ON THE DIFFERENT AGES OF THE AQUEOUS ROCKS.
On the three principal tests of relative age--superposition, mineral
character, and fossils--Change of mineral character and fossils in the
same continuous formation--Proofs that distinct species of animals and
plants have lived at successive periods--Distinct provinces of
indigenous species--Great extent of single provinces--Similar laws
prevailed at successive geological periods--Relative importance of
mineral and palaeontological characters--Test of age by included
fragments--Frequent absence of strata of intervening
periods--Principal groups of strata in western Europe.
In the last chapter I spoke generally of the chronological relations of the
four great classes of rocks, and I shall now treat of the aqueous rocks in
particular, or of the successive periods at which the different
fossiliferous formations have been deposited.
There are three principal tests by which we determine the age of a given
set of strata; first, superposition; secondly, mineral character; and,
thirdly, organic remains. Some aid can occasionally be derived from a
fourth kind of proof, namely, the fact of one deposit including in it
fragments of a pre-existing rock, by which the relative ages of the two
may, even in the absence of all other evidence, be determined.
_Superposition._--The first and principal test of the age of one aqueous
deposit, as compared to another, is relative position. It has been already
stated, that where strata are horizontal, the bed which lies uppermost is
the newest of the whole, and that which lies at the bottom the most
ancient. So, of a series of sedimentary formations, they are like volumes
of history, in which each writer has recorded the annals of his own times,
and then laid down the book, with the last written page uppermost, upon the
volume in which the events of the era immediately preceding were
commemorated. In this manner a lofty pile of chronicles is at length
accumulated; and they are so arranged as to indicate, by their position
alone, the order in which the events recorded in them have occurred.
In regard to the crust of the earth, however, there are some regions where,
as the student has already been informed, the beds have been disturbed, and
sometimes extensively thrown over and turned upside down. (See pp. 58, 59.)
But an experienced geologist can rarely be deceived by these exceptional
cases. When he finds that the strata are fractured, curved, inclined, or
vertical, he knows that the original order of superposition must be
doubtful, and he then endeavours to find sections in some neighbouring
district where the strata are horizontal, or only slightly inclined. Here
the true order of sequence of the entire series of deposits being
ascertained, a key is furnished for settling the chronology of those strata
where the displacement is extreme.
_Mineral character._--The same rocks may often be observed to retain for
miles, or even hundreds of miles, the same mineral peculiarities, if we
follow the planes of stratification, or trace the beds, if they be
undisturbed, in a horizontal direction. But if we pursue them vertically,
or in any direction transverse to the planes of stratification, this
uniformity ceases almost immediately. In that case we can scarcely ever
penetrate a stratified mass for a few hundred yards without beholding a
succession of extremely dissimilar, calcareous, argillaceous, and siliceous
rocks. These phenomena lead to the conclusion, that rivers and currents
have dispersed the same sediment over wide areas at one period, but at
successive periods have been charged, in the same region, with very
different kinds of matter. The first observers were so astonished at the
vast spaces over which they were able to follow the same homogeneous rocks
in a horizontal direction, that they came hastily to the opinion, that the
whole globe had been environed by a succession of distinct aqueous
formations, disposed round the nucleus of the planet, like the concentric
coats of an onion. But although, in fact, some formations may be continuous
over districts as large as half of Europe, or even more, yet most of them
either terminate wholly within narrower limits, or soon change their
lithological character. Sometimes they thin out gradually, as if the supply
of sediment had failed in that direction, or they come abruptly to an end,
as if we had arrived at the borders of the ancient sea or lake which served
as their receptacle. It no less frequently happens that they vary in
mineral aspect and composition, as we pursue them horizontally. For
example, we trace a limestone for a hundred miles, until it becomes more
arenaceous, and finally passes into sand, or sandstone. We may then follow
this sandstone, already proved by its continuity to be of the same age,
throughout another district a hundred miles or more in length.
_Organic remains._--This character must be used as a criterion of the
age of a formation, or of the contemporaneous origin of two deposits
in distant places, under very much the same restrictions as the test
of mineral composition.
First, the same fossils may be traced over wide regions, if we examine
strata in the direction of their planes, although by no means for
indefinite distances.
Secondly, while the same fossils prevail in a particular set of strata for
hundreds of miles in a horizontal direction, we seldom meet with the same
remains for many fathoms, and very rarely for several hundred yards, in a
vertical line, or a line transverse to the strata. This fact has now been
verified in almost all parts of the globe, and has led to a conviction,
that at successive periods of the past, the same area of land and water has
been inhabited by species of animals and plants even more distinct than
those which now people the antipodes, or which now co-exist in the arctic,
temperate, and tropical zones. It appears, that from the remotest periods
there has been ever a coming in of new organic forms, and an extinction of
those which pre-existed on the earth; some species having endured for a
longer, others for a shorter, time; while none have ever reappeared after
once dying out. The law which has governed the creation and extinction of
species seems to be expressed in the verse of the poet,--
Natura il fece, e poi ruppe la stampa. ARIOSTO.
Nature made him, and then broke the die.
And this circumstance it is, which confers on fossils their highest value
as chronological tests, giving to each of them, in the eyes of the
geologist, that authority which belongs to contemporary medals in history.
The same cannot be said of each peculiar variety of rock; for some of
these, as red marl and red sandstone, for example, may occur at once at the
top, bottom, and middle of the entire sedimentary series; exhibiting in
each position so perfect an identity of mineral aspect as to be
undistinguishable. Such exact repetitions, however, of the same mixtures of
sediment have not often been produced, at distant periods, in precisely the
same parts of the globe; and even where this has happened, we are seldom in
any danger of confounding together the monuments of remote eras, when we
have studied their imbedded fossils and relative position.
It was remarked that the same species of organic remains cannot be traced
horizontally, or in the direction of the planes of stratification for
indefinite distances. This might have been expected from analogy; for when
we inquire into the present distribution of living beings, we find that the
habitable surface of the sea and land may be divided into a considerable
number of distinct provinces, each peopled by a peculiar assemblage of
animals and plants. In the Principles of Geology, I have endeavoured to
point out the extent and probable origin of these separate divisions; and
it was shown that climate is only one of many causes on which they depend,
and that difference of longitude as well as latitude is generally
accompanied by a dissimilarity of indigenous species.
As different seas, therefore, and lakes are inhabited at the same period,
by different aquatic animals and plants, and as the lands adjoining these
may be peopled by distinct terrestrial species, it follows that distinct
fossils will be imbedded in contemporaneous deposits. If it were
otherwise--if the same species abounded in every climate, or in every part
of the globe where, so far as we can discover, a corresponding temperature
and other conditions favourable to their existence are found--the
identification of mineral masses of the same age, by means of their
included organic contents, would be a matter of still greater certainty.
Nevertheless, the extent of some single zoological provinces, especially
those of marine animals, is very great; and our geological researches have
proved that the same laws prevailed at remote periods; for the fossils are
often identical throughout wide spaces, and in a great number of detached
deposits, in which the mineral nature of the rocks is variable.
The doctrine here laid down will be more readily understood, if we
reflect on what is now going on in the Mediterranean. That entire sea
may be considered as one zoological province; for, although certain
species of testacea and zoophytes may be very local, and each region has
probably some species peculiar to it, still a considerable number are
common to the whole Mediterranean. If, therefore, at some future period,
the bed of this inland sea should be converted into land, the geologist
might be enabled, by reference to organic remains, to prove the
contemporaneous origin of various mineral masses scattered over a space
equal in area to the half of Europe.
Deposits, for example, are well known to be now in progress in this sea in
the deltas of the Po, Rhone, Nile, and other rivers, which differ as
greatly from each other in the nature of their sediment as does the
composition of the mountains which they drain. There are also other
quarters of the Mediterranean, as off the coast of Campania, or near the
base of Etna, in Sicily, or in the Grecian Archipelago, where another class
of rocks is now forming; where showers of volcanic ashes occasionally fall
into the sea, and streams of lava overflow its bottom; and where, in the
intervals between volcanic eruptions, beds of sand and clay are frequently
derived from the waste of cliffs, or the turbid waters of rivers.
Limestones, moreover, such as the Italian travertins, are here and there
precipitated from the waters of mineral springs, some of which rise up from
the bottom of the sea. In all these detached formations, so diversified in
their lithological characters, the remains of the same shells, corals,
crustacea, and fish are becoming inclosed; or, at least, a sufficient
number must be common to the different localities to enable the zoologist
to refer them all to one contemporaneous assemblage of species.
There are, however, certain combinations of geographical circumstances
which cause distinct provinces of animals and plants to be separated
from each other by very narrow limits; and hence it must happen, that
strata will be sometimes formed in contiguous regions, differing widely
both in mineral contents and organic remains. Thus, for example, the
testacea, zoophytes, and fish of the Red Sea are, as a group, extremely
distinct from those inhabiting the adjoining parts of the Mediterranean,
although the two seas are separated only by the narrow isthmus of Suez.
Of the bivalve shells, according to Philippi, not more than a fifth are
common to the Red Sea and the sea around Sicily, while the proportion of
univalves (or Gasteropoda) is still smaller, not exceeding eighteen in a
hundred. Calcareous formations have accumulated on a great scale in the
Red Sea in modern times, and fossil shells of existing species are well
preserved therein; and we know that at the mouth of the Nile large
deposits of mud are amassed, including the remains of Mediterranean
species. It follows, therefore, that if at some future period the bed of
the Red Sea should be laid dry, the geologist might experience great
difficulties in endeavouring to ascertain the relative age of these
formations, which, although dissimilar both in organic and mineral
characters, were of synchronous origin.
But, on the other hand, we must not forget that the north-western shores of
the Arabian Gulf, the plains of Egypt, and the isthmus of Suez, are all
parts of one province of _terrestrial_ species. Small streams, therefore,
occasional land-floods, and those winds which drift clouds of sand along
the deserts, might carry down into the Red Sea the same shells of
fluviatile and land testacea which the Nile is sweeping into its delta,
together with some remains of terrestrial plants and the bones of
quadrupeds, whereby the groups of strata, before alluded to, might,
notwithstanding the discrepancy of their mineral composition and _marine_
organic fossils, be shown to have belonged to the same epoch.
Yet while rivers may thus carry down the same fluviatile and terrestrial
spoils into two or more seas inhabited by different marine species, it
will much more frequently happen, that the co-existence of terrestrial
species of distinct zoological and botanical provinces will be proved by
the identity of the marine beings which inhabited the intervening space.
Thus, for example, the land quadrupeds and shells of the south of
Europe, north of Africa, and north-west of Asia, are different, yet
their remains are all washed down by rivers flowing from these three
countries into the Mediterranean.
In some parts of the globe, at the present period, the line of demarcation
between distinct provinces of animals and plants is not very strongly
marked, especially where the change is determined by temperature, as in
seas extending from the temperate to the tropical zone, or from the
temperate to the arctic regions. Here a gradual passage takes place from
one set of species to another. In like manner the geologist, in studying
particular formations of remote periods, has sometimes been able to trace
the gradation from one ancient province to another, by observing carefully
the fossils of all the intermediate places. His success in thus acquiring a
knowledge of the zoological or botanical geography of very distant eras
has been mainly owing to this circumstance, that the mineral character has
no tendency to be affected by climate. A large river may convey yellow or
red mud into some part of the ocean, where it may be dispersed by a current
over an area several hundred leagues in length, so as to pass from the
tropics into the temperate zone. If the bottom of the sea be afterwards
upraised, the organic remains imbedded in such yellow or red strata may
indicate the different animals or plants which once inhabited at the same
time the temperate and equatorial regions.
It may be true, as a general rule, that groups of the same species of
animals and plants may extend over wider areas than deposits of homogeneous
composition; and if so, palaeontological characters will be of more
importance in geological classification than mineral composition; but it is
idle to discuss the relative value of these tests, as the aid of both is
indispensable, and it fortunately happens, that where the one criterion
fails, we can often avail ourselves of the other.
_Test by included fragments of older rocks._--It was stated, that
independent proof may sometimes be obtained of the relative date of two
formations, by fragments of an older rock being included in a newer one.
This evidence may sometimes be of great use, where a geologist is at a
loss to determine the relative age of two formations from want of clear
sections exhibiting their true order of position, or because the strata
of each group are vertical. In such cases we sometimes discover that the
more modern rock has been in part derived from the degradation of the
older. Thus, for example, we may find in one part of a country chalk
with flints; and, in another, a distinct formation, consisting of
alternations of clay, sand, and pebbles. If some of these pebbles
consist of similar flint and fossil shells, sponges, and foraminiferae,
of the same species as those in the chalk, we may confidently infer that
the chalk is the oldest of the two formations.
_Chronological groups._--The number of groups into which the
fossiliferous strata may be separated are more or less numerous,
according to the views of classification which different geologists
entertain; but when we have adopted a certain system of arrangement, we
immediately find that a few only of the entire series of groups occur
one upon the other in any single section or district.
[Illustration: Fig. 104. Block section.]
The thinning out of individual strata was before described (p. 16.). But
let the annexed diagram represent seven fossiliferous groups, instead of
as many strata. It will then be seen that in the middle all the
superimposed formations are present; but in consequence of some of them
thinning out, No. 2. and No. 5. are absent at one extremity of the
section, and No. 4. at the other.
[Illustration: Fig. 105. Section South of Bristol. A. C. Ramsay.
Length of section 4 miles. _a_, _b_. Level of the sea.
1. Inferior oolite.
2. Lias.
3. New red sandstone.
4. Magnesian conglomerate.
5. Coal measure.
6. Carboniferous limestone.
7. Old red sandstone.]
In the annexed diagram, fig. 105., a real section of the geological
formations in the neighbourhood of Bristol and the Mendip Hills, is
presented to the reader as laid down on a true scale by Professor
Ramsay, where the newer groups 1, 2, 3, 4. rest unconformably on the
formations 5 and 6. Here at the southern end of the line of section we
meet with the beds No. 3. (the New Red Sandstone) resting immediately on
No. 6., while farther north, as at Dundry Hill, we behold six groups
superimposed one upon the other, comprising all the strata from the
inferior oolite to the coal and carboniferous limestone. The limited
extension of the groups 1 and 2. is owing to denudation, as these
formations end abruptly, and have left outlying patches to attest the
fact of their having originally covered a much wider area.
In many instances, however, the entire absence of one or more formations of
intervening periods between two groups, such as 3. and 5. in the same
section, arises, not from the destruction of what once existed, but because
no strata of an intermediate age were ever deposited on the inferior rock.
They were not formed at that place, either because the region was dry land
during the interval, or because it was part of a sea or lake to which no
sediment was carried.
In order, therefore, to establish a chronological succession of
fossiliferous groups, a geologist must begin with a single section, in
which several sets of strata lie one upon the other. He must then trace
these formations, by attention to their mineral character and fossils,
continuously, as far as possible, from the starting point. As often as he
meets with new groups, he must ascertain by superposition their age
relatively to those first examined, and thus learn how to intercalate them
in a tabular arrangement of the whole.
By this means the German, French, and English geologists have determined
the succession of strata throughout a great part of Europe, and have
adopted pretty generally the following groups, almost all of which have
their representatives in the British Islands.
_Groups of Fossiliferous Strata observed in Western Europe, arranged in
what is termed a descending Series, or beginning with the newest._ (_See a
more detailed Tabular view_, pp. 360. 365.)
1. Post-Pliocene, including those of the
Recent, or human period.
2. Newer Pliocene, or Pleistocene. }
3. Older Pliocene. } Tertiary, Supracretaceous[103-A],
4. Miocene. } or Cainozoic.[103-B]
5. Eocene. }
6. Chalk. }
7. Greensand. }
8. Wealden. }
9. Upper Oolite. } Secondary, or Mesozoic.[103-B]
10. Middle Oolite. }
11. Lower Oolite. }
12. Lias. }
13. Trias. }
14. Permian. }
15. Coal. }
16. Old Red sandstone, or Devonian. } Primary fossiliferous,
17. Upper Silurian. } or paleozoic.[103-B]
18. Lower Silurian. }
19. Cambrian and older fossiliferous strata. }
It is not pretended that the three principal sections in the above table,
called primary, secondary, and tertiary, are of equivalent importance, or
that the eighteen subordinate groups comprise monuments relating to equal
portions of past time, or of the earth's history. But we can assert that
they each relate to successive periods, during which certain animals and
plants, for the most part peculiar to their respective eras, have
flourished, and during which different kinds of sediment were deposited in
the space now occupied by Europe.
If we were disposed, on palaeontological grounds[103-C], to divide the
entire fossiliferous series into a few groups less numerous than those in
the above table, and more nearly co-ordinate in value than the sections
called primary, secondary, and tertiary, we might, perhaps, adopt the six
groups or periods given in the next table (p. 104.).
At the same time, I may observe, that, in the present state of the
science, when we have not yet compared the evidence derivable from all
classes of fossils, not even those most generally distributed, such as
shells, corals, and fish, such generalizations are premature, and can
only be regarded as conjectural or provisional schemes for the founding
of large natural groups.
_Fossiliferous Strata of Western Europe divided into Six Groups._
1. Post Pliocene and } from the Post-Pliocene to the
Tertiary } Eocene inclusive.
2. Cretaceous { from the Maestricht Chalk to the Lower
{ Greensand inclusive.
3. Oolitic from the Wealden to the Lias inclusive.
4. Triassic { including the Keuper, Muschelkalk, and
{ Bunter Sandstein of the Germans.
5. Permian, Carboniferous, } including Magnesian Limestone (Zechstein),
and Devonian } Coal, Mountain Limestone, and
} Old Red sandstone.
6. Silurian and Cambrian } from the Upper Silurian to the oldest
} fossiliferous rocks inclusive.
FOOTNOTES:
[103-A] For tertiary, Sir H. De la Beche has used the term
"supracretaceous," a name implying that the strata so called are
superior in position to the chalk.
[103-B] Professor Phillips has adopted these terms: Cainozoic, from
+kainos+, _cainos_, recent, and +zoon+, _zoon_, animal; Mesozoic,
from +mesos+, _mesos_, middle, &c.; Paleozoic, from +palaios+,
_palaios_, ancient, &c.
[103-C] Palaeontology is the science which treats of fossil remains, both
animal and vegetable. Etym. +palaios+, _palaios_, ancient, +onta+, _onta_,
beings, and +logos+, _logos_, a discourse.