitus erās monitī erātis
monitus erat monitī erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
_I shall have been advised._
monitus erō monitī erimus
monitus eris monitī eritis
monitus erit monitī erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
_May I be advised_, _let him be advised._
monear moneāmur
moneāris, _or_ -re moneāminī
moneātur moneantur
IMPERFECT.
_I should be advised_, _he would be advised._
monērer monērēmur
monērēris, _or_ -re monērēminī
monērētur monērentur
PERFECT.
_I may have been advised._
monitus sim monitī sīmus
monitus sīs monitī sītis
monitus sit monitī sint
PLUPERFECT.
_I should have been advised_, _he would have been advised._
monitus essem monitī essēmus
monitus essēs monitī essētis
monitus esset monitī essent
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ monēre, _be thou advised_; monēminī, _be ye advised_.
_Fut._ monētor, _thou shalt be
advised_,
monētor, _he shall be monentor, _they shall be
advised_. advised_.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ monērī, _to be advised_. _Perfect._ monitus, _advised_,
_having been advised_.
_Perf._ monitus esse, _to have
been advised_
_Fut._ monitum īrī, _to be about _Gerundive._ monendus, _to be
to be advised._ advised_, _deserving to
be advised._
* * * * *
THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION.
105. Active Voice.--Regō, _I rule_.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC.
regō regere rēxī rēctus
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
_I rule_
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
regō regimus
regis regitis
regit regunt
IMPERFECT.
_I was ruling_, or _I ruled_.
regēbam regēbāmus
regēbās regēbātis
regēbat regēbant
FUTURE.
_I shall rule_.
regam regēmus
regēs regētis
reget regent
PERFECT.
_I have ruled_, or _I ruled_
rēxī rēximus
rēxistī rēxistis
rēxit rēxērunt, _or_ -ēre
PLUPERFECT.
_I had ruled_.
rēxeram rēxerāmus
rēxerās rēxerātis
rēxerat rēxerant
FUTURE PERFECT.
_I shall have ruled_.
rēxerō rēxerimus
rēxeris rēxeritis
rēxerit rēxerint
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
_May I rule_, _let him rule._
regam regāmus
regās regātis
regat regant
IMPERFECT.
_I should rule_, _he would rule._
regerem regerēmus
regerēs regerētis
regeret regerent
PERFECT.
_I may have ruled._
rēxerim rēxerīmus
rēxerīs rēxerītis
rēxerit rēxerint
PLUPERFECT.
_I should have ruled_, _he would have ruled._
rēxissem rēxissēmus
rēxissēs rēxissētis
rēxisset rēxissent
IMPERATIVE.
rege, _rule thou_; regite, _rule ye_.
regitō, _thou shall rule_, regitōte, _ye shall rule_,
regitō, _he shall rule_; reguntō, _they shall rule_.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
regere, _to rule_. _Pres._ regēns, _ruling_.
rēxisse, _to have ruled_. (Gen. regentis.)
rēctūrus esse, _to be about to _Fut._ rēctūrus, _about to
rule_ rule_.
GERUND. SUPINE.
regendī, _of ruling_,
regendō, _for ruling_,
regendum, _ruling_, _Acc._ rēctum, _to rule_,
regendō, _by ruling_. _Abl._ rēctū, _to rule_, _be
ruled_.
106. Passive Voice.--Regor, _I am ruled_.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND.
regor regī rēctus sum
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
_I am ruled._
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
regor regimur
regeris regiminī
regitur reguntur
IMPERFECT.
_I was ruled._
regēbar regēbāmur
regēbāris, _or_ -re regēbāminī
regēbātur regēbantur
FUTURE.
_I shall be ruled._
regar regēmur
regēris, _or_ -re regēminī
regētur regentur
PERFECT.
_I have been ruled_, or _I was ruled_.
rēctus sum rēctī sumus
rēctus es rēctī estis
rēctus est rēctī sunt
PLUPERFECT.
_I had been ruled._
rēctus eram rēctī erāmus
rēctus erās rēctī erātis
rēctus erat rēctī erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
_I shall have been ruled_
rēctus erō rēctī erimus
rēctus eris rēctī eritis
rēctus erit rēctī erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
_May I be ruled_, _let him be ruled._
regar regāmur
regāris, _or_ -re regāminī
regātur regantur
IMPERFECT.
_I should be ruled_, _he would be ruled._
regerer regerēmur
regerēris, _or_ -re regerēminī
regerētur regerentur
PERFECT.
_I may have been ruled._
rēctus sim rēctī sīmus
rēctus sīs rēctī sītis
rēctus sit rēctī sint
PLUPERFECT.
_I should have been ruled_, _he would have been ruled._
rēctus essem rēctī essēmus
rēctus essēs rectī essētis
rēctus esset rectī essent
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ regere, _be thou ruled_; regiminī, _be ye ruled_.
_Fut._ regitor, _thou shalt be
ruled_,
regitor, _he shall be reguntor, _they shall be ruled_.
ruled_;
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ regī, _to be ruled_. _Perfect._ rēctus, _ruled_,
_having been ruled_.
_Perf._ rēctus esse, _to have been _Gerundive._ regendus, _to be
ruled_. ruled_, _deserving to
be ruled_.
_Fut._ rēctum īrī, _to be about
to be ruled_.
* * * * *
FOURTH (OR Ī-) CONJUGATION.
107. Active voice.--Audiō, _I hear_.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC.
audiō audīre audīvī audītus
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
_I hear._
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
audiō audīmus
audīs audītis
audit audiunt
IMPERFECT.
_I was hearing_, or _I heard._
audiēbam audiēbāmus
audiēbās audiēbātis
audiēbat audiēbant
FUTURE.
_I shall hear._
audiam audiēmus
audiēs audiētis
audiet audient
PERFECT.
_I have heard_, or _I heard._
audīvī audīvimus
audīvistī audīvistis
audīvit audīvērunt, _or _-ēre
PLUPERFECT.
_I had heard._
audīveram audīverāmus
audīverās audīverātis
audīverat audīverant
FUTURE PERFECT.
_I shall have heard._
audīverō audīverimus
audīveris audīveritis
audīverit audīverint
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
_May I hear_, _let him hear._
audiam audiāmus
audiās audiātis
audiat audiant
IMPERFECT.
_I should hear_, _he would hear._
audīrem audīrēmus
audīrēs audīrētis
audīret audīrent
PERFECT.
_I may have heard._
audīverim audīverīmus
audīverīs audīverītis
audīverit audīverint
PLUPERFECT.
_I should have heard_, _he would have heard._
audīvissem audīvissēmus
audīvissēs audīvissētis
audīvisset audīvissent
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ audī, _hear thou_; audīte, _hear ye_.
_Fut._ audītō, _thou shalt hear_, audītōte, _ye shall hear_,
audītō, _he shall hear_; audiuntō, _they shall hear_.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ audīre, _to hear_. _Pres._ audiēns, _hearing_.
_Perf._ audīvisse, _to have (Gen. audientis.)
heard_.
_Fut._ audītūrus esse, _to be _Fut._ audītūrus, _about to
about to hear_. hear_.
GERUND. SUPINE
_Gen._ audiendī, _of hearing_,
_Dat._ audiendō, _for hearing_,
_Acc._ audiendum, _hearing_, _Acc._ audītum, _to hear_,
_Abl._ audiendō, _by hearing_. _Abl._ audītū, _to hear, be
heard_.
108. Passive Voice.--Audior, _I am heard_.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND.
audior audīrī audītus sum
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
_I am heard_.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
audior audīmur
audīris audīminī
audītur audiuntur
IMPERFECT.
_I was heard_.
audiēbar audiēbāmur
audiēbāris, _or_ -re audiēbāminī
audiēbātur audiēbantur
FUTURE.
_I shall be heard_.
audiar audiēmur
audiēris, _or_ -re audiēminī
audiētur audientur
PERFECT.
_I have been heard_, or _I was heard_.
audītus sum audītī sumus
audītus es audītī estis
audītus est audītī sunt
PLUPERFECT.
_I had been heard_.
audītus eram audītī erāmus
audītus erās audītī erātis
audītus erat audītī erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
_I shall have been heard_.
audītus erō audītī erimus
audītus eris audītī eritis
audītus erit audītī erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
_May I be heard_, _let him be heard_.
audiar audiāmur
audiāris, _or_ -re audiāminī
audiātur audiantur
IMPERFECT.
_I should be heard_, _he would be heard_.
audīrer audīrēmur
audīrēris, _or_ -re audirēminī
audīrētur audīrentur
PERFECT.
_I may have been heard_.
audītus sim audītī sīmus
audītus sīs audītī sītis
audītus sit audītī sint
PLUPERFECT.
_I should have been heard_, _he would have been heard_.
audītus essem audītī essēmus
audītus essēs audītī essētis
audītus esset audītī essent
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ audīre, _be thou heard_; audīminī, be ye heard.
_Fut._ audītor, _thou shalt be
heard_,
audītor, _he shall be audiuntor, _they shall be heard_.
heard_;
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ audīrī, _to be heard_. _Perfect._ audītus, _heard_,
_having been heard_
_Perf._ audītus esse, _to have _Gerundive._ audiendus, _to be
been heard_. heard_, _deserving to
be heard_
_Fut._ audītum īrī, _to be about
to be heard_.
* * * * *
VERBS IN -IŌ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION.
109. 1. Verbs in -iō of the Third Conjugation take the endings of the
Fourth Conjugation wherever the latter endings have two successive vowels.
This occurs only in the Present System.
2. Here belong--
a) capiō, _to take_; cupiō, _to desire_; faciō, _to make_; fodiō, _to
dig_; fugiō, _to flee_; jaciō, _to throw_; pariō, _to bear_; quatiō, _to
shake_; rapiō, _to seize_; sapiō, _to taste_.
b) Compounds of laciō and speciō (both ante-classical); as, alliciō,
_entice_; cōnspiciō, _behold_.
c) The deponents gradior, _to go_; morior, _to die_, patior, _to suffer_.
110. Active voice.--Capiō, _I take_.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC.
capiō, capere, cēpī, captus.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
capiō, capis, capit; capimus, capitis, capiunt.
IMPERFECT.
capiēbam, -iēbās, -iēbat; capiēbāmus, -iēbātis, -iēbant.
FUTURE.
capiam, -iēs, -iet; capiēmus, -iētis, -ient.
PERFECT.
cēpī, -istī, -it; cēpimus, -istis, -ērunt or -ēre.
PLUPERFECT.
cēperam, -erās, -erat; cēperāmus, -erātis, -erant.
FUTURE PERFECT.
cēperō, -eris, -erit; cēperimus, -eritis, -erint.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
capiam, -iās, -iat; capiāmus, -iātis, -iant.
IMPERFECT.
caperem, -erēs, -eret; caperēmus, -erētis, -erent.
PERFECT.
cēperim, -eris, -erit; cēperīmus, -erītis, -erint.
PLUPERFECT.
cēpissem, -issēs, -isset; cēpissēmus, -issētis, -issent.
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ cape; capite.
_Fut._ capitō, capitōte,
capitō; capiuntō.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ capere _Pres._ capiēns.
_Perf._ cēpisse.
_Fut._ captūrus esse. _Fut._ captūrus.
GERUND. SUPINE.
_Gen._ capiendī,
_Dat._ capiendō,
_Acc._ capiendum, _Acc._ captum,
_Abl._ capiendō. _Abl._ captū.
111. Passive Voice.--Capior, _I am taken_.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND.
capior, capī, captus sum.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
capior, caperis, capitur; capimur, capiminī, capiuntur.
IMPERFECT.
capiēbar, -iēbāris, -iēbātur; capiēbāmur, -iēbāminī, -iēbantur.
FUTURE.
capiar, -iēris, -iētur; capiēmur, -iēminī, -ientur.
PERFECT.
captus sum, es, est; captī sumus, estis, sunt.
PLUPERFECT.
captus eram, erās, erat; captī erāmus, erātis, erant.
FUTURE PERFECT.
captus erō, eris, erit; captī erimus, eritis, erunt.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
capiar, -iāris, -iātur; capiāmur, -iāminī, -iantur.
IMPERFECT.
caperer, -erēris, -erētur; caperēmur, -erēminī, -erentur.
PERFECT.
captus sim, sīs, sit; captī sīmus, sītis, sint.
PLUPERFECT.
captus essem, essēs, esset; captī essēmus, essētis, essent.
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ capere; capiminī.
_Fut._ capitor,
capitor; capiuntor.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ capī.
_Perf._ captus esse. _Perfect._ captus.
_Fut._ captum īrī. _Gerundive._ capiendus.
* * * * *
DEPONENT VERBS.
112. Deponent Verbs have in the main Passive _forms_ with Active or Neuter
_meaning_. But--
a. They have the following Active forms: Future Infinitive, Present and
Future Participles, Gerund, and Supine.
b. They have the following Passive meanings: always in the Gerundive, and
sometimes in the Perfect Passive Participle; as--
sequendus, _to be followed_; adeptus, _attained_.
113. Paradigms of Deponent Verbs are--
I. Conj. mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum, _admire_.
II. Conj. vereor, vererī, veritus sum, _fear_.
III. Conj. sequor, sequī, secūtus sum, _follow_.
IV. Conj. largior, largīrī, largītus sum, _give_.
III. (in -ior) patior, patī, passus sum, _suffer_.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
I. II. III. IV. III (in
-ior)
_Pres._ mīror vereor sequor largior patior
mīrāris verēris sequeris largiris pateris
mīrātur verētur sequitur largītur patitur
mīramur verēmur sequimur largīmur patimur
mīrāminī verēminī sequiminī largīminī patiminī
mīrantur verentur sequuntur largiuntur patiuntur
_Impf._ mīrābar verēbar sequēbar largiēbar patiēbar
_Fut._ mīrābor verēbor sequar largiar patiar
_Perf._ mirātus sum veritus sum secūtus sum largītus sum passus sum
_Plup._ mīrātus veritus secūtus largītus passus
eram eram eram eram eram
_F.P._ mīrātus erō veritus erō secūtus erō largītus erō passus erō
SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres._ mīrer verear sequar largiar patiar
_Impf._ mīrārer verērer sequerer largīrer paterer
_Perf._ mīrātus sim veritus sim secūtus sim largītus sim passus sim
_Plup._ mīrātus veritus sectūtus largītus passus
essem essem essem essem essem
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ mīrāre, verēre, sequere, largīre, patere,
etc. etc. etc. etc. etc.
_Fut._ mīrātor, verētor, sequitor, largītor, patitor,
etc. etc. etc. etc. etc.
INFINITIVE.
_Pres._ mīrāri verērī sequī largīrī patī
_Perf._ mīrātus veritus secūtus largītus passus
esse esse esse esse esse
_Fut._ mīrātūrus veritūrus secūtūrus largītūrus passūrus
esse esse esse esse esse
PARTICIPLES.
_Pres._ mīrāns verēns sequēns largiēns patiēns
_Fut._ mīrātūrus veritūrus secūtūrus largitūrus passūrus
_Perf._ mīrātus veritus secūtus largitus passus
_Ger._ mīrandus verendus sequendus largiendus patiendus
GERUND.
mīrandī verendī sequendī largiendī patiendī
mirandō, verendō, sequendō, largiendō, patiendō,
etc. etc. etc. etc. etc.
SUPINE.
mīrātum, veritum, secūtum, largītum, passum,
-tū -tū -tū -tū -sū
* * * * *
SEMI-DEPONENTS.
114. 1. Semi-Deponents are verbs which have the Present System in the
Active Voice, but the Perfect System in the Passive without change of
meaning. Here belong--
audeō, audēre, ausus sum, _to dare_.
gaudeō, gaudēre, gāvīsus sum, _to rejoice_.
soleō, solēre, solitus sum, _to be wont_.
fīdō, fīdere, fīsus sum, _to trust_.
2. The following verbs have a Perfect Passive Participle with Active
meaning:--
adolēscō, _grow up_; adultus, _having grown up_,
cēnāre, _dine_; cēnātus, _having dined_.
placēre, _please_; placitus, _having pleased_, _agreeable_.
prandēre, _lunch_; prānsus, _having lunched_.
pōtāre, _drink_; pōtus, _having drunk_.
jūrāre, _swear_; jūrātus, _having sworn_.
a. Jūrātus is used in a passive sense also.
3. Revertor and dēvertor both regularly form their Perfect in the Active
Voice; _viz_.--
revertor, revertī (Inf.), revertī (Perf.), _to return_.
dēvertor, dēvertī (Inf.), dēvertī (Perf.), _to turn aside_.
* * * * *
PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
115. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations,--the Active and the Passive.
The Active is formed by combining the Future Active Participle with the
auxiliary sum, the Passive by combining the Gerundive with the same
auxiliary.
Active Periphrastic Conjugation.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
_Pres._ amātūrus (-a, -um) sum, _I am about to love_.
_Inf._ amātūrus eram, _I was about to love_.
_Fut._ amātūrus erō, _I shall be about to love_.
_Perf._ amātūrus fuī, _I have been (was) about to love_.
_Plup._ amātūrus fueram, _I had been about to love_.
_Fut. P._ amātūrus fuerō, _I shall have been about to love_.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres._ amātūrus sim, _may I be about to love_.
_Imp._ amātūrus essem, _I should be about to love_.
_Perf._ amātūrus fuerim, _I may have been about to love_.
_Plup._ amātūrus fuissem, _I should have been about to love_.
INFINITIVE.
_Pres._ amātūrus esse, _to be about to love_.
_Perf._ amātūrus fuisse, _to have been about to love_.
Passive Periphrastic Conjugation.
INDICATIVE.
_Pres._ amandus (-a, -um) sum, _I am to be loved_, _must be loved_.
_Imp._ amandus eram, _I was to be loved_.
_Fut._ amandus erō, _I shall deserve to be loved_.
_Perf._ amandus fuī, _I was to be loved_.
_Plup._ amandus fueram, _I had deserved to be loved_.
_Fut. P._ amandus fuerō, _I shall have deserved to be loved_.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres._ amandus sim, _may I deserve to be loved_.
_Imp._ amandus essem, _I should deserve to be loved_.
_Perf._ amandus fuerim, _I may have deserved to be loved_.
_Plup._ amendus fuissem, _I should have deserved to be loved_.
INFINITIVE.
_Pres._ amandus esse, _to deserve to be loved_.
_Perf._ amantus fuisse, _to have deserved to be loved_.
* * * * *
PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION.
116. 1. Perfects in -āvī, -ēvī, and -īvī, with the forms derived from them,
often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning with r or s. So also nōvī
(from nōscō) and the compounds of mōvī (from moveō). Thus:--
amāvistī amāstī dēlēvistī dēlēstī
amāvisse amāsse dēlēvisse dēlēsse
amāvērunt amārunt dēlēvērunt dēlērunt
amāverim amārim dēlēverim dēlērim
amāveram amāram dēlēveram dēlēram
amāverō amārō dēlēverō dēlērō
nōvistī nōstī nōverim nōrim
nōvisse nōsse nōveram nōram
audīvistī audīstī audīvisse audīsse
2. In the Gerund and Gerundive of the Third and Fourth Conjugations, the
endings -undus, -undī, often occur instead of -endus and -endī, as
faciundus, faciundī.
3. Dīcō, dūcō, faciō, form the Imperatives, dīc, dūc, fac. But compounds of
faciō form the Imperative in -fice, as cōnfice. Compounds of dīcō, dūcō,
accent the ultima; as, ēdū´c, ēdī´c.
4. Archaic and Poetic forms:--
a. The ending -ier in the Present Infinitive Passive; as, amārier,
monērier, dīcier, for amārī, monērī, dīcī.
b. The ending -ībam for -iēbam in Imperfects of the Fourth Conjugation,
and -ībō for -iam in Futures; as, scībam, scībō, for sciēbam, sciam.
c. Instead of the fuller forms, in such words as dīxistī, scrīpsistis,
surrēxisse, we sometimes find dīxtī, scrīpstis, surrēxe, etc.
d. The endings -im, -īs, etc. (for -am, -ās, etc.) occur in a few
Subjunctive forms; as, edim (_eat_), duint, perduint.
5. In the Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitive, the auxiliary esse
is often omitted; as, āctūrum for ācturum esse; ējectus for ējectus esse.
* * * * *
FORMATION OF THE VERB STEMS.
Formation of the Present Stem.
117. Many verbs employ the simple Verb Stem for the Present Stem;[39] as,
dīcere, amāre, monēre, audīre. Others modify the Verb Stem to form the
Present, as follows:--
1. By appending the vowels, ā, ē, ī; as,--
Present Stem Verb Stem
juvāre, juvā- juv-.
augēre, augē- aug-.
vincīre, vincī- vinc-.
2. By adding i, as capiō, Present Stem capi- (Verb Stem cap-).
3. By the insertion of n (m before labial-mutes) before the final consonant
of the Verb Stem; as, fundō (Stem fud-), rumpō (Stem rup-).
4. By appending -n to the Verb Stem; as,--
cern-ō pell-ō (for pel-nō).
5. By appending t to the Verb Stem; as,--
flect-ō.
6. By appending sc to the Verb Stem; as,--
crēsc-ō. scīsc-ō.
7. By Reduplication, that is, by prefixing the initial consonant of the
Verb Stem with i; as,--
gi-gn-ō (root gen-), si-st-ō (root sta-).
Formation of the Perfect Stem.
118. The Perfect Stem is formed from the Verb Stem--
1. By adding v (in case of Vowel Stems); as,--
amāv-ī, dēlēv-ī, audīv-ī.
2. By adding u (in case of some Consonant Stems); as,--
strepu-ī, genu-ī, alu-ī.
3. By adding s (in case of most Consonant Stems); as,--
carp-ō, Perfect carps-ī.
scrīb-ō, " scrīps-ī (for scrīb-sī).
rīd-eō, " rīs-ī (for rīd-sī).
sent-iō, " sēns-ī (for sent-sī).
dīc-ō, " dīx-ī (i.e. dīc-sī).
a. Note that before the ending -sī a Dental Mute (t, d) is lost; a
Guttural Mute (c, g) unites with s to form x; while the Labial b is
changed to p.
4. Without addition. Of this formation there are three types:--
a) The Verb Stem is reduplicated by prefixing the initial consonant with
the following vowel or e; as,--
currō, Perfect cu-currī.
poscō, " po-poscī.
pellō, " pe-pulī.
NOTE 1.--Compounds, with the exception of dō, stō, sistō, discō, poscō,
omit the reduplication. Thus: com-pulī, but re-poposcī.
NOTE 2.--Verbs beginning with sp or st retain both consonants in the
reduplication, but drop s from the stem; as, spondeō, spo-pondī; stō,
stetī.
b) The short vowel of the Verb Stem is lengthened; as, legō, lēgī; agō,
ēgī. Note that ă by this process becomes ē.
c) The vowel of the Verb Stem is unchanged; as, vertō, vertī; minuō,
minuī.
Formation of the Participial Stem.
119. The Perfect Passive Participle, from which the Participial Stem is
derived by dropping -us, is formed:--
1. By adding -tus (sometimes to the Present Stem, sometimes to the Verb
Stem); as,--
amā-re, Participle amā-tus.
dēlē-re, " dēlē-tus,
audī-re, " audī-tus,
leg-ere, " lēc-tus,
scrīb-ere, " scrīp-tus,
sentī-re, " sēn-sus (for sent-tus).
caed-ere, " cae-sus (for caed-tus).
a. Note that g, before t, becomes c (see § 8, 5); b becomes p; while dt
or tt becomes ss, which is then often simplified to s (§ 8, 2).
2. After the analogy of Participles like sēnsus and caesus, where -sus
arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tus is added to other Verb Stems;
as,--
lāb-ī, Participle lāp-sus.
fīg-ere, " fī-xus.
a. The same consonant changes occur in appending this ending -sus to the
stem as in the case of the Perfect ending -si (see § 118, 3, a).
3. A few Verbs form the Participle in -ĭtus; as,--
domā-re, dom-ĭtus.
monē-re, mon-ĭtus.
4. The Future Active Participle is usually identical in its stem with the
Perfect Passive Participle; as, amā-tus, amātūrus; moni-tus, monitūrus.
But--
juvā-re, Perf. Partic. jūtus, has Fut. Act. Partic. juvātūrus.[40]
lavā-re, " " lautus, " " " lavātūrus.
par-ere, " " partus, " " " paritūrus.
ru-ere, " " rutus, " " " ruitūrus.
secă-re, " " sectus, " " " secātūrus.
fru-ĭ, " " frūctus, " " " fruitūrus.
mor-ī, " " mortuus, " " " moritūrus.
orī-rī, " " ortus, " " " oritūrus.
* * * * *
LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS, WITH PRINCIPAL PARTS.
First (_Ā_-) Conjugation.
120. I. PERFECT IN -VĪ.
amō amāre amāvī amātus _love_
All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model.
pōtō pōtāre pōtāvī pōtus (§ 114, _drink_
2)
II. PERFECT IN -UĪ.
crepō crepāre crepuī crepitūrus _rattle_
cubō cubāre cubuī cubitūrus _lie down_
domō domāre domuī domitus _tame_
fricō fricāre fricuī frictus _and_ _rub_
fricātus
micō micāre micuī ---- _glitter_
dīmicō dīmicāre dīmicāvī dīmicātum _fight_
(est)[41]
ex-plicō explicāre explicāvī explicātus _unfold_
(-uī) (-itus)
im-plicō implicāre implicāvī implicātus _entwine_
(-uī) (-itus)
secō secāre secuī sectus _cut_
sonō sonāre sonuī sonātūrus _sound_
tonō tonāre tonuī ---- _thunder_
vetō vetāre vetuī vetitus _forbid_
III. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH LENGTHENING OF THE STEM VOWEL.
juvō juvāre jūvī jūtus _help_
lavō lavāre lāvī lautus _wash_
IV. PERFECT REDUPLICATED.
stō stāre stetī stātūrus
V. DEPONENTS.
These are all regular, and follow _mīror_, _mīrārī_, _mīrātus sum_.
Second (_Ē_-) Conjugation.
121. I. PERFECT IN -VĪ.
dēleō dēlēre dēlēvī dēlētus _destroy_
fleō flēre flēvī flētus _weep_, _lament_
com-pleō[42] complēre complēvī complētus _fill up_
aboleō abolēre abolēvī abolitus _destroy_
cieō[43] ciēre cīvī citus _set in motion_
II. PERFECT IN -UĪ.
a. Type -eō, -ēre, -uī, -itus.
arceō arcēre arcuī _keep off_
coerceō coercēre coercuī coercitus _hold in check_
exerceō exercēre exercuī exercitus _practise_
caleō calēre caluī calitūrus _be warm_
careō carēre caruī caritūrus _be without_
doleō dolēre doluī dolitūrus _grieve_
habeō habēre habuī habitus _have_
dēbeō dēbēre dēbuī dēbitus _owe_
praebeō praebēre praebuī praebitus _offer_
jaceō jacēre jacuī jacitūrus _lie_
mereō merēre meruī meritus _earn_, _deserve_
moneō monēre monuī monitus _advise_
noceō nocēre nocuī nocitum (est) _injure_
pāreō pārēre pāruī pāritūrus _obey_
placeō placēre placuī placitūrus _please_
taceō tacēre tacuī tacitūrus _be silent_
terreō terrēre terruī territus _frighten_
valeō valēre valuī valitūrus _be strong_
NOTE 1.--The following lack the Participial Stem:--
egeō egēre eguī ---- _want_
ēmineō ēminēre ēminuī ---- _stand forth_
flōreō flōrēre flōruī ---- _bloom_
horreō horrēre horruī ---- _bristle_
lateō latēre latuī ---- _lurk_
niteō nitēre nituī ---- _gleam_
oleō olēre oluī ---- _smell_
palleō pallēre palluī ---- _be pale_
pateō patēre patuī ---- _lie open_
rubeō rubēre rubuī ---- _be red_
sileō silēre siluī ---- _be silent_
splendeō splendēre splenduī ---- _gleam_
studeō studēre studuī ---- _study_
stupeō stupēre stupuī ---- _be amazed_
timeō timēre timuī ---- _fear_
torpeō torpēre torpuī ---- _be dull_
vigeō vigēre viguī ---- _flourish_
vireō virēre viruī ---- _be green_
and others.
NOTE 2.--The following are used only in the Present System:--
aveō avēre ---- ---- _wish_
frīgeō frīgēre ---- ---- _be cold_
immineō imminēre ---- ---- _overhang_
maereō maerēre ---- ---- _mourn_
polleō pollēre ---- ---- _be strong_
and others.
b. Type -eō, -ēre, -uī, -tus (-sus).
cēnseō cēnsēre cēnsuī cēnsus _estimate_
doceō docēre docuī doctus _teach_
misceō miscēre miscuī mixtus _mix_
teneō tenēre tenuī ---- _hold_
So _contineō_ and _sustineō_; but--
retineō retinēre retinuī retentus _retain_
obtineō obtinēre obtinuī obtentus _maintain_
torreō torrēre torruī tostus _bake_
III. PERFECT IN -SĪ.
augeō augēre auxī auctus _increase_
torqueō torquēre torsī tortus _twist_
indulgeō indulgēre indulsī ---- _indulge_
lūceō lūcēre lūxī ---- _be light_
lūgeō lūgēre lūxī ---- _mourn_
jubeō jubēre jussī jussus _order_
per-mulceō permulcēre permulsī permulsus _soothe_
rīdeō rīdēre rīsī rīsum (est) _laugh_
suādeō suādēre suāsī suāsum (est) _advise_
abs-tergeō abstergēre abstersī abstersus _wipe off_
ārdeō ārdēre ārsī ārsūrus _burn_
haereō haerēre haesī haesūrus _stick_
maneō manēre mānsī mānsūrus _stay_
algeō algēre alsī ---- _be cold_
fulgeō fulgēre fulsī ---- _gleam_
urgeō urgēre ursī ---- _press_
IV. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH REDUPLICATION.
mordeō mordēre momordī morsus _bite_
spondeō spondēre spopondī spōnsus _promise_
tondeō tondēre totondī tōnsus _shear_
pendeō pendēre pependī ---- _hang_
V. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.
caveō cavēre cāvī cautūrus _take care_
faveō favēre fāvī fautūrus _favor_
foveō fovēre fōvī fōtus _cherish_
moveō movēre mōvī mōtus _move_
paveō pavēre pāvī ---- _fear_
sedeō sedēre sēdī sessūrus _sit_
videō vidēre vīdī vīsus _see_
voveō vovēre vōvī vōtus _vow_
VI. PERFECT IN -Ī WITHOUT EITHER REDUPLICATION OR LENGTHENING OF STEM
VOWEL.
ferveō fervēre (fervī, ---- _boil_
ferbuī)
prandeō prandēre prandī prānsus (§ 114, _lunch_
2)
strīdeō strīdēre strīdī ---- _creak_
VII. DEPONENTS.
liceor licērī licitus sum _bid_
polliceor pollicērī pollicitus sum _promise_
mereor merērī meritus sum _earn_
misereor miserērī miseritus sum _pity_
vereor verērī veritus sum _fear_
fateor fatērī fassus sum _confess_
cōnfiteor cōnfitērī cōnfessus sum _confess_
reor rērī ratus sum _think_
medeor medērī ---- _heal_
tueor tuērī ---- _protect_
Third (Consonant) Conjugation.
122. I. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN A CONSONANT.
1. Perfect in -sī.
a. Type -ō, -ĕre, -sī, -tus.
carpō carpere carpsī carptus _pluck_
sculpō sculpere sculpsī sculptus _chisel_
rēpō rēpere rēpsī ---- _creep_
serpō serpere serpsī ---- _crawl_
scribō scribere scrīpsī scrīptus _write_
nūbō nūbere nūpsī nūpta (woman _marry_
only)
regō regere rēxī rēctus _govern_
tegō tegere tēxī tēctus _cover_
af-flīgō afflīgere afflīxī afflīctus _shatter_
dīcō dīcere dīxī dictus _say_
dūcō dūcere dūxī ductus _lead_
coquō coquere coxī coctus _cook_
trahō trahere trāxī trāctus _draw_
vehō vehere vexī vectus _carry_
cingō cingere cīnxī cīnctus _gird_
tingō tingere tīnxī tīnctus _dip_
jungō jungere jūnxī jūnctus _join_
fingō fingere fīnxī fīctus _would_
pingō pingere pīnxī pīctus _paint_
stringō stringere strīnxī strictus _bind_
-stinguō[44] -stinguere -stīnxī -stīnctus _blot out_
unguō unguere ūnxī ūnctus _anoint_
vīvō vīvere vīxī vīctum (est) _live_
gerō gerere gessī gestus _carry_
urō ūrere ussī ūstus _burn_
temnō temnere con-tempsī con-temptus _despise_
b. Type -ō, -ĕre, -sī, -sus.
fīgō fīgere fīxī fīxus _fasten_
mergō mergere mersī mersus _sink_
spargō spargere sparsī sparsus _scatter_
flectō flectere flexī flexus _bend_
nectō nectere nexuī nexus _twine_
(nexī)
mittō mittere mīsī missus _send_
rādō rādere rāsī rāsus _shave_
rōdō rōdere rōsī rōsus _gnaw_
vādō vādere -vāsī[45] -vāsum _march_, _walk_
(est)[45]
lūdō lūdere lūsī lūsum (est) _play_
trūdō trūdere trūsī trūsus _push_
laedō laedere laesī laesus _injure_, _hurt_
claudō claudere clausī clausus _close_
plaudō plaudere plausī plausum (est) _clap_
explōdō explōdere explōsī explōsus _hoot off_
cēdō cēdere cessī cessum (est) _withdraw_
dīvidō dīvidere dīvīsī dīvīsus _divide_
premō premere pressī pressus _press_
2. Perfect in -ī with Reduplication.
ab-dō abdere abdidī abditus _conceal_
red-dō red-dere reddidī redditus _return_
So _addō_, _condō_, _dēdō_, _perdō_, _prōdō_,
_trādō_, etc.
cōn-sistō cōnsistere cōnstitī ---- _take one's stand_
resistō resistere restitī ---- _resist_
circumsistō circumsistere circumstetī ---- _surround_
cadō cadere cecidī cāsūrus _fall_
caedō caedere cecīdī caesus _kill_
pendō pendere pependī pēnsus _weigh_, _pay_
tendō tendere tetendī tentus _stretch_
tundō tundere tutudī tūsus, tūnsus _beat_
fallō fallere fefellī (falsus, as _deceive_
Adj.)
pellō pellere pepulī pulsus _drive out_
currō currere cucurrī cursum (est) _run_
parcō parcere pepercī parsūrus _spare_
canō canere cecinī ---- _sing_
tangō tangere tetigī tāctus _touch_
pungō pungere pupugī pūnctus _prick_
NOTE.--In the following verbs the perfects were originally reduplicated,
but have lost the reduplicating syllable:--
per-cellō percellere perculī perculsus _strike down_
findō findere fidī fissus _split_
scindō scindere scidī scissus _tear apart_
tollō tollere sus-tulī sublātus _remove_
3. Perfect in -ī with Lengthening of Stem Vowel.
agō agere ēgī āctus _drive_, _do_
peragō peragere perēgī perāctus _finish_
subigō subigere subēgī subāctus _subdue_
cōgō cōgere coēgī coāctus _force_, _gather_
frangō frangere frēgī frāctus _break_
perfringō perfringere perfrēgī perfrāctus _break down_
legō legere lēgī lēctus _gather_, _read_
perlegō perlegere perlēgī perlēctus _read through_
colligō colligere collēgī collēctus _collect_
dēligō dēligere dēlēgī dēlēctus _choose_
dīligō dīligere dīlēxī dīlēctus _love_
intellegō intellegere intellēxī intellēctus _understand_
neglegō neglegere neglēxī neglēctus _neglect_
emō emere ēmī ēmptus _buy_
coëmō coëmere coēmī coēmptus _buy up_
redimō redimere redēmī redēmptus _buy back_
dirimō dirimere dirēmī dirēmptus _destroy_
dēmō dēmere dēmpsī dēmptus _take away_
sūmō sūmere sūmpsī sūmptus _take_
prōmō prōmere prōmpsī (prōmptus, as _take out_
Adj.)
vincō vincere vīcī victus _conquer_
re-linquō relinquere relīquī relīctus _leave_
rumpō rumpere rūpī ruptus _break_
edō ēsse (§ ēdī ēsus _eat_
128)
fundō fundere fūdī fūsus _four_
4. Perfect in -ī without either Reduplication or Lengthening of Stem Vowel.
excūdō excūdere excūdī excūsus _hammer_
cōnsīdō cōnsīdere cōnsēdī ---- _take one's seat_
possīdō possīdere possēdī possessus _take possession_
accendō accendere accendī accēnsus _kindle_
a-scendō ascendere ascendī ascēnsum (est) _climb_
dē-fendō dēfendere dēfendī dēfēnsus _defend_
pre-hendō prehendere prehendī prehēnsus _seize_
īcō īcere īcī ictus _strike_
vellō vellere vellī vulsus _pluck_
vertō vertere vertī versus _turn_
pandō pandere pandī passus _spread_
solvō solvere solvī solūtus _loose_
vīsō vīsere vīsī vīsus _visit_
volvō volvere volvī volūtus _roll_
verrō verrere verrī versus _sweep_
5. Perfect in -uī.
in-cumbō incumbere incubuī incubitūrus _lean on_
gignō gignere genuī genitus _bring forth_
molō molere moluī molitus _grind_
vomō vomere vomuī vomitus _vomit_
fremō fremere fremuī ---- _snort_
gemō gemere gemuī ---- _sigh_
metō metere messuī messus _reap_
tremō tremere tremuī ---- _tremble_
strepō strepere strepuī ---- _rattle_
alō alete aluī altus (alitus) _nourish_
colō colere coluī cultus _cultivate_
incolō incolere incoluī ---- _inhabit_
excolō excolere excoluī excultus _perfect_
cōnsulō cōnsulere cōnsuluī cōnsultus _consult_
cōnserō cōnserere cōnseruī cōnsertus _join_
dēserō dēserere dēseruī dēsertus _desert_
disserō disserere disseruī ---- _discourse_
texō texere texuī textus _weave_
6. Perfect in -vī.
sinō sinere sīvī situs _allow_
desinō dēsinere dēsiī dēsitus _cease_
ponō pōnere posuī positus _place_
ob-linō oblinere oblēvī oblitus _smear_
serō serere sēvī satus _sow_
cōnserō cōnserere cōnsēvī cōnsitus _plant_
cernō cernere ---- ---- _separate_
discernō discernere discrēvī discrētus _distinguish_
dēcernō dēcernere dēcrēvī dēcrētus _decide_
spernō spernere sprēvī sprētus _scorn_
sternō sternere strāvī strātus _spread_
prō-sternō prōsternere prōstrāvī prōstrātus _overthrow_
petō petere petīvī petītus _seek_
(petiī)
appetō appetere appetīvī appetītus _long for_
terō terere trīvī trītus _rub_
quaerō quaerere quaesīvī quaesītus _seek_
acquīrō acquīrere acquīsīvī acquīsītus _acquire_
arcessō arcessere arcessīvī arcessītus _summon_
capessō capessere capessīvī capessītus _seize_
lacessō lacessere lacessīvī lacessītus _provoke_
7. Used only in Present System.
angō angere ---- ---- _choke_
lambō lambere ---- ---- _lick_
claudō claudere ---- ---- _be lame_
furō furere ---- ---- _rave_
vergō vergere ---- ---- _bend_
and a few others.
II. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -U.
induō induere induī indūtus _put on_
imbuō imbuere imbuī imbūtus _moisten_
luō luere luī ---- _wash_
polluō polluere polluī pollūtus _defile_
minuō minuere minuī minūtus _lessen_
statuō statuere statuī statūtus _set up_
cōnstituō cōnstituere cōnstituī cōnstitūtus _determine_
suō suere suī sūtus _sew_
tribuō tribuere tribuī tribūtus _allot_
ruō ruere ruī ruitūrus _fall_
dīruō dīruere dīruī dīrutus _destroy_
obruō obruere obruī obrutus _overwhelm_
acuō acuere acuī ---- _sharpen_
arguō arguere arguī ---- _accuse_
congruō congruere congruī ---- _agree_
metuō metuere metuī ---- _fear_
ab-nuō abnuere abnuī ---- _decline_
re-spuō respuere respuī ---- _reject_
struō struere strūxī strūctus _build_
fluō fluere flūxi (flūxus, as _flow_
Adj.)
III. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -I.
capiō cupere cupīvī cupītus _wish_
sapiō sapere sapīvī ---- _taste_
rapiō rapere rapuī raptus _snatch_
dīripiō dīripere dīripuī dīreptus _plunder_
cōnspiciō cōnspicere cōnspexī cōnspectus _gaze at_
aspiciō aspicere aspexī aspectus _behold_
illiciō illicere illexī illectus _allure_
pelliciō pellicere pellexī pellectus _allure_
ēliciō ēlicere ēlicuī ēlicitus _elicit_
quatiō quatere ---- quassus _shake_
concutiō concutere concussī concussus _shake_
pariō parere peperī partus _bring forth_
capiō capere cēpī captus _take_
accipiō accipere accēpī acceptus _accept_
incipiō incipere incēpī inceptus _begin_
faciō facere fēcī factus _make_
afficiō afficere affēcī affectus _affect_
_Passive_, afficior, afficī, affectus sum.
So other prepositional compounds, _perficiō_, _perficior_; _interficiō_,
_interficior_; etc. But--
assuēfaciō assuēfacere assuēfēcī assuēfactus _accustom_
_Passive_, assuēfiō, assuēfieri, assuēfactus sum.
So also _patefaciō_, _patefīō_; _calefaciō_, _calefīō_; and all
non-prepositional compounds.
jaciō jacere jēcī jactus _hurl_
abiciō abicere abjēcī abjectus _throw away_
fodiō fodere fōdī fossus _dig_
fugiō fugere fūgī fugitūrus _flee_
effugiō effugere effūgī ---- _escape_
IV. VERBS IN -SCŌ.
1. Verbs in -scō from Simple Roots.
poscō poscere poposcī ---- _demand_
discō discere didicī ---- _learn_
pāscō pāscere pāvī pāstus _feed_
pāscor pāscī pāstus sum _graze_
crēscō crēscere crēvī crētus _grow_
cōnsuēscō cōnsuēscere cōnsuēvī cōnsuētus _accustom one's
self_
quiēscō quiēscere quiēvī quiētūrus _be still_
adolēscō adolēscere adolēvi adultus _grow up_
obsolēscō obsolēscerē obsolēvī ---- _grow old_
nōscō nōscere nōvī ---- _become acquainted
with_
ignōscō ignōscere ignōvī ignōtūrus _pardon_
agnōscō agnōscere agnōvī agnitus _recognize_
cognōscō cognōscere cognōvī cognitus _get acquainted
with_
2. Verbs in -scō formed from other Verbs.
These usually have Inchoative or Inceptive meaning (see § 155, 1). When
they have the Perfect, it is the same as that of the Verbs from which they
are derived.
flōrēscō flōrēscere flōruī _begin to (flōreō)
bloom_
scīscō scīscere scīvī _enact_ (scīo)
ārēscō ārēscere āruī _become dry_ (āreō)
calēscō calēscere caluī _become hot_ (caleō)
cōnsenēscō cōnsenēscere cōnsenuī _grow old_ (seneō)
extimēscō extimēscere extimuī _fear greatly_ (timeō)
ingemīscō ingemīscere ingemuī _sigh_ (gemō)
adhaerēscō adhaerēscere adhaesī _stick_ (haereō)
3. Verbs in -scō derived from Adjectives, usually with Inchoative meaning.
obdūrēscō obdūrēscere obdūruī _grow hard_ (dūrus)
ēvanēscō ēvanēscere ēvinuī _disappear_ (vānus)
percrēbrēsco percrēbrēscere percrēbruī _grow fresh_ (crēber)
mātūrescō mātūrēscere mātūruī _grow ripe_ (mātūrus)
obmūtēscō obmūtēscere obmūtuī _grow dumb_ (mūtus)
V. DEPONENTS.
fungor fungi fūnctus sum _perform_
queror querī questus sum _complain_
loquor loquī locūtus sum _speak_
sequor sequī secūtus sum _follow_
fruor fruī fruitūrus _enjoy_
perfruor perfruī perfrūctus sum _thoroughly enjoy_
lābor lābi lāpsus sum _glide_
amplector amplectī amplexus sum _embrace_
nītor nītī nīsus sum, _strive_
nīxus sum
gradior gradī gressus sum _walk_
patior patī passus sum _suffer_
perpetior perpetī perpessus sum _endure_
ūtor ūtī ūsus sum _use_
morior morī mortuus sum _die_
adipīscor adipīscī adeptus sum _acquire_
comminīscor comminīscī commentus sum _invent_
reminīscor reminīscī ---- _remember_
nancīscor nancīscī nanctus _acquire_
(nactus) sum
nāscor nāscī nātus sum _be born_
oblīvīscor oblīvīscī oblītus sum _forget_
pacīscor pacīscī pactus sum _covenant_
proficīscor proficīscī profectus sum _set out_
ulcīscor ulcīscī ultus sum _avenge_
īrāscor īrāscī (īrātus, as _be angry_
Adj.)
vescor vescī ---- _eat_
Fourth Conjugation.
123. I. PERFECT ENDS IN -VĪ.
audiō audīre audīvī audītus _hear_
So all regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation.
sepeliō sepelīre sepelīvī sepultus _bury_
II. PERFECT ENDS IN -UĪ.
aperiō aperīre aperuī apertus _open_
operiō operīre operuī opertus _cover_
saliō salīre saluī ---- _leap_
III. PERFECT ENDS IN -SĪ.
saepiō saepīre saepsī saeptus _hedge in_
sanciō sancīre sānxī sānctus _ratify_
vinciō vincīre vinxī vinctus _bind_
amiciō amicīre ---- amictus _envelop_
fulciō fulcīre fulsī fultus _prop up_
referciō refercīre refersī refertus _fill_
sarciō sarcīre sarsī sartus _patch_
hauriō haurīre hausī haustus _draw_
sentiō sentīre sēnsī sēnsus _feel_
IV. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.
veniō venīre vēnī ventum (est) _come_
adveniō advenīre advēnī adventum (est) _arrive_
inveniō invenīre invēnī inventus _find_
V. PERFECT WITH LOSS OF REDUPLICATION.
reperiō reperīre repperī repertus _find_
comperiō comperīre comperī compertus _learn_
VI. USED ONLY IN THE PRESENT.
feriō ferīre ---- ---- _strike_
ēsuriō ēsurīre ---- ---- _be hungry_
VII. DEPONENTS.
largior largīrī largītus sum _bestow_
So many others.
experior experīrī expertus sum _try_
opperior opperīrī oppertus sum _await_
ōrdior ōrdīrī ōrsus sum _begin_
orior orīrī ortus sum _arise_
_Orior_ usually follows the Third Conjugation in its inflection; as
_oreris_, _orĭtur_, _orĭmur_; _orerer_ (Imp. Subj.); _orere_ (Imper.).
mētior mētīrī mēnsus sum _measure_
assentior assentīrī assēnsus sum _assent_
* * * * *
IRREGULAR VERBS.
124. A number of Verbs are called Irregular. The most important are sum,
dō, edō, ferō, volō, nōlō, mālō, eō, fīō. The peculiarity of these Verbs is
that they append the personal endings in many forms directly to the stem,
instead of employing a connecting vowel, as fer-s (2d Sing. of fer-ō),
instead of fer-i-s. They are but the relics of what was once in Latin a
large class of Verbs.
125. The Inflection of sum has already been given. Its various compounds
are inflected in the same way. They are--
absum abesse āfuī _am absent_
_Pres. Partic_. absēns (absentis), _absent_.
adsum adesse adfuī _am present_
dēsum deesse dēfuī _am lacking_
insum inesse īnfuī _am in_
intersum interesse interfuī _am among_
praesum praeesse praefuī _am in charge of_
_Pres. Partic_. praesēns (praesentis), _present_
obsum obesse obfuī _hinder_
prōsum prōdesse prōfuī _am of advantage_
subsum subesse subfuī _am underneath_
supersum superesse superfuī _am left_
NOTE.--Prōsum is compounded of prōd (earlier form of prō) and sum; the d
disappears before consonants, as prōsumus; but prōdestis.
126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compound of pot- (for pote,
able) and sum; potuī is from an obsolete potēre.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
possum, posse, potuī, _to be
able_.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Pres._ possum, potes, potest; possumus, potestis, possunt.
_Imp._ poteram; poterāmus.
_Fut._ poterō; poterimus.
_Perf._ potuī; potuimus.
_Plup._ potueram; potuerāmus.
_Fut. P._ potuerō; potuerimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Pres._ possim, possīs, possit; possīmus, possītis, possint.
_Imp._ possem; possēmus.
_Perf._ potuerim; potuerīmus.
_Plup._ potuissem; potuissēmus.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ posse. _Pres._ potēns (_as an adjective_).
_Perf._ potuisse.
127. Dō, _I give_.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
dō, dăre, dedī, dătus.
Active Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Pres._ dō, dās, dat; dămus, dătis, dant.
_Imp._ dăbam, etc.; dăbāmus.
_Fut._ dăbō, etc.; dăbimus.
_Perf._ dedī; dedimus.
_Plup._ dederam; dederāmus.
_Fut. P._ dederō; dederimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE
_Pres._ dem; dēmus.
_Imp._ dărem; dărēmus.
_Perf._ dederim; dederīmus.
_Plup._ dedissem; dedissēmus.
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ dā; dăte.
_Fut._ dătō; dătōte.
dătō. dantō.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ dăre. dāns.
_Perf._ dedisse.
_Fut._ dătūrus esse. dătūrus.
GERUND. SUPINE.
dandī, etc. dătum, dătū.
1. The passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. Thus: dărī,
dătur, dărētur, etc.
2. The archaic and poetic Present Subjunctive forms duim, duint, perduit,
perduint, etc., are not from the root da-, but from du-, a collateral root
of similar meaning.
128. Edō, _I eat_.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
edō, ēsse, ēdī, ēsus.
Active Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
_Pres._ edō, edimus,
ēs, ēstis,
ēst; edunt.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Imp._ ēssem, ēssēmus,
ēssēs, ēssētis,
ēsset; ēssent.
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ ēs; ēste.
_Fut._ ēstō; ēstōte.
ēstō; eduntō.
INFINITIVE.
_Pres._ ēsse.
Passive Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
_Pres. 3d Sing_. ēstur.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Imp. 3d Sing_. ēssētur.
1. Observe the long vowel of the forms in ēs-, which alone distinguishes
them from the corresponding forms of esse, _to be_.
2. Note comedō, comēsse, comēdī, comēsus or comēstus, _consume_.
3. The Present Subjunctive has edim, -īs, -it, etc., less often edam, -ās,
etc.
129. Ferō, _I bear_.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus.
Active Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
_Pres._ ferō, fers, fert; ferimus, fertis, ferunt.[46]
_Imp._ ferēbam; ferēbāmus.
_Fut._ feram; ferēmus.
_Perf._ tulī; tulimus.
_Plup._ tuleram; tulerāmus.
_Fut. P._ tulerō; tulerimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres._ feram; ferāmus.
_Imp._ ferrem; ferrēmus.
_Perf._ tulerim; tulerīmus.
_Plup._ tulissem; tulissēmus.
IMPERATIVE
_Pres._ fer; ferte.
_Fut._ fertō; fertōte.
fertō; feruntō.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ ferre. _Pres._ ferēns.
_Perf._ tulisse.
_Fut._ lātūrus esse. _Fut._ lātūrus.
GERUND. SUPINE.
_Gen._ ferendī.
_Dat._ ferendō.
_Acc._ ferendum. _Acc._ lātum.
_Abl._ ferendō. _Abl._ lātū.
Passive Voice.
feror, ferrī, lātus sum, _to be borne_.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
_Pres._ feror, ferris, fertur; ferimur, feriminī, feruntur.
_Imp._ ferēbar; ferēbāmur.
_Fut._ ferar; ferēmur.
_Perf._ lātus sum; lātī sumus.
_Plup._ lātus eram; lātī erāmus.
_Fut. P._ lātus erō; lātī erimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres._ ferar; ferāmur.
_Imp._ ferrer; ferrēmur.
_Perf._ lātus sim; lātī sīmus.
_Plup._ lātus essem; lātī essēmus.
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ ferre; ferimimī.
_Fut._ fertor; ----
fertor; feruntor.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ ferrī.
_Perf._ lātus esse. _Perf._ lātus.
_Fut._ lātum īrī. _Fut._ ferendus.
So also the Compounds--
afferō afferre attulī allātus _bring toward_
auferō auferre abstulī ablātus _take away_
cōnferō cōnferre contulī collātus _compare_
differō differre distulī dīlātus _put off_
efferō efferre extulī ēlātus _carry out_
īnferō īnferre intulī illātus _bring against_
offerō offerre obtulī oblātus _present_
referō referre rettulī relātus _bring back_
NOTE.--The forms sustulī and sublātus belong to tollō.
130. volō, nōlō, mālō.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
volō, velle, voluī, _to wish._
nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, _to be unwilling._
mālō, mālle, māluī, _to prefer._
INDICATIVE MOOD.
_Pres._ volō, nōlō, mālō,
vīs, nōn vīs, māvīs,
vult; nōn vult; māvult;
volumus, nōlumus, mālumus,
vultis, nōn vultis, māvultis,
volunt. nōlunt. mālunt.
_Imp._ volēbam. nōlēbam. mālēbam.
_Fut._ volam. nōlam. mālam.
_Perf._ voluī. nōluī. māluī.
_Plup._ volueram. nōlueram. mālueram.
_Fut. P._ voluerō. nōluerō. māluerō.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres._ velim, -īs, -it, nōlim. mālīm.
etc.
_Inf._ vellem, -ēs, -et, nōllem. māllem.
etc.
_Perf._ voluerim. nōluerim. māluerim.
_Pluf._ voluissem. nōluissem. māluissem.
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ nōlī; nōlīte.
_Fut._ nōlītō; nōlītōte.
nōlītō; nōluntō.
INFINITIVE.
_Pres._ velle. nōlle. mālle.
_Perf._ voluisse. nōluisse. māluisse
PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ volēns nōlēns. ----
131. Fīō.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
fīō, fīerī, factus sum, _to become_, _be
made_.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR, PLURAL.
_Pres._ fīō, fīs, fit; fīmus, fītis, fīunt.
_Inf._ fīēbam; fīēbāmus.
_Fut._ fīam; fīēmus.
_Perf._ factus sum; factī sumus.
_Pluf._ factus eram; factī erāmus.
_Fut. P._ factus erō; factī erimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres._ fīam; fīāmus.
_Imp._ fierem; fierēmus.
_Perf._ factus sim; factī sīmus.
_Plup._ factus essem; factī essēmus.
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ fī; fīte.
PARTICIPLE.
INFINITIVE.
_Pres._ fierī.
_Perf._ factus esse. _Perf._ factus.
_Fut._ factum īrī. _Ger._ faciendus.
NOTE.--A few isolated forms of compounds of fīō occur; as, dēfit _lacks_;
īnfit, _begins_.
132. Eō.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
eō, īre, īvī, itum (est), _to go_.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Pres._ eō, īs, it; īmus, ītis, eunt.
_Imp._ ībam; ībāmus.
_Fut._ ībō; ībimus.
_Perf._ īvī (iī); īvimus (iimus).
_Plup._ īveram (ieram); īverāmus (ierāmus)
_Fut. P._ īverō (ierō); īverimus (ierimus).
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Pres._ eam; eāmus.
_Inf._ īrem; īrēmus.
_Perf._ īverim (ierim); īverīmus (ierīmus).
_Pluf._ īvissem (iissem, īssem); īvissēmus (iissēmus, īssēmus).
IMPERATIVE.
_Pres._ ī; īte.
_Fut._ ītō; ītōte,
ītō; euntō.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
_Pres._ īre. _Pres._ iēns.
_Perf._ īvisse (īsse). (_Gen._ euntis.)
_Fut._ itūrus esse. _Fut._ itūrus. _Gerundive_, eundum.
GERUND. SUPINE.
eundī, etc. itum, itū.
1. Transitive compounds of eō admit the full Passive inflection; as adeor,
adīris, adītur, etc.
* * * * *
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
Defective Verbs lack certain forms. The following are the most important:--
133. USED MAINLY IN THE PERFECT SYSTEM.
Coepī, Meminī, Ōdī,
_I have _I remember_. _I hate_.
begun._
INDICATIVE MOOD.
_Perf._ coepī. meminī. ōdī.
_Plup._ coeperam. memineram. ōderam.
_Fut. P._ coeperō. meminerō. ōderō.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Perf._ coeperim. meminerim. ōderim.
_Pluf._ coepissem. meminissem. ōdissem.
IMPERATIVE.
_Sing._ mementō; _Plur._ mementōte.
INFINITIVE.
_Perf._ coepisse. meminisse. ōdisse.
_Fut._ coeptūrus esse. ōsūrus esse.
PARTICIPLE.
_Perf._ coeptus, _begun_. ōsus.
_Fut._ coeptūrus. ōsūrus.
1. When coepī governs a Passive Infinitive it usually takes the form
coeptus est; as, amārī coeptus est, _he began to be loved_.
2. Note that meminī and ōdī, though Perfect in form, are Present in sense.
Similarly the Pluperfect and Future Perfect have the force of the Imperfect
and Future; as, memineram, _I remembered_; ōderō, _I shall hate_.
134. Inquam, _I say_ (inserted between words of a direct quotation)
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Pres._ inquam, ----
inquis, ----
inquit; inquiunt.
_Fut._ ---- ----
inquiēs, ----
inquiet. ----
_Perf. 3d Sing._ inquit.
135. Ajō, _I say_.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL
_Pres._ ajō, ----
aīs, ----
ait; ajunt.
_Imp._ ajēbam, ajēbāmus,
ajēbās, ajēbātis,
ajēbat; ajēbant.
_Perf 3d Sing._ aït.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres 3d Sing._ ajat.
NOTE.--For aīsne, _do you mean?_ aīn is common.
136. Fārī, _to speak._
This is inflected regularly in the perfect tenses. In the Present System it
has--
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Pres._ ---- ----
---- ----
fātur. ----
_Fut._ fābor, ----
---- ----
fābitur. ----
_Impv._ fāre.
_Inf._ fārī.
_Pres. fantis, fantī, etc.
Partic._
_Gerund_, fandī; _D. and Abl._, fandō.
_G._,
_Gerundive_, fandus.
NOTE.--Forms of fārī are rare. More frequent are its compounds; as,--
affātur, _he addresses_; praefāmur, _we say in advance._
137. OTHER DEFECTIVE FORMS.
1. Queō, quīre, quīvī, _to be able_, and nequeō, nequīre, nequīvī, _to be
unable_, are inflected like eō, but occur chiefly in the Present Tense, and
there only in special forms.
2. Quaesō, _I entreat_; quaesumus, _we entreat_.
3. Cedo (2d sing. Impv.), cette (2d plu.); _give me_, _tell me_.
4. Salvē, salvēte, _hail_. Also Infinitive, salvēre.
5. Havē (avē), havēte, _hail_. Also Infinitive, havēre.
* * * * *
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
138. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English, _it snows, it seems, etc._
They have no personal subject, but may take an Infinitive, a Clause, or a
Neuter Pronoun; as, mē pudet hōc fēcisse, lit. _it shames me to have done
this_; hōc decet, _this is fitting_. Here belong--
I. Verbs denoting operations of the weather; as,--
fulget fulsit _it lightens_
tonat tonuit _it thunders_
grandinat ---- _it hails_
ningit ninxit _it snows_
pluit pluit _it rains_
II. Special Verbs.
paenitet paenitēre paenituit _it repents_
piget pigēre piguit _it grieves_
pudet pudēre puduit _it causes shame_
taedet taedēre taeduit _it disgusts_
miseret miserēre miseruit _it causes pity_
libet libēre libuit _it pleases_
licet licēre licuit _it is lawful_
oportet oportēre oportuit _it is fitting_
decet decēre decuit _it is becoming_
dēdecet dēdecēre dēdecuit _it is unbecoming_
rēfert rēferre rētulit _it concerns_
III. Verbs Impersonal only in Special Senses.
cōnstat cōnstāre cōnstitit _it is evident_
praestat praestāre praestitit _it is better_
juvat juvāre jūvit _it delights_
appāret appārēre appāruit _it appears_
placet placēre placuit _it pleases_
(placitum
est)
accēdit accēdere accessit _it is added_
accidit accidere accidit _it happens_
contingit contingere contigit _it happens_
ēvenit ēvenīre ēvēnit _it turns out_
interest interesse interfuit _it concerns_
IV. The Passive of Intransitive Verbs; as,--
ītur lit. _it is gone_ _i.e. some one goes_
curritur lit. _it is run_ _i.e. some one runs_
ventum est lit. _it has been come_ _i.e. some one has come_
veniendum est lit. _it must be come_ _i.e. somebody must
come_
pugnārī potest lit. _it can be fought_ _i.e. somebody can
fight_
* * * * *
PART III.
* * * * *
PARTICLES.
* * * * *
139. Particles are the four Parts of Speech that do not admit of
inflection; _viz_. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections.
ADVERBS.
140. Adverbs denote manner, place, time, or degree Most adverbs are in
origin case-forms which have become stereotyped by usage. The common
adverbial terminations have already been given above (§ 76). The following
TABLE OF CORRELATIVES is important:--
RELATIVE AND DEMONSTRATIVE. INDEFINITE.
INTERROGATIVE.
ubi, _where; where_? hīc, _here_. alicubī, ūsquam,
ibi, illīc, istīc, ūspiam, _somewhere_.
_there_.
quō, _whither; hūc, _hither_. aliquō, _to some
whither_? eō, istūc, illūc, place_.
_thither_.
unde, _whence; hinc, _hence_. alicunde, _from
whence_? inde, istinc, illinc, somewhere_.
_thence_.
quā, _where; where_? hāc, _by this way_. aliquā, _by some way_.
eā, istāc, illāc, _by
that way_.
cum, _when_. nunc, _now_. aliquandō, umquam,
quandō, _when_? tum, tunc, _then_. _sometime_, _ever_.
quotiēns, _as often totiēns, _so often_. aliquotiēns, _some
as_; _how often_? number of times_.
quam, _as much as_; tam, _so much_. aliquantum,
_how much_? _somewhat_.
PREPOSITIONS.
141. Prepositions show relations of words. The following Prepositions
govern the Accusative:--
ad, _to_. contrā, _against_. post, _after_.
adversus, ergā, _toward_. praeter, _past_.
_against_. extrā, _outside_. prope, _near_.
adversum, _toward_, īnfrā, _below_. propter, _on account
_against_. inter, _between_. of_.
ante, _before_. intrā, _within_. secundum, _after_.
apud, _with_, jūxtā, _near_. subter, _beneath_.
_near_. ob, _on account super, _over_.
circā, _around_. of_. suprā, _above_.
circiter, _about_. penes, _in the hands trāns, _across_.
circum, _around_. of_. ultrā, _beyond_.
cis, _this side per, _through_. versus, _toward_.
of_. pōne, _behind_.
citrā, _this side of_.
1. Ūsque is often prefixed to ad, in the sense of _even_; as,--
ūsque ad urbem, _even to the city_.
2. Versus always follows its case; as,--
Rōmam versus, _toward Rome_.
It may be combined with a preceding Preposition; as,--
ad urbem versus, _toward the city_.
3. Like prope, the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Superlatives
proximus, proximē, sometimes govern the Accusative; as,--
Ubiī proximē Rhēnum incolunt, _the Ubii dwell next to the Rhine_;
propius castra hostium, _nearer the camp of the enemy_.
142. The following Prepositions govern the Ablative:--
ā, ab, abs, _from_, cum, _with_. prō, _in front of_,
_by_. dē, _from_, _for_.
absque, _without_. _concerning_. sine, _without_.
cōram, _in the ē, ex, _from out tenus, _up to_.
presence of_. of_.
prae, _before_.
1. Ā, ab, abs. Before vowels or h, ab must be used; before consonants we
find sometimes ā, sometimes ab (the latter usually not before the labials
b, p, f, v, m; nor before c, g, q, or t); abs occurs only before tē, and ā
is admissible even there.
2. Ē, ex. Before vowels or h, ex must be used; before consonants we find
sometimes ē, sometimes ex.
3. Tenus regularly follows its case, as, pectoribus tenus, _up to the
breast_. It sometimes governs the Genitive, as, labrōrum tenus, _as far as
the lips_.
4. Cum is appended to the Pronouns of the First and Second Persons, and to
the Reflexive Pronoun; usually also to the Relative and Interrogative.
Thus:--
mēcum nōbīscum quōcum _or_ cum quō
tēcum vōbīscum quācum _or_ cum quā
sēcum quibuscum _or_ cum quibus
On quīcum, see § 89, Footnote 27.
143. Two Prepositions, in, _in_, _into_, and sub, _under_, govern both the
Accusative and the Ablative. With the Accusative they denote motion; with
the Ablative, rest; as,--
in urbem, _into the city_;
in urbe, _in the city_.
1. Subter and super are also occasionally construed with the Ablative.
144. RELATION OF ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS.
1. Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and many of them still retain
their adverbial meaning; as, post, _afterwards_; ante, _previously_;
contrā, _on the other hand_, etc.
2. Conversely several words, usually adverbs, are occasionally employed as
prepositions; as,--
clam, prīdiē, with the Accusative.
procul, simul, palam, with the Ablative.
3. Anástrophe. A Preposition sometimes follows its case. This is called
Anástrophe; as,--
eī, quōs inter erat, _those among whom he was_.
Anastrophe occurs chiefly with dissyllabic prepositions.
CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.
145. 1. Conjunctions are used to connect ideas. For Coördinate
Conjunctions, see §§ 341 ff. Subordinate Conjunctions are treated in
connection with Subordinate Clauses.
2. Interjections express emotion. Thus:--
1. Surprise; as, ēn, ecce, ō.
2. Joy; as, iō, euoe.
3. Sorrow and Pain; as, heu, ēheu, vae, prō.
4. Calling; as, heus, eho.
* * * * *
PART IV.
* * * * *
WORD-FORMATION.
* * * * *
I. DERIVATIVES.
146. Derivatives are formed by appending certain terminations called
Suffixes to stems of verbs, nouns, or adjectives.
A. NOUNS.
1. Nouns derived from Verbs.
147. 1. The suffix -tor (-sor), Fem. -trīx, denotes _the agent_; as,--
victor, victrīx, _victor_; dēfēnsor, _defender_.
NOTE.--The suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems; as,--
gladiātor, _gladiator_ (from gladius).
2. The suffix -or (originally -ōs) denotes _an activity or a condition_;
as,--
amor, _love_; timor, _fear_; dolor, _pain_.
3. The suffixes -tiō (-siō), Gen. -ōnis, and -tus (-sus), Gen. -ūs, denote
_an action as in process_; as,--
vēnātiō, _hunting_; obsessiō, _blockade_; gemitus, _sighing_; cursus,
_running_.
NOTE.--Rarer endings with the same force are:--
a) -tūra, -sūra; as,--
sepultūra, _burial_; mēnsūra, _measuring_.
b) -ium; as,--
gaudium, _rejoicing_.
c) -īdō; as,--
cupīdō, _desire_.
4. The suffixes -men, -mentum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -culum, denote _the
means_ or _place_ of an action; as,--
lūmen (lūc-s-men), _light_; vocābulum, _word_;
ōrnāmentum, _ornament_; documentum, _proof_;
sepulcrum, _grave_; arātrum, _plough_;
vehiculum, _carriage_.
2. Nouns derived from Nouns.
148. 1. Diminutives end in--
-ulus, (-ula, -ulum)
-olus, (-ola, -olum), after a vowel
-culus, (-cula, -culum)
-ellus, (-ella, -ellum)
-illus, (-illa, -illum)
as,--
nīdulus, _little nest_ (nīdus);
virgula, _wand_ (virga);
oppidulum, _little town_ (oppidum);
fīliolus, _little son_ (fīlius);
opusculum, _little work_ (opus);
tabella, _tablet_ (tabula);
lapillus, _pebble_ (lapis).
NOTE 1.--It will be observed that in gender the Diminutives follow the
gender of the words from which they are derived.
NOTE 2.--The endings -ellus, -illus contain the primitive form of the
diminutive suffix, _viz_., -lo-. Thus:--
agellus, _field_, for ager-lus;
lapillus, _pebble_, for lapid-lus.
2. The suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates either _a
collection_ of such persons or _their function_; as,--
collēgium, _a corporation, body of colleagues_ (collēga);
sacerdōtium, _priestly function_ (sacerdōs).
3. The suffixes -ārium, -ētum, -īle designate a place where objects _are
kept_ or _are found in abundance_; as,--
columbārium, _dove-cote_ (columba);
olīvētum, _olive-orchard_ (olīva);
ovīle, _sheep-fold_ (ovis).
4. The suffix -ātus denotes _official position_ or _honor_; as,--
cōnsulātus, _consulship_ (cōnsul).
5. The suffix -īna appended to nouns denoting persons designates _a
vocation_ or _the place where it is carried on_; as,--
doctrīna, _teaching_ (doctor, _teacher_);
medicīna, _the art of healing_ (medicus, _physician_);
sūtrīna, _cobbler's shop_ (sūtor, _cobbler_).
6. Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting _son of_ ..., _daughter of_
.... They have the following suffixes:--
a) Masculines: -idēs, -adēs, -īdēs; as, Priamidēs, _son of Priam_;
Aeneadēs, _son of Aeneas_; Pēlīdēs, _son of Peleus_.
b) Feminines: -ēis, -is, -ias; as, Nērēis, _daughter of Nereus_;
Atlantis, _daughter of Atlas_; Thaumantias, _daughter of Thaumas_.
3. Nouns derived from Adjectives.
149. The suffixes -tās (-itās), -tūdō (-itūdō), -ia, -itia are used for the
formation of abstract nouns _denoting qualities_; as,--
bonitās, _goodness_; celeritās, _swiftness_; magnitūdō, _greatness_;
audācia, _boldness_; amīcitia, _friendship_.
* * * * *
B. ADJECTIVES.
1. Adjectives derived from Verbs.
150. 1. The suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force of a present
participle; as,--
tremebundus, _trembling_; jūcundus (juvō), _pleasing_.
2. The suffixes -āx and -ulus denote _an inclination_ or _tendency_, mostly
a faulty one; as,--
loquāx, _loquacious_; crēdulus, _credulous_.
3. The suffix -idus denotes _a state_; as,--
calidus, _hot_; timidus, _timid_; cupidus, _eager_.
4. The suffixes -ilis and -bilis denote _capacity_ or _ability_, usually in
a passive sense; as,--
fragilis, _fragile_ (_i.e._ capable of being broken);
docilis, _docile_.
2. Adjectives derived from Nouns.
a) _From Common Nouns._
151. 1. The suffixes -eus and -inus are appended to names of substances or
materials; as,--
aureus, _of gold_; ferreus, _of iron_; fāginus, _of beech_.
2. The suffixes -ius, -icus, -īlis, -ālis, -āris, -ārius, -nus, -ānus,
-īnus, -īvus, -ēnsis signify _belonging to_, _connected with_; as,--
ōrātōrius, _oratorical_; legiōnārius, _legionary_;
bellicus, _pertaining to war_; paternus, _paternal_;
cīvīlis, _civil_; urbānus, _of the city_;
rēgālis, _regal_; marīnus, _marine_;
cōnsulāris, _consular_; aestīvus, _pertaining to
summer_;
circēnsis, _belonging to the circus_.
3. The suffixes -ōsus and -lentus denote _fullness_; as,--
perīculōsus, _full of danger_, glōriōsus, _glorious_;
_dangerous_; opulentus, _wealthy_.
4. The suffix -tus has the force of _provided with_; as,--
barbātus, _bearded_; stellātus, _set with stars_.
b) _From Proper Names._
152. 1. Names of _persons_ take the suffixes: -ānus, -iānus, -īnus; as,--
Catōniānus, _belonging to Plautīnus, _belonging to
Cato_; Plautus_.
2. Names of _nations_ take the suffixes -icus, -ius; as,--
Germānicus, _German_; Thrācius, _Thracian_.
3. Names of _places_ take the suffixes -ānus, -īnus, -ēnsis, -aeus, -ius;
as,--
Rōmānus, _Roman_; Athēniēnsis, _Athenian_;
Amerīnus, _of Ameria_; Smyrnaeus, _of Smyrna_;
Corinthius, _Corinthian_.
NOTE.-- -ānus and -ēnsis, appended to names of countries, designate
something _stationed in_ the country or _connected with_ it, but not
indigenous; as,--
bellum Āfricānum, _a war (of Romans with Romans) in Africa_.
bellum Hispāniēnse, _a war carried on in Spain_.
legiōnes Gallicānae, _(Roman) legions stationed in Gaul_.
3. Adjectives derived from Adjectives.
153. Diminutives in -lus sometimes occur; as,--
parvolus, _little_;
misellus (passer), _poor little_ (_sparrow_);
pauperculus, _needy_.
4. Adjectives derived from Adverbs.
154. These end in -ernus, -ternus, -tīnus, -tĭnus; as,--
hodiernus, _of to-day_ (hodiē);
hesternus, _of yesterday_ (herī);
intestīnus, _internal_ (intus);
diūtinus, _long-lasting_ (diū).
* * * * *
C. VERBS.
1. Verbs derived from Verbs.
155. 1. INCEPTIVES OR INCHOATIVES. These end in -scō, and are formed from
Present Stems. They denote _the beginning of an action_; as,--
labāscō, _begin to totter_ (from labō);
horrēscō, _grow rough_ (from horreō);
tremēscō, _begin to tremble_ (from tremō);
obdormīscō, _fall asleep_ (from dormiō).
2. FREQUENTATIVES OR INTENSIVES. These denote _a repeated or energetic
action_. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -tō or -sō.
Those derived from verbs of the First Conjugation end in -itō (not -ātō, as
we should expect). Examples of Frequentatives are--
jactō, _toss about_, _brandish_ (from jaciō,
_hurl_);
cursō, _run hither and thither_ (from currō, _run_);
volitō, _flit about_ (from volō, _fly_).
a. Some double Frequentatives occur; as,--
cantitō, _sing over and over_ (cantō);
cursitō, _keep running about_ (cursō);
ventitō, _keep coming_.
b. agitō, _set in motion_, is formed from the Present Stem.
3. DESIDERATIVES. These denote _a desire to do something_. They are formed
from the Participial Stem, and end in -uriō; as,--
ēsuriō, _desire to eat_, _am hungry_ (edō);
parturiō, _want to bring forth_, _am in (pariō).
labor_
2. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives (Denominatives).
156. Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly transitive; those of
the Second exclusively intransitive. Those of the Third and Fourth
Conjugations are partly transitive, partly intransitive. Examples are--
a) From Nouns:--
fraudō, _defraud_ (fraus);
vestiō, _clothe_ (vestis);
flōreō, _bloom_ (flōs).
b) From Adjectives:--
līberō, _free_ (līber);
saeviō, _be fierce_ (saevus).
* * * * *
D. ADVERBS.
157. 1. Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Participial Stem by
means of the suffix -im; as,--
certātim, _emulously_ (certō);
cursim, _in haste_ (currō);
statim, _immediately_ (stō).
2. Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed:--
a) With the suffixes -tim (-sim), -ātim; as,--
gradātim, _step by step_;
paulātim, _gradually_;
virītim, _man by man_.
b) With the suffix -tus; as,--
antīquitus, _of old_;
rādīcitus, _from the roots_.
c) With the suffix -ter; as,--
breviter, _briefly_.
* * * * *
II. COMPOUNDS.
158. 1. Compounds are formed by the union of simple words. The second
member usually contains the _essential meaning_ of the compound; the first
member expresses _some modification_ of this.
2. Vowel changes often occur in the process of composition. Thus:--
a. In the second member of compounds. (See § 7, 1.)
b. The final vowel of the stem of the first member of the compound often
appears as ĭ where we should expect ŏ or ă; sometimes it is dropped
altogether, and in case of consonant stems ĭ is often inserted; as,--
signifer, _standard-bearer_;
tubicen, _trumpeter_;
magnanimus, _high-minded_;
mātricīda, _matricide_.
159. EXAMPLES OF COMPOUNDS.
1. Nouns:--
a) Preposition + Noun; as,--
dē-decus, _disgrace_;
pro-avus, _great-grandfather_.
b) Noun + Verb Stem; as,--
agri-cola, _farmer_;
frātri-cīda, _fratricide_.
2. Adjectives:--
a) Preposition + Adjective (or Noun); as,--
per-magnus, _very great_;
sub-obscūrus, _rather obscure_;
ā-mēns, _frantic_.
b) Adjective + Noun; as,--
magn-animus, _great-hearted_;
celeri-pēs, _swift-footed_.
c) Noun + Verb Stem; as,--
parti-ceps, _sharing_;
morti-fer, _death-dealing_.
3. Verbs:--
The second member is always a verb. The first may be--
a) A Noun; as,--
aedi-ficō, _build_.
b) An Adjective; as,--
ampli-ficō, _enlarge_.
c) An Adverb; as,--
male-dīcō, _rail at_.
d) Another Verb; as,--
cale-faciō, _make warm_.
e) A Preposition; as,--
ab-jungō, _detach_;
re-ferō, _bring back_;
dis-cernō, _distinguish_;
ex-spectō, _await_.
NOTE.--Here belong the so-called INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS:
ambi- (amb-), _around_;
dis- (dir-, di-), _apart_, _asunder_;
por-, _forward_;
red- (re-), _back_;
sēd- (sē-), _apart from_;
vē-, _without_.
4. Adverbs:--
These are of various types; as,--
anteā, _before_;
īlīcō (in locō), _on the spot_;
imprīmīs, _especially_;
obviam, _in the way_.
* * * * *
PART V.
* * * * *
SYNTAX.
* * * * *
160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences
CHAPTER I.--_Sentences._
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.
161. Sentences may be classified as follows:--
1. DECLARATIVE, which state something; as,--
puer scrībit, _the boy is writing_.
2. INTERROGATIVE, Which ask a question; as,--
quid puer scrībit, _what is the boy writing?_
3. EXCLAMATORY, which are in the form of an exclamation; as,--
quot librōs scrībit, _how many books he writes!_
4. IMPERATIVE, which express a command or an admonition; as,--
scrībe, _write!_
FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
162. Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sentence-Questions.
1. Word-Questions. These are introduced by the various interrogative
pronouns and adverbs, such as--quis, quī, quālis, quantus, quot, quotiēns,
quō, quā, etc. Thus:--
quis venit, _who comes?_ quam dīū manēbit, _how long will he stay?_
2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced--
a) By nōnne implying the answer 'yes'; as,--
nōnne vidētis, _do you not see?_
b) By num implying the answer 'no'; as,--
num exspectās, _do you expect?_ (i.e. _you don't expect, do you?_)
c) by the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word (which usually
stands first), and simply asking for information; as,--
vidēsne, _do you see?_
A question introduced by -ne may receive a special implication from the
context; as,--
sēnsistīne, _did you not perceive?_
d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of
_surprise_ or _indignation_; as,--
tū in jūdicum cōnspectum venīre audēs, _do you dare to come into the
presence of the judges?_
3. Rhetorical Questions. These are questions merely in form, being employed
to express an emphatic assertion; as, quis dubitat, _who doubts?_ (_= no
one doubts_).
4. Double Questions. Double Questions are introduced by the following
particles:--
utrum ... an;
-ne ... an;
---- ... an.
If the second member is negative, annōn (less often necne) is used.
Examples:--
utrum honestum est an turpe, }
honestumne est an turpe, } _is it honorable or base?_
honestum est an turpe, }
suntne dī annōn, _are there gods or not?_
a. An was not originally confined to double questions, but introduced
single questions, having the force of -ne, nōnne, or num. Traces of this
use survive in classical Latin; as,--
Ā rēbus gerendīs abstrahit senectūs. Quibus? An eīs quae juventūte
geruntur et vīrībus? _Old age (it is alleged) withdraws men from active
pursuits. From what pursuits? Is it not merely from those which are
carried on by the strength of youth?_
5. Answers.
a. The answer YES is expressed by ita, etiam, vērō, sānē, or by
repetition of the verb; as,--
'vīsne locum mūtēmus?' 'sānē'. _'Shall we change the place?'_
_'Certainly.'_
'estīsne vōs lēgatī?' 'sumus.' _'Are you envoys?'_ _'Yes.'_
b. The answer NO is expressed by nōn, minimē, minimē vērō, or by
repeating the verb with a negative; as,--
'jam ea praeteriit?' 'nōn.' _'Has it passed?'_ _'No.'_
'estne frāter intus?' 'nōn est.' _'Is your brother within?'_ _'No.'_
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
163. The two essential parts of a sentence are the SUBJECT and PREDICATE.
The SUBJECT is that _concerning which something is said, asked, etc._ The
PREDICATE is that _which is said, asked, etc., concerning_ the SUBJECT.
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.
164. Sentences containing but one Subject and one Predicate are called
SIMPLE SENTENCES, those containing more are called COMPOUND SENTENCES. Thus
puer librōs legit, _the boy reads books_, is a Simple Sentence; but puer
librōs legit et epistulās scrībit, _the boy reads books and writes
letters_, is a Compound Sentence. The different members of a Compound
Sentence are called Clauses.
165. COÖRDINATE AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. Clauses which stand upon an
equality are called COÖRDINATE; a Clause dependent on another is called
SUBORDINATE. Thus in puer librōs legit et epistulās scrībit the two clauses
are Coördinate; but in puer librōs legit quōs pater scrībit, _the boy reads
the books which his father writes_, the second clause is Subordinate to the
first.
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