THE BATTLE OF THE BRAKES.
The English battle of the brakes may be said to have fairly opened
with the official report from Captain Tyler on the Shipton accident,
in reference to which he expressed the opinion, which has already
been quoted in describing the accident, that "if the train had
been fitted with continuous brakes throughout its whole length
there is no reason why it should not have been brought to rest
without any casuality." The Royal Commission on railroad accidents
then took the matter up and called for a series of scientifically
conducted experiments. These took place under the supervision of
two engineers appointed by the Commission, who were aided by a
detail of officers and men from the royal engineers. Eight brakes
competed, and a train, consisting of a locomotive and thirteen
cars, was specially prepared for each. With these trains some
seventy runs were made, and their results recorded and tabulated;
the experiments were continued through six consecutive working
days. Of the brakes experimented with three were American in their
origin,--Westinghouse's automatic and vacuum, and Smith's vacuum.
The remainder were English, and were steam, hydraulic, and air
brakes; among them also was one simple emergency brake. The result
of the trials was a very decided victory for the Westinghouse
automatic, and upon its performances the Commission based its
conclusion that trains ought to be so equipped that in cases of
emergency they could be brought to rest, when travelling on level
ground at 50 miles an hour, within a distance of 275 yards; with
an allowance of distance in cases of speed greater or less than
50 miles nearly proportioned to its square. These allowances they
tabulated as follows:--
At 60 miles per hour, stopping distance within 400 yards.
" 55 " " " 340 "
" 50 " " " 275 "
" 45 " " " 220 "
" 40 " " " 180 "
" 35 " " " 135 "
" 30 " " " 100 "
To appreciate the enormous advance in what may be called stopping
power which these experiments revealed, it should be added that
the first series of experiments made at Newark were with trains
equipped only with the hand-brake. The average speed in these
experiments was 47 miles, and with the train-brake, according to the
foregoing tabulation, the stop should have been made in about 250
yards; in reality it was made in a little less than five times that
distance, or 1120 yards; in other words the experiments showed that
the improved appliances had more than quadrupled the control over
trains. It has already been noticed that in the cases of the Angola
and the Port Jervis disasters, as well as in that at Shipton, the
trains ran some 2,700 feet before they could be stopped. Under the
English tabulations above given, in the results of which certain
recent improvements do not enter, a train running into the 42d
Street Station in New York, at a speed of forty-five miles an hour
when under the entrance arches, would be stopped before it reached
the buffers at the end of the covered tracks.
The Royal Commission experiments were followed in May and June,
1877, by yet others set on foot by the North Eastern Railway
Company for the purpose of making a competitive test of the
Westinghouse automatic and the Smith's vacuum brakes. At this trial
also the average stop at a speed of 50 miles an hour was effected
in 15 seconds, and within a distance of 650 feet. Other series
of experiments with similar results were, about the same time,
conducted under the auspices of the Belgian and German governments,
of which elaborate official reports were made. The result was that
at last, under date of August 30, 1877, the Board of Trade issued
a circular to the railway companies in which it called attention to
the fact that, notwithstanding all the discussion which had taken
place and the elaborate official trials which the government had set
on foot, there had "apparently been no attempt on the part of the
various companies to take the first step of agreeing upon what are
the requirements which, in their opinion, are essential to a good
continuous brake." In other words, the Board found that, instead of
becoming better, matters were rapidly becoming worse. Each company
was equipping its rolling stock with that appliance in which its
officers happened to be interested as owners or inventors, and when
carriages thus equipped passed from the tracks of one road onto
those of another the result was a return to the old hand-brake
system in a condition of impaired efficiency. The Board accordingly
now proceeded to narrow down the field of selection by specifying
the following as what it considered the essentials of a good
continuous brake:--
_a._ "The brakes to be efficient in stopping trains,
instantaneous in their actions, and capable of being applied
without difficulty by engine-drivers or guards.
_b._ "In case of accident, to be instantaneously self-acting.
_c._ "The brakes to be put on and taken off (with facility) on
the engine and on every vehicle of a train.
_d._ "The brakes to be regularly used in daily working.
_e._ "The materials employed to be of a durable character, so as
to be easily maintained and kept in order."
These requirements pointed about as directly as they could to the
Westinghouse, to the exclusion of all competing brakes. Not more
than one other complied with them in all respects, and many made
no pretence of complying at all. Then followed what may be termed
the battle royal of the brakes, which as yet shows no signs of
drawing to a close. As the avowed object of the Board of Trade was
to introduce, one brake, to the necessary exclusion of all others,
throughout the railroad system of Great Britain, the magnitude of
the prize was not easy to over-estimate. The weight of scientific
and official authority was decidedly in favor of the Westinghouse
automatic, but among the railroad men the Smith vacuum found
the largest number of adherents. It failed to meet three of the
requirements of the Board of Trade, in that it was neither automatic
nor instantaneous in its action, while the materials employed in
it were not of a durable character. It was, on the other hand, a
brake of unquestioned excellence, while it commended itself to the
judgment of the average railroad official by its simplicity, and to
that of the average railroad director by its apparent cheapness. Any
one could understand it, and its first cost was temptingly small.
The real struggle in Great Britain, therefore, has been, and now
is, between these two brakes; and the fact that both of them are
American has been made to enter largely into it, and in a way also
which at times lent to the discussion an element of broad humor.
For instance, the energetic agent of the Smith vacuum, feeling
himself aggrieved by some statement which appeared in the _Times_,
responded thereto in a circular, in the composition of which he
certainly evinced more zeal than either judgment or literary skill.
This circular and its author were then referred to by the editors
of _Engineering_, a London scientific journal, in the following
slightly _de haut en bas_ style:--
"It is not a little remarkable, and it is a fact not harmonious
with the feelings of English engineers, that the two brakes
recommending themselves for adoption are of American origin.
* * * Now we cannot wonder, considering what our past experience
has been in many of our dealings with Americans, that this
feeling of distrust and prejudice exists. It is not merely
sentimental, it is founded on many and untoward and costly
experiences of the past, and the fear of similar experiences in
the future. And when we see the representative of one of these
systems adopting the traditional policy of his country, and
meeting criticism with abuse--abuse of men pre-eminent in the
profession, and journals which he apparently forgets are neither
American nor venal--we do not wonder that our railway engineers
feel a repugnance to commit themselves."
The superiority of the British over the American controversialist,
as respects courtesy and restraint in language, being thus
satisfactorily established, it only remained to illustrate it.
This, however, had already been done in the previous May; for at
that time it chanced that Captain Tyler, having retired from his
position at the head of the railway inspectors department of the
Board of Trade, was considering an offer which Mr. Westinghouse had
made him to associate himself with the company owning the brakes
known by that name. Before accepting this offer, Captain Tyler
took advantage of a meeting of the Society of Arts to publicly
give notice that he was considering it. This he did in a really
admirable paper on the whole subject of continuous brakes, at the
close of which a general discussion was invited and took place, and
in the course of it the innate superiority of the British over any
other kind of controversialist, so far at least as courtesy and a
delicate refraining from imputations is concerned, received pointed
illustration.
No sooner had Captain Tyler finished than Mr. Houghton, C. E., took
occasion to refer to the paper he had read as "an elaborate puff
to the Westinghouse brake, with which he [Tyler] was, as he told,
connected, or about to be." Subsequently Mr. Steele proceeded to say
that:--
"On receiving the invitation to be present at the meeting, he
had been somewhat afraid that Captain Tyler was going to lose
his fine character for impartiality by throwing in his lot with
the brake-tinkers, but it came out that not only was he going to
do that, but actually going to be a partner in a concern. * * *
The speaker then proceeded to discuss the Westinghouse brake,
which he called the Westinghouse and Tyler brake, designating
it as a jack-in-the-box, a rattle trap, to please and decoy,
and not an invention at all. No engineer had a hand in its
manufacture. It was the discovery of some Philadelphia barber
or some such thing. He had spoken of honest brakes. This was
a brake which had all sorts of pretensions. It had not worked
well, but whenever there was any row about its not working
well, they got the papers to praise it up, and that was how the
papers were under the thumb, and would not speak of any other.
* * * He thought it would not do for railway companies to take
a bad brake, and Captain Tyler and Mr. Westinghouse be able
to make their fortunes by floating a limited company for its
introduction. They had heard of Emma mines and Lisbon tramways,
and such like, and he felt it would not be well to stand by and
allow this to be done."
All of which was not only to the point, but finely calculated to
show the American inventors and agents who were present the nice and
mutually respectful manner in which such discussions were carried on
by all Englishmen.
Though the avowed adhesion of Sir Henry Tyler to the Westinghouse
was a most important move in the war of the brakes, it did not
prove a decisive one. The complete control of the field was too
valuable a property to be yielded in deference to that, or any other
name without a struggle; and, so to speak, there were altogether
too many ins and outs to the conflict. Back door influences had
everywhere to be encountered. The North Western, for instance, is
the most important of the railway companies of the United Kingdom.
The locomotive superintendent of that company was the part inventor
and proprietor of an emergency brake which had been extensively
adopted by it on its rolling stock, but which wholly failed to meet
the requirements laid down in its circular by the Board of Trade.
Immediately after issuing that circular the Board of Trade called
the attention of the company to this fact in connection with an
accident which had recently occurred, and in very emphatic language
pointed out that the brakes in question could not "in any reasonable
sense of the word be called continuous brakes," and that it was
clear that the circular requirements were "not complied with by the
brake-system of the London & North Western Railway Company;" in case
that company persisted in the use of that brake, the secretary of
the Board went on to say, "in the event of a casualty occurring,
which an efficient system of brakes might have prevented, a heavy
personal responsibility will rest upon those who are answerable for
such neglect." This was certainly language tolerably direct in its
import. As such it was calculated to cause those to whom it was
addressed to pause in their action. The company, however, treated it
with a superb disregard, all the more contemptuous because veiled
in language of deferential civility. They then quietly went on
applying their locomotive superintendent's emergency brake to their
equipment, until on the 30th of June, 1879, they returned no less
than 2,052 carriages fitted with it; that being by far the largest
number returned by any one company in the United Kingdom.
A more direct challenge to the Board of Trade and to Parliament
could not easily have been devised. To appreciate how direct it
was, it is necessary to bear in mind that in its circular of August
30, 1877, in which the requirements of a satisfactory train-brake
were laid down, the Board of Trade threw out to the companies
the very significant hint, that they "would do well to reflect
that if a doubt should arise that from a conflict of interest or
opinion, or from any other cause, they [the companies] are not
exerting themselves, it is obvious that they will call down upon
themselves an interference which the Board of Trade, no less than
the companies, desire to avoid." In his general report on the
accidents of the year 1877, the successor of Captain Tyler expressed
the opinion that "sufficient information and experience would now
appear to be available, and the time is approaching when the railway
companies may fairly be expected to come to a decision as to which
of the systems of continuous brakes is best calculated to fulfil the
requisite conditions, and is most worthy of general adoption." At
the close of another year, however, the official returns seemed to
indicate that, while but a sixth part of the passenger locomotives
and a fifth part of the carriages in use on the railroads of the
United Kingdom were yet equipped with continuous brakes at all, a
concurrence of opinion in favor of any one system was more remote
than ever. During the six months ending December 31, 1878, but 127
additional locomotives out of about 4000, and 1,200 additional
carriages out of some 32,000 were equipped; of which 70 locomotives
and 530 carriages had been equipped with the Smith vacuum, which in
three most important respects failed to comply with the Board of
Trade requirements. Under these circumstances the Board of Trade
was obviously called upon either to withdraw from the position it
had taken, or to invite that "interference" in its support to which
in its circular of August, 1877 it had so portentously referred. It
decided to do the latter, and in March, 1879 the government gave an
intimation in the House of Lords that early Parliamentary action was
contemplated. As it is expressed, the railway companies are to "be
relieved of their indecision."
In Great Britain, therefore, the long battle of the brakes would
seem to be drawing to its close. The final struggle, however,
will be a spirited one, and one which Americans will watch with
considerable interest,--for it is in fact a struggle between two
American brakes, the Westinghouse and the Smith vacuum. Of the
907 locomotives hitherto equipped with the continuous brakes no
less than 819 are equipped with one or the other of these American
patents, besides over 4,464 of the 9,919 passenger carriages. The
remaining 3,857 locomotives and 30,000 carriages are the prize of
victory. As the score now stands the vacuum brake is in almost
exactly twice the use of its more scientific rival. The weight
of authority and experience, and the requirements of the Board of
Trade, are, however, on the opposite side.
As deduced from the European scientific tests and the official
returns, the balance of advantages would seem to be as follows:--In
favor of the vacuum are its superficial simplicity, and possible
economy in first cost:--In favor of the Westinghouse automatic are
its superior quickness in application, the greater rapidity in
its stopping power, the more durable nature of its materials, the
smaller cost in renewal, its less liability to derangement, and
above all its self-acting adjustment. The last is the point upon
which the final issue of the struggle must probably turn. The use
of any train-brake which is not automatic in its action, as has
already been pointed out, involves in the long run disaster,--and
ultimate serious disaster. The mere fact that the brake is generally
so reliable,--that ninety-nine times out of the hundred it works
perfectly,--simply makes disaster certain by the fatal confidence
it inspires. Ninety-nine times in a hundred the brake proves
reliable;--nine times in the remaining ten of the thousand, in which
it fails, a lucky chance averts disaster;--but the thousandth time
will assuredly come, as it did at Communipaw and on the New York
Elevated railway, and, much the worst of all yet, at Wollaston.
Soon or late the use of non-automatic continuous brakes will most
assuredly, if they are not sooner abandoned, be put an end to
by the occurrence of some not-to-be forgotten catastrophe of the
first magnitude, distinctly traceable to that cause. Meanwhile that
automatic brakes are complicated and sometimes cause inconvenience
in their operation is most indisputable. This is an objection, also,
to which they are open in common with most of the riper results of
human ingenuity;--but, though sun-dials are charmingly simple, we do
not, therefore, discard chronometers in their favor; neither do we
insist on cutting our harvests with the scythe, because every man
who may be called upon to drive a mowing machine may not know how
to put one together. But what Sir Henry Tyler has said in respect
to this oldest and most fallacious, as well as most wearisome, of
objections covers the whole ground and cannot be improved upon.
After referring to the fact that simplicity in construction and
simplicity in working were two different things, and that, almost
invariably, a certain degree of complication in construction is
necessary to secure simplicity in working,--after pointing this out
he went on to add that,--
"Simplicity as regards the application of railway brakes is
not obtained by the system now more commonly employed of
brake-handles to be turned by different men in different
parts of the train; but is obtained when, by more complicated
construction an engine-driver is able easily in an instant to
apply ample brake-power at pleasure with more or less force
to every wheel of his train; is obtained when, every time an
engine-driver starts, or attempts to start his train, the brake
itself informs him if it is out of order; and is still more
obtained when, on the occasion of an accident and the separation
of a coupling, the brakes will unfailingly apply themselves on
every wheel of the train without the action of the engine-driver
or guards, [brakemen], and before even they have time to realize
the necessity for it. This is true simplicity in such a case,
and that system of continuous brakes which best accomplishes
such results in the shortest space of time is so far preferable
to all others."