CHAPTER IX

THE NORTHERN MONGOLS (_continued_)

The Finno-Turki Peoples--Assimilation to the Caucasic Type--Turki

Cradle--Ural-Altaian Invasions--The Scythians--Parthians and

Turkomans--Massagetae and Yue-chi--Indo-Scythians and

Graeco-Baktrians--Dahae, Jat, and Rajput Origins--The "White

Huns"--The Uigurs--Orkhon Inscriptions--The Assena Turki

Dynasty--Toghuz-Uigur Empire--Kashgarian and Sungarian

Populations--The Oghuz Turks and their Migrations--Seljuks and

Osmanli--The Yakuts--The Kirghiz--Kazak and Kossack--The

Kara-Kirghiz--The Finnish Peoples--Former and Present Domain--Late

Westward Spread of the Finns--The Bronze and Iron Ages in the

Finnish Lands--The Baltic Finns--Relations to Goths, Letts, and

Slavs--Finno-Russ Origins--Tavastian and Karelian Finns--The

Kwaens--The Lapps--Samoyeds and Permian Finns--Lapp Origins and

Migrations--Temperament--Religion--The Volga Finns--The Votyak

Pagans--Human Sacrifices--The Bulgars--Origins and Migrations--An

Ethnical Transformation--Great and Little Bulgaria--Avars and

Magyars--Magyar Origins and early Records--Present Position of the

Magyars--Ethnical and Linguistic Relations in Eastern Europe.

In a very broad way all the western branches of the North Mongol

division may be comprised under the collective designation of

Finno-Turki Mongols. Jointly they constitute a well-marked section of

the family, being distinguished from the eastern section by several

features which they have in common, and the most important of which is

unquestionably a much larger infusion of Caucasic blood than is seen in

any of the Mongolo-Tungusic groups. So pronounced is this feature

amongst many Finnish as well as Turkish peoples, that some

anthropologists have felt inclined to deny any direct connection between

the eastern and western divisions of Mongolian man and to regard the

Baltic Finns, for instance, rather as "Allophylian Whites" than as

original members of the yellow race. Prichard, to whom we owe this now

nearly obsolete term "Allophylian," held this view[671], and even Sayce

is "more than doubtful whether we can class the Mongols physiologically

with the Turkish-Tatars [the Turki peoples], or the Ugro-Finns[672]."

It may, indeed, be allowed that at present the great majority of the

Finno-Turki populations occupy a position amongst the varieties of

mankind which is extremely perplexing for the strict systematist. When

the whole division is brought under survey, every shade of transition is

observed between the Siberian Samoyeds of the Finnic branch and the

steppe Kirghiz of the Turki branch on the one hand, both of whom show

Mongol characters in an exaggerated form, and on the other the Osmanli

Turks and Hungarian Magyars, most of whom may be regarded as typical

Caucasians. Moreover, the difficulty is increased by the fact, already

pointed out, that these mixed Mongolo-Caucasic characters occur not only

amongst the late historic groups, but also amongst the earliest known

groups--"Chudes," Usuns, Uigurs and others--who may be called

Proto-Finnish and Proto-Turki peoples. But precisely herein lies the

solution of the problem. Most of the region now held by Turki and

Finnish nations was originally occupied by long-headed Caucasic men of

the late Stone Ages (see above). Then followed the Proto-Mongol

intruders from the Tibetan table-land, who partly submerged, partly

intermingled with their neolithic neighbours, many thus acquiring those

mixed characters by which they have been distinguished from the earliest

historic times. Later, further interminglings took place according as

the Finno-Turki hordes, leaving their original seats in the Altai and

surrounding regions, advanced westwards and came more and more into

contact with the European populations of Caucasic type.

We may therefore conclude that the majority of the Finno-Turki were

almost from the first a somewhat mixed race, and that during historic

times the original Mongol element has gradually yielded to the Caucasic

in the direction from east to west. Such is the picture now presented by

these heterogeneous populations, who in their primeval eastern seats are

still mostly typical Mongols, but have been more and more assimilated to

the European type in their new Anatolian, Baltic, Danubian, and Balkan

homes.

Observant travellers have often been impressed by this progressive

conformity of the Mongolo-Turki to Europeans. During his westward

journey through Central Asia Younghusband, on passing from Mongolia to

Eastern Turkestan, found that the people, though tall and fine-looking,

had at first more of the Mongol cast of feature than he had expected.

"Their faces, however, though somewhat round, were slightly more

elongated than the Mongol, and there was considerably more intelligence

about them. But there was more roundness, less intelligence, less

sharpness in the outlines than is seen in the inhabitants of Kashgar and

Yarkand." Then he adds: "As I proceeded westwards I noticed a gradual,

scarcely perceptible, change from the round of a Mongolian type to a

sharper and yet more sharp type of feature.... As we get farther away

from Mongolia, we notice that the faces become gradually longer and

narrower; and farther west still, among some of the inhabitants of

Afghan Turkestan, we see that the Tartar or Mongol type of feature is

almost entirely lost[673]." To complete the picture it need only be

added that still further west, in Asia Minor, the Balkan Peninsula,

Hungary, and Finland, the Mongol features are often entirely lost. "The

Turks of the west have so much Aryan and Semitic blood in them, that the

last vestiges of their original physical characters have been lost, and

their language alone indicates their previous descent[674]."

Before they were broken up and dispersed over half the northern

hemisphere by Mongol pressure from the east, the primitive Turki tribes

dwelt, according to Howorth, mainly between the Ulugh-dagh mountains and

the Orkhon river in Mongolia, that is, along the southern slopes and

spurs of the Altai-Sayan system from the head waters of the Irtysh to

the valleys draining north to Lake Baikal. But the Turki cradle is

shifted farther east by Richthofen, who thinks that their true home lay

between the Amur, the Lena, and the Selenga, where at one time they had

their camping-grounds in close proximity to their Mongol and Tungus

kinsmen. There is nothing to show that the Yakuts, who are admittedly of

Turki stock, ever migrated to their present northern homes in the Lena

basin, which has more probably always been their native land[675].

But when they come within the horizon of history the Turki are already a

numerous nation, with a north-western and south-eastern division[676],

which may well have jointly occupied the whole region from the Irtysh to

the Lena, and both views may thus be reconciled. In any case the Turki

domain lay west of the Mongol, and the Altai uplands, taken in the

widest sense, may still be regarded as the most probable zone of

specialisation for the Turki physical type. The typical characteristics

are a yellowish white complexion, a high brachycephalic head, often

almost cuboid, due to parieto-occipital flattening (especially

noticeable among the Yakuts), an elongated oval face, with straight,

somewhat prominent nose, and non-Mongolian eyes. The stature is

moderate, with an average of 1.675 m. (5 ft. 6 in.), and a tendency to

stoutness.

Intermediate between the typical Turki and the Mongols Hamy places the

Uzbegs, Kirghiz, Bashkirs, and Nogais; and between the Turks and Finns

those extremely mixed groups of East Russia commonly but wrongly called

"Tartars," as well as other transitions between Turk, Slav, Greek, Arab,

Osmanli of Constantinople, Kurugli of Algeria and others, whose study

shows the extreme difficulty of accurately determining the limits of the

Yellow and the White races[677].

Analogous difficulties recur in the study of the Northern (Siberian)

groups--Samoyeds, Ostyaks, Voguls and other Ugrians--who present great

individual variations, leading almost without a break from the Mongol to

the Lapp, from the Lapp to the Finn, from Finn to Slav and Teuton. Thus

may be shown a series of observations continuous between the most

typical Mongol, and those aberrant Mongolo-Caucasic groups which answer

to Prichard's "Allophylian races." Thus also is confirmed by a study of

details the above broad generalisation in which I have endeavoured to

determine the relation of the Finno-Turki peoples to the primary Mongol

and Caucasic divisions.

Peisker's description of the Scythian invasions of Irania[678] may be

taken as typical of the whole area, and explains the complexity of the

ethnological problems. The steppes and deserts of Central Asia are an

impassable barrier for the South Asiatics, the Aryans, but not for the

North Asiatic, the Altaian; for him they are an open country, providing

him with the indispensable winter pastures. On the other hand, for the

South Asiatic Aryan these deserts are an object of terror, and besides

he is not impelled towards them as he has winter pastures near at hand.

It is this difference in the distance of summer and winter pastures that

makes the North Asiatic Altaian an ever-wandering herdsman, and the

grazing part of the Indo-European race cattle-rearers settled in limited

districts. Thus, while the native Iranian must halt before the trackless

region of steppes and deserts and cannot follow the well-mounted

robber-nomad thither, Iran itself is the object of greatest longing to

the nomadic Altaian. Here he can plunder and enslave to his heart's

delight, and if he succeeds in maintaining himself for a considerable

time among the Aryans, he learns the language of the subjugated people

and, by mingling with them, loses his Mongol characteristics more and

more. If the Iranian is now fortunate enough to shake off the yoke, the

dispossessed iranised Altaian intruder inflicts himself upon other

lands. So it was with the Scythians. Leaving their families behind in

the South Russian steppes, the Scythians invaded Media _c._ B.C. 630,

and advanced into Mesopotamia as far as Egypt.

In Media they took Median wives and learned the Median language. After

being driven out by Cyaxares, on their return, some 28 years later, they

met with a new generation, the offspring of the wives and daughters whom

they had left behind, and slaves of an alien race. A hundred and fifty

years later Hippocrates remarked their yellowish red complexion,

corpulence, smooth skins, and their consequent eunuch-like

appearance--all typically Mongol characteristics. Hippocrates was the

most celebrated physician and natural philosopher of the ancient world.

His evidence is unshakeable and cannot be invalidated by the Aryan

speech of the Scythians. Their Mongol type was innate in them, whereas

their Iranian speech was acquired and is no refutation of Hippocrates'

testimony. On the later Greek vases from South Russian excavations they

already appear strongly demongolised and the Altaian is only suggested

by their hair, which is as stiff as a horse's mane--hence Aristotle's

epithet [Greek: euthytriches]--the characteristic that survives

longest among all Ural-Altaian hybrid peoples.

E. H. Parker unfortunately lent the weight of his authority to the

statement that the word "Tuerkoe" [Turki] "goes no farther back than the

fifth century of our era," and that "so far as recorded history is

concerned the name of Turk dates from this time[679]." But Turki tribes

bearing this national name had penetrated into East Europe hundreds of

years before that time, and were already seated on the Tanais (Don)

about the new era. They are mentioned by name both by Pomponius

Mela[680] and by Pliny[681], and to the same connection belonged, beyond

all doubt, the warlike _Parthians_, who 300 years earlier were already

seated on the confines of Iran and Turan, routed the legions of Crassus

and Antony, and for five centuries (250 B.C.-229 A.D.) usurped the

throne of the "King of Kings," holding sway from the Euphrates to the

Ganges, and from the Caspian to the Indian Ocean. Direct descendants of

the Parthians are the fierce Turkoman nomads, who for ages terrorised

over all the settled populations encircling the Aralo-Caspian

depression. Their power has at last been broken by the Russians, but

they are still politically dominant in Persia[682]. They have thus been

for many ages in the closest contact with Caucasic Iranians, with the

result that the present Turkoman type is shown by J. L. Yavorsky's

observations to be extremely variable[683].

Both the Parthians and the _Massagetae_ have been identified with the

_Yue-chi_, who figured so largely in the annals of the Han dynasties,

and are above mentioned as having been driven west to Sungaria by the

Hiung-nu after the erection of the Great Wall. It has been said that,

could we follow the peregrinations of the Yue-chi bands from their early

seats at the foot of the Kinghan mountains to their disappearance amid

the snows of the Western Himalayas, we should hold the key to the

solution of the obscure problems associated with the migrations of the

Mongolo-Turki hordes since the torrent of invasion was diverted

westwards by Shih Hwang Ti's mighty barrier. One point, however, seems

clear enough, that the Yue-chi were a different people both from the

Parthians who had already occupied Hyrcania (Khorasan) at least in the

third century B.C., if not earlier, and from the Massagetae. For the

latter were seated on the Yaxartes (Sir-darya) in the time of Cyrus

(sixth century B.C.), whereas the Yue-chi still dwelt east of Lake Lob

(Tarim basin) in the third century. After their defeat by the Hiung-nu

and the Usuns (201 and 165 B.C.), they withdrew to Sogdiana

(Transoxiana), reduced the _Ta-Hia_ of Baktria, and in 126 B.C.

overthrew the Graeco-Baktrian kingdom, which had been founded after the

death of Alexander towards the close of the fourth century. But in the

Kabul valley, south of the Hindu-Kush, the Greeks still held their

ground for over 100 years, until Kadphises I., king of the Kushans--a

branch of the Yue-chi--after uniting the whole nation in a single

Indo-Scythian state, extended his conquests to Kabul and succeeded

Hermaeus, last of the Greek dynasty (40-20 B.C.?). Kadphises' son

Kadaphes (10 A.D.) added to his empire a great part of North India,

where his successors of the Yue-chi dynasty reigned from the middle of

the first to the end of the fourth century A.D. Here they are supposed

by some authorities to be still represented by the _Jats_ and _Rajputs_,

and even Prichard allows that the supposition "does not appear

altogether preposterous," although "the physical characters of the Jats

are very different from those attributed to the Yuetschi [Yue-chi] and

the kindred tribes [Suns, Kushans, etc.] by the writers cited by

Klaproth and Abel Remusat, who say that they are of sanguine complexion

with blue eyes[684]."

We now know that these characters present little difficulty when the

composite origin of the Turki people is borne in mind. On the other hand

it is interesting to note that the above-mentioned Ta-Hia have by some

been identified with the warlike Scythian Dahae[685], and these with the

Dehiya or Dhe one of the great divisions of the Indian Jats. But if

Rawlinson[686] is right, the term _Dahae_ was not racial but social,

meaning _rustici_,--the peasantry as opposed to the nomads; hence the

Dahae are heard of everywhere throughout Irania, just as _Dehwar_[687]

is still the common designation of the Tajik (Persian) peasantry in

Afghanistan and Baluchistan. This is also the view taken by de Ujfalvy,

who identifies the Ta-Hia, not with the Scythian Dahae, or with any

other particular tribe, but with the peaceful rural population of

Baktriana[688], whose reduction by the Yue-chi, possibly Strabo's

Tokhari, was followed by the overthrow of the Graeco-Baktrians. The

solution of the puzzling Yue-chi-Jat problem would therefore seem to be

that the Dehiya and other Jats, always an agricultural people, are

descended from the old Iranian peasantry of Baktriana, some of whom

followed the fortunes of their Greek rulers into Kabul valley, while

others accompanied the conquering Yue-chi founders of the Indo-Scythian

empire into northern India.

Then followed the overthrow of the Yue-chi themselves by the _Ye-tha_

(_Ye-tha-i-li-to_) of the Chinese records, that is, the _Ephthalites_,

or so-called "White Huns," of the Greek and Arab writers, who about 425

A.D. overran Transoxiana, and soon afterwards penetrated through the

mountain passes into the Kabul and Indus valleys. Although confused by

some contemporary writers (Zosimus, Am. Marcellinus) with Attila's Huns,

M. Drouin has made it clear that the Ye-tha were not Huns (Mongols) at

all, but, like the Yue-chi, a Turki people, who were driven westwards

about the same time as the Hiung-nu by the Yuan-yuans (see above). Of

Hun they had little but the name, and the more accurate Procopius was

aware that they differed entirely from "the Huns known to us, not being

nomads, but settled for a long time in a fertile region." He speaks also

of their white colour and regular features, and their sedentary

life[689] as in the Chinese accounts, where they are described as

warlike conquerors of twenty kingdoms, as far as that of the A-si

(Arsacides, Parthians), and in their customs resembling the Tu-Kiu

(Turks), being in fact "of the same race." On the ruins of the

Indo-Scythian (Yue-chi) empire, the White Huns ruled in India and the

surrounding lands from 425 to the middle of the sixth century. A little

later came the Arabs, who in 706 captured Samarkand, and under the

Abassides were supreme in Central Asia till scattered to the winds by

the Oghuz Turki hordes.

From all this it has been suggested that--while the Baktrian peasants

entered India as settlers, and are now represented by the agricultural

Jats--the Yue-chi and Ye-tha, both of fair Turki stock, came as

conquerors, and are now represented by the Rajputs, "Sons of Kings," the

warrior and land-owning race of northern India. It is significant that

these Thakur, "feudal lords," mostly trace their genealogies from about

the beginning of the seventh century, as if they had become Hinduized

soon after the fall of the foreign Ye-tha dynasty, while on the other

hand "the country legends abound with instances of the conflict between

the Rajput and the Brahman in prehistoric times[690]." This supports the

conjecture that the Rajputs entered India, not as "Aryans" of the

Kshatriya or military caste, as is commonly assumed, but as aliens

(Turki), the avowed foes of the true Aryans, that is, the Brahman or

theocratic (priestly) caste. Thus also is explained the intimate

association of the Rajputs and the Jats from the first--the Rajputs

being the Turki leaders of the invasions; and the Jats their peaceful

Baktrian subjects following in their wake.

The theory that the haughty Rajputs are of unsullied "Aryan blood" is

scarcely any longer held even by the Rajputs themselves; they are

undoubtedly of mixed origin. But the definite physical type which H. H.

Risley[691] describes as characteristic of Rajputs and Jats in the

Kashmir Valley, Punjab and Rajputana, shows them to be wavy-haired

dark-skinned dolichocephals, linked rather with the "Caucasic" than the

"Mongolian" division.

Nearly related to the White Huns were the _Uigurs_, the _Kao-che_ of the

Chinese annals, who may claim to be the first Turki nation that founded

a relatively civilised State in Central Asia. Before the general

commotion caused by the westward pressure of the Hiung-nu, they appear

to have dwelt in eastern Turkestan (Kashgaria) between the Usuns and the

Sacae, and here they had already made considerable progress under

Buddhist influences about the fourth or fifth century of the new era.

Later, the Buddhist missionaries from Tibet were replaced by Christian

(Nestorian) evangelists from western Asia, who in the seventh century

reduced the Uigur language to written form, adapting for the purpose the

Syriac alphabet, which was afterwards borrowed by the Mongols and the

Manchus.

This Syriac script--which, as shown by the authentic inscription of

Si-ngan-fu, was introduced into China in 635 A.D.--is not to be confused

with that of the Orkhon inscriptions[692] dating from 732 A.D., and

bearing a certain resemblance to some of the Runic characters, as also

to the Korean, at least in form, but never in sound. Yet although

differing from the Uiguric, Prof. Thomsen, who has successfully

deciphered the Orkhon text, thinks that this script may also be derived,

at least indirectly through some of the Iranian varieties, from the same

Aramean (Syriac) form of the Semitic alphabet that gave birth to the

Uiguric[693].

It is more important to note that all the non-Chinese inscriptions are

in the Turki language, while the Chinese text refers by name to the

father, the grandfather, and the great-grandfather of the reigning Khan

Bilga, which takes us back nearly to the time when Sinjibu (Dizabul),

Great Khan of the Altai Turks, was visited by the Byzantine envoy,

Zimarchus, in 569 A.D. In the still extant report of this embassy[694]

the Turks ([Greek: Tourkoi]) are mentioned by name, and are described as

nomads who dwelt in tents mounted on wagons, burnt the dead, and raised

to their memory monuments, statues, and cairns with as many stones as

the foes slain by the deceased in battle. It is also stated that they

had a peculiar writing system, which must have been that of these Orkhon

inscriptions, the Uiguric having apparently been introduced somewhat

later.

Originally the Uigurs comprised nineteen clans, which at a remote period

already formed two great sections:--the On-Uigur ("Ten Uigurs") in the

south, and the Toghuz-Uigur ("Nine Uigurs") in the north. The former had

penetrated westwards to the Aral Sea[695] as early as the second century

A.D., and many of them undoubtedly took part in Attila's invasion of

Europe.

Later, all these Western Uigurs, mentioned amongst the hordes that

harassed the Eastern Empire in the fifth and sixth centuries, in

association especially with the Turki Avars, disappear from history,

being merged in the Ugrian and other Finnish peoples of the Volga basin.

The Toghuz section also, after throwing off the yoke of the Mongol or

Tungus Geugen (Jeu-Jen) in the fifth century, were for a time submerged

in the vast empire of the Altai Turks, founded in 552 by Tumen of the

House of Assena (A-shi-na), who was the first to assume the title of

Kha-Khan, "Great Khan," and whose dynasty ruled over the united Turki

and Mongol peoples from the Pacific to the Caspian, and from the Frozen

Ocean to the confines of China and Tibet. Both the above-mentioned

Sinjibu, who received the Byzantine envoy, and the Bilga Khan of the

Orkhon _stele_, belonged to this dynasty, which was replaced in 774 by

Pei-lo (Huei-hu), chief of the Toghuz-Uigurs. This is how we are to

understand the statement that all the Turki peoples who during the

somewhat unstable rule of the Assena dynasty from 552 to 774 had

undergone many vicissitudes, and about 580 were even broken into two

great sections (Eastern Turks of the Karakoram region and Western Turks

of the Tarim basin), were again united in one vast political system

under the Toghuz-Uigurs. These are henceforth known in history simply as

Uigurs, the On branch having, as stated, long disappeared in the West.

The centre of their power seems to have oscillated between Karakoram and

Turfan in Eastern Turkestan, the extensive ruins of which have been

explored by D. A. Klements, Sven Hedin and M. A. Stein. Their vast

dominions were gradually dismembered, first by the _Hakas_, or

_Ki-li-Kisse_, precursors of the present Kirghiz, who overran the

eastern (Orkhon) districts about 840, and then by the Muhammadans of

Mawar-en-Nahar (Transoxiana), who overthrew the "Lion Kings," as the

Uigur Khans of Turfan were called, and set up several petty Mussulman

states in Eastern Turkestan. Later they fell under the yoke of the

Kara-Khitais, and were amongst the first to join the devastating hordes

of Jenghiz-Khan; their name, which henceforth vanishes from

history[696], has been popularly recognised under the form of "Ogres,"

in fable and nursery tales, but the derivation lacks historical

foundation.

At present the heterogeneous populations of the Tarim basin (Kashgaria,

Eastern Turkestan), where the various elements have been intermingled,

offer a striking contrast to those of the Ili valley (Sungaria), where

one invading horde has succeeded and been superimposed on another. Hence

the complexity of the Kashgarian type, in which the original "horse-like

face" everywhere crops out, absorbing the later Mongolo-Turki arrivals.

But in Sungaria the Kalmuk, Chinese, Dungan, Taranchi, and Kirghiz

groups are all still sharply distinguished and perceptible at a glance.

"Amongst the Kashgarians--a term as vague ethnically as

'Aryan'--Richthofen has determined the successive presence of the Su,

Yue-chi, and Usun hordes, as described in the early Chinese

chronicles[697]."

The recent explorations of M. A. Stein have thrown some light on the

ethnology of this region, and a preliminary survey of results was

prepared and published by T. A. Joyce. He concludes that the original

inhabitants were of Alpine type, with, in the west, traces of the

Indo-Afghan, and that the Mongolian has had very little influence upon

the population[698].

In close proximity to the Toghuz-Uigurs dwelt the _Oghuz_ (_Ghuz, Uz_),

for whom eponymous heroes have been provided in the legendary records of

the Eastern Turks, although all these terms would appear to be merely

shortened forms of Toghuz[699]. But whether true Uigurs, or a distinct

branch of the Turki people, the Ghuz, as they are commonly called by

the Arab writers, began their westward migrations about the year 780.

After occupying Transoxiana, where they are now represented by the

Uzbegs[700] of Bokhara and surrounding lands, they gradually spread as

conquerors over all the northern parts of Irania, Asia Minor, Syria, the

Russian and Caucasian steppes, Ukrainia, Dacia, and the Balkan

Peninsula. In most of these lands they formed fresh ethnical

combinations both with the Caucasic aborigines, and with many kindred

Turki as well as Mongol peoples, some of whom were settled in these

regions since neolithic times, while others had either accompanied

Attila's expeditions, or followed in his wake (Pechenegs, Komans, Alans,

Kipchaks, Kara-Kalpaks), or else arrived later in company with

Jenghiz-Khan and his successors (Kazan and Nogai "Tatars"[701]).

In Russia, Rumania (Dacia), and most of the Balkan Peninsula these

Mongolo-Turki blends have been again submerged by the dominant Slav and

Rumanian peoples (Great and Little Russians, Servo-Croatians,

Montenegrini, Moldavians, and Walachians). But in south-western Asia

they still constitute perhaps the majority of the population between the

Indus and Constantinople, in many places forming numerous compact

communities, in which the Mongolo-Turki physical and mental characters

are conspicuous. Such, besides the already mentioned Turkomans of

Parthian lineage, are all the nomad and many of the settled inhabitants

of Khiva, Ferghana, Karategin, Bokhara, generally comprised under the

name of Uzbegs and "Sartes." Such also are the Turki peoples of Afghan

Turkestan, and of the neighbouring uplands (Hazaras and Aimaks who claim

Mongol descent, though now of Persian speech); the Aderbaijani and many

other more scattered groups in Persia; the Nogai and Kumuk tribes of

Caucasia, and especially most of the nomad and settled agricultural

populations of Asia Minor. The Anatolian peasantry form, in fact, the

most numerous and compact division of the Turki family still surviving

in any part of their vast domain between the Bosporus and the Lena.

Out of this prolific Oghuz stock arose many renowned chiefs, founders of

vast but somewhat unstable empires, such as those of the Gasnevides, who

ruled from Persia to the Indus; the Seljuks, who first wrested the

Asiatic provinces from Byzantium; the Osmanli, so named from Othman, the

Arabised form of Athman, who prepared the way for Orkhan (1326-60), true

builder of the Ottoman power, which has alone survived the shipwreck of

all the historical Turki states. The vicissitudes of these monarchies,

looked on perhaps with too kindly an eye by Gibbon, belong to the domain

of history, and it will suffice here to state that from the ethnical

standpoint the chief interest centres in that of the Seljukides,

covering the period from about the middle of the eleventh to the middle

of the thirteenth century. It was under Togrul-beg of this dynasty

(1038-63) that "the whole body of the Turkish nation embraced with

fervour and sincerity the religion of Mahomet[702]." A little later

began the permanent Turki occupation of Asia Minor, where, after the

conquest of Armenia (1065-68) and the overthrow of the Byzantine emperor

Romanus Diogenes (1071), numerous military settlements, followed by

nomad Turkoman encampments, were established by the great Seljuk rulers,

Alp Arslan and Malek Shah (1063-92), at all the strategical points.

These first arrivals were joined later by others fleeing before the

Mongol hosts led by Jenghiz-Khan's successors down to the time of

Timur-beg. But the Christians (Greeks and earlier aborigines) were not

exterminated, and we read that, while great numbers apostatised, "many

thousand children were marked by the knife of circumcision; and many

thousand captives were devoted to the service or the pleasures of their

masters" (_ib._). In other words, the already mixed Turki intruders were

yet more modified by further interminglings with the earlier inhabitants

of Asia Minor. Those who, following the fortunes of the Othman dynasty,

crossed the Bosporus and settled in Rumelia and some other parts of the

Balkan Peninsula, now prefer to call themselves _Osmanli_, even

repudiating the national name "Turk" still retained with pride by the

ruder peasant classes of Asia Minor. The latter are often spoken of as

"Seljuk Turks," as if there were some racial difference between them and

the European Osmanli, and for the distinction there is some foundation.

As pointed out by Arminius Vambery[703], the Osmanli have been

influenced and modified by their closer association with the Christian

populations of the Balkan lands, while in Anatolia the Seljuks have been

able better to preserve the national type and temperament. The true

Turki spirit ("das Tuerkentum") survives especially in the provinces of

Lykaonia and Kappadokia, where the few surviving natives were not only

Islamised but ethnically fused, whereas in Europe most of them

(Bosnians, Albanians) were only Islamised, and here the Turki element

has always been slight.

At present the original Turki type and temperament are perhaps best

preserved amongst the remote _Yakuts_ of the Lena, and the _Kirghiz_

groups (_Kirghiz Kazaks_ and _Kara Kirghiz_) of the West Siberian steppe

and the Pamir uplands. The Turki connection of the Yakuts, about which

some unnecessary doubts had been raised, has been set at rest by V. A.

Sierochevsky[704], who, however, describes them as now a very mixed

people, owing to alliances with the Tunguses and Russians. They are of

short stature, averaging scarcely 5 ft. 4 in., and this observer thought

their dark but not brilliant black eyes, deeply sunk in narrow orbits,

gave them more of a Red Indian than of a Mongol cast. They are almost

the only progressive aboriginal people in Siberia, although numbering

not more than 200,000 souls, concentrated chiefly along the river banks

on the plateau between the Lena and the Aldan.

In the Yakuts we have an extreme instance of the capacity of man to

adapt himself to the _milieu_. They not merely exist, but thrive and

display a considerable degree of energy and enterprise in the coldest

region on the globe. Within the isothermal of -72 deg. Fahr., Verkhoyansk,

in the heart of their territory, is alone included, for the period from

November to February, and in this temperature, at which the quicksilver

freezes, the Yakut children may be seen gambolling naked in the snow. In

midwinter R. Kennan met some of these "men of iron," as Wrangel calls

them, airily arrayed in nothing but a shirt and a sheepskin, lounging

about as if in the enjoyment of the balmy zephyrs of some genial

sub-tropical zone.

Although nearly all are Orthodox Christians, or at least baptized as

such, they are mere Shamanists at heart, still conjuring the powers of

nature, but offering no worship to a supreme deity, of whom they have a

vague notion, though he is too far off to hear, or too good to need

their supplications. The world of good and evil spirits, however, has

been enriched by accessions from the Russian calendar and pandemonium.

Thanks to their commercial spirit, the Yakut language, a very pure Turki

idiom, is even more widespread than the race, having become a general

medium of intercourse for Tungus, Russian, Mongol and other traders

throughout East Siberia, from Irkutsk to the Sea of Okhotsk, and from

the Chinese frontier to the Arctic Ocean[705].

To some extent W. Radloff is right in describing the great Kirghiz Turki

family as "of all Turks most nearly allied to the Mongols in their

physical characters, and by their family names such as Kyptshak

[Kipchak], Argyn, Naiman, giving evidence of Mongolian descent, or at

least of intermixture with Mongols[706]." But we have already been

warned against the danger of attaching too much importance to these

tribal designations, many of which seem, after acquiring renown on the

battle-field, to have passed readily from one ethnic group to another.

There are certain Hindu-Kush and Afghan tribes who think themselves

Greeks or Arabs, because of the supposed descent of their chiefs from

Alexander the Great or the Prophet's family, and genealogical trees

spring up like the conjurer's mango plant in support of such illustrious

lineage. The Chagatai (Jagatai) tribes, of Turki stock and speech, take

their name from a full-blood Mongol, Chagatai, second son of

Jenghiz-Khan, to whom fell Eastern Turkestan in the partition of the

empire.

In the same way many Uzbeg and Kirghiz Turki tribes are named from

famous Mongol chiefs, although no one will deny a strain of true Mongol

blood in all these heterogeneous groups. This is evident enough from the

square and somewhat flat Mongol features, prominent cheek-bones, oblique

eyes, large mouth, feet and hands, yellowish brown complexion, ungainly

obese figures and short stature, all of which are characteristic of

both sections, the Kara-Kirghiz highlanders, and the Kazaks of the

lowlands. Some ethnologists regard these Kirghiz groups, not as a

distinct branch of the Mongolo-Turki race, but rather as a confederation

of several nomad tribes stretching from the Gobi to the Lower Volga, and

mingled together by Jenghiz-Khan and his successors[707].

The true national name is _Kazak_, "Riders," and as they were originally

for the most part mounted marauders, or free lances of the steppe, the

term came to be gradually applied to all nomad and other horsemen

engaged in predatory warfare. It thus at an early date reached the South

Russian steppe, where it was adopted in the form of _Kossack_ by the

Russians themselves. It should be noted that the compound term

Kirghiz-Kazak, introduced by the Russians to distinguish these nomads

from their own Cossacks, is really a misnomer. The word "Kirghiz,"

whatever its origin, is never used by the Kazaks in reference to

themselves, but only to their near relations, the Kirghiz, or

Kara-Kirghiz[708], of the uplands.

These highlanders, who roam the Tian-Shan and Pamir valleys, form two

sections:--_On_, "Right," or East, and _Sol_, "Left," or West. They are

the _Diko Kamennyi_, that is, "Wild Rock People," of the Russians,

whence the expression "Block Kirghiz" still found in some English books

of travel. But they call themselves simply Kirghiz, claiming descent

from an original tribe of that name, itself sprung from a legendary

Kirghiz-beg, from whom are also descended the Chiliks, Kitars and

others, all now reunited with the Ons and the Sols.

The Kazaks also are grouped in long-established and still jealously

maintained sections--the _Great_, _Middle_, _Little_, and _Inner

Horde_--whose joint domain extends from Lake Balkash round the north

side of the Caspian down to the Lower Volga[709]. All accepted the

teachings of Islam many centuries ago, but their Muhammadanism[710] is

of a somewhat negative character, without mosques, mollahs, or

fanaticism, and in practice not greatly to be distinguished from the old

Siberian Shamanism. Kumiss, fermented mare's milk, their universal

drink, as amongst the ancient Scythians, plays a large part in the life

of these hospitable steppe nomads.

One of the lasting results of Castren's labours has been to place beyond

reasonable doubt the Altai origin of the Finnish peoples[711]. Their

cradle may now be localised with some confidence about the head waters

of the Yenisei, in proximity to that of their Turki kinsmen. Here is the

seat of the _Soyotes_ and of the closely allied _Koibals_,

_Kamassintzi_, _Matores_, _Karagasses_ and others, who occupy a

considerable territory along both slopes of the Sayan range, and may be

regarded as the primitive stock of the widely diffused Finnish race.

Some of these groups have intermingled with the neighbouring Turki

peoples, and even speak Turki dialects. But the original Finnish type

and speech are well represented by the Soyotes, who are here indigenous,

and "from these their ... kinsmen, the Samoyeds have spread as breeders

of reindeer to the north of the continent from the White Sea to the Bay

of Chatanga[712]." Others, following a westerly route along the foot of

the Altai and down the Irtysh to the Urals, appear to have long occupied

both slopes of that range, where they acquired some degree of culture,

and especially that knowledge of, and skill in working, the precious and

other metals, for which the "White-eyed Chudes" were famous, and to

which repeated reference is made in the songs of the _Kalevala_[713].

As there are no mines or minerals in Finland itself, it seems obvious

that the legendary heroes of the Finnish national epic must have dwelt

in some metalliferous region, which could only be the Altai or the

Urals, possibly both.

In any case the Urals became a second home and point of dispersion for

the Finnish tribes (_Ugrian Finns_), whose migrations--some prehistoric,

some historic--can be followed thence down the Pechora and Dvina to the

Frozen Ocean[714], and down the Kama to the Volga. From this artery,

where permanent settlements were formed (_Volga Finns_), some conquering

hordes went south and west (_Danubian Finns_), while more peaceful

wanderers ascended the great river to Lakes Ladoga and Onega, and thence

to the shores of the Baltic and Lapland (_Baltic and Lake Finns_).

Thus were constituted the main branches of the widespread Finnish

family, whose domain formerly extended from the Katanga beyond the

Yenisei to Lapland, and from the Arctic Ocean to the Altai range, the

Caspian, and the Volga, with considerable _enclaves_ in the Danube

basin. But throughout their relatively short historic life the Finnish

peoples, despite a characteristic tenacity and power of resistance, have

in many places been encroached upon, absorbed, or even entirely

eliminated, by more aggressive races, such as the Siberian "Tatars" in

their Altai cradleland, the Turki Kirghiz and Bashkirs in the West

Siberian steppes and the Urals, the Russians in the Volga and Lake

districts, the Germans and Lithuanians in the Baltic Provinces (Kurland,

Livonia, Esthonia), the Rumanians, Slavs, and others in the Danube

regions, where the Ugrian Bulgars and Magyars have been almost entirely

assimilated in type (and the former also in speech) to the surrounding

European populations.

Few anthropologists now attach much importance to the views not yet

quite obsolete regarding a former extension of the Finnish race over

the whole of Europe and the British Isles. Despite the fact that all the

Finns are essentially round-headed, they were identified first with the

long-headed cavemen, who retreated north with the reindeer, as was the

favourite hypothesis, and then with the early neolithic races who were

also long-headed. Elaborate but now forgotten essays were written by

learned philologists to establish a common origin of the Basque and the

Finnic tongues, which have nothing in common, and half the myths,

folklore, and legendary heroes of the western nations were traced to

Finno-Ugrian sources.

Now we know better, and both archaeologists and philologists have made

it evident that the Finnish peoples are relatively quite recent arrivals

in Europe, that the men of the Bronze Age in Finland itself were not

Finns but Teutons, and that at the beginning of the new era all the

Finnish tribes still dwelt east of the Gulf of Finland[715].

Not only so, but the eastern migrations themselves, as above roughly

outlined, appear to have taken place at a relatively late epoch, long

after the inhabitants of West Siberia had passed from the New Stone to

the Metal Ages. J. R. Aspelin, "founder of Finno-Ugrian archaeology,"

points out that the Finno-Ugrian peoples originally occupied a

geographical position between the Indo-Germanic and the Mongolic races,

and that their first Iron Age was most probably a development, between

the Yenisei and the Kama, of the so-called Ural-Altai Bronze Age, the

last echoes of which may be traced westwards to Finland and North

Scandinavia. In the Upper Yenisei districts iron objects had still the

forms of the Bronze Age, when that ancient civilisation, associated with

the name of the "Chudes," was interrupted by an invasion which

introduced the still persisting Turki Iron Age, expelled the aboriginal

inhabitants, and thus gave rise to the great migrations first of the

Finno-Ugrians, and then of the Turki peoples (Bashkirs, Volga "Tatars"

and others) to and across the Urals. It was here, in the Permian

territory between the Irtysh and the Kama, that the West Siberian

(Chudish) Iron Age continued its normal and unbroken evolution. The

objects recovered from the old graves and kurgans in the present

governments of Tver and Iaroslav, and especially at Ananyino on the

Kama, centre of this culture, show that here took place the transition

from the Bronze to the Iron Age some 300 years before the new era, and

here was developed a later Iron Age, whose forms are characteristic of

the northern Finno-Ugrian lands. The whole region would thus appear to

have been first occupied by these immigrants from Asia after the

irruption of the Turki hordes into Western Siberia during the first Iron

Age, at most some 500 or 600 years before the Christian era. The

Finno-Ugrian migrations are thus limited to a period of not more than

2600 years from the present time, and this conclusion, based on

archaeological grounds, agrees fairly well with the historical,

linguistic, and ethnical data.

It is especially in this obscure field of research that the eminent

Danish scholar, Vilhelm Thomsen, has rendered inestimable services to

European ethnology. By the light of his linguistic studies A. H.

Snellman[716] has elucidated the origins of the Baltic Finns, the

Proto-Esthonians, the now all but extinct Livonians, and the quite

extinct Kurlanders, from the time when they still dwelt east and

south-east of the Baltic lands, under the influence of the surrounding

Lithuanian and Gothic tribes, till the German conquest of the Baltic

provinces. We learn from Jordanes, to whom is due the first authentic

account of these populations, that the various Finnish tribes were

subject to the Gothic king Hermanarich, and Thomsen now shows that all

the Western Finns (Esthonians, Livonians, Votes, Vepses, Karelians,

Tavastians, and others of Finland) must in the first centuries of the

new era have lived practically as one people in the closest social

union, speaking one language, and following the same religious, tribal,

and political institutions. Earlier than the Gothic was the

Letto-Lithuanian contact, as shown by the fact that its traces are

perceptible in the language of the Volga Finns, in which German

loan-words are absent. From these investigations it becomes clear that

the Finnish domain must at that time have stretched from the present

Esthonia, Livonia, and Lake Ladoga south to the western Dvina.

The westward movement was connected with the Slav migrations. When the

Slavs south of the Letts moved west, other Slav tribes must have pushed

north, thus driving both Letts and Finns west to the Baltic provinces,

which had previously been occupied by the Germans (Goths). Some of the

Western Finns must have found their way about 500 A.D., scarcely

earlier, into parts of this region, where they came into hostile and

friendly contact with the Norsemen. These relations would even appear to

be reflected in the Norse mythology, which may be regarded as in great

measure an echo of historic events. The wars of the Swedish and Danish

kings referred to in these oral records may be interpreted as plundering

expeditions rather than permanent conquests, while the undoubtedly

active intercourse between the east and west coasts of the Baltic may be

explained on the assumption that, after the withdrawal of the Goths, a

remnant of the Germanic populations remained behind in the Baltic

provinces.

From Nestor's statement that all three of the Varangian princes settled,

not amongst Slavish but amongst Finnish peoples, it may be inferred that

the Finnish element constituted the most important section in the newly

founded Russian State; and it may here be mentioned that the term "Russ"

itself has now been traced to the Finnish word _Ruost_ (_Ruosti_), a

"Norseman." But although at first greatly outnumbering the Slavs, the

Finnish peoples soon lost the political ascendancy, and their subsequent

history may be summed up in the expression--gradual absorption in the

surrounding Slav populations. This inevitable process is still going on

amongst all the Volga, Lake and Baltic Finns, except in Finland and

Lapland, where other conditions obtain[717].

Most Finnish ethnologists agree that however much they may now differ in

their physical and mental characters and usages, Finns and Lapps were

all originally one people. Some variant of _Suoma_[718] enters into the

national name of all the Baltic groups--_Suomalaiset_, the Finns of

Finland, _Somelaized_, those of Esthonia, _Samelats_ (Sabmelad), the

Lapps, _Samoyad_, the Samoyeds. In Ohthere's time the Norsemen called

all the Lapps "Finnas" (as the Norwegians still do), and that early

navigator already noticed that these "Finns" seemed to speak the same

language as the Beormas, who were true Finns[719]. Nor do the present

inhabitants of Finland, taken as a whole, differ more in outward

appearance and temperament from their Lapp neighbours than do the

Tavastians and the Karelians, that is, their western and eastern

sections, from each other. The Tavastians, who call themselves

Hemelaiset, "Lake People," have rather broad, heavy frames, small and

oblique blue or grey eyes, towy hair and white complexion, without the

clear florid colour of the North Germanic and English peoples. The

temperament is somewhat sluggish, passive and enduring, morose and

vindictive, but honest and trustworthy.

Very different are the tall, slim, active Karelians (_Karialaiset_,

"Cowherds," from _Kari_, "Cow"), with more regular features, straight

grey eyes, brown complexion, and chestnut hair, like that of the hero of

the Kalevala, hanging in ringlets down the shoulders. Many of the

Karelians, and most of the neighbouring _Ingrians_ about the head of the

Gulf of Finland, as well as the Votes and Vepses of the great lakes,

have been assimilated in speech, religion, and usages to the surrounding

Russian populations. But the more conservative Tavastians have hitherto

tenaciously preserved the national sentiment, language, and traditions.

Despite the pressure of Sweden on the west, and of Russia on the east,

the Finns still stand out as a distinct European nationality, and

continue to cultivate with success their harmonious and highly poetical

language. Since the twelfth century they have been Christians, converted

to the Catholic faith by "Saint" Eric, King of Sweden, and later to

Lutheranism, again by the Swedes[720]. The national university, removed

in 1827 from Abo to Helsingfors, is a centre of much scientific and

literary work, and here E. Loennrot, father of Finnish literature,

brought out his various editions of the _Kalevala_, that of 1849

consisting of some 50,000 strophes[721].

A kind of transition from these settled and cultured Finns to the Lapps

of Scandinavia and Russia is formed by the still almost nomad, or at

least restless _Kwaens_, who formerly roamed as far as the White Sea,

which in Alfred's time was known as the _Cwen Sae_ (Kwaen Sea). These

Kwaens, who still number nearly 300,000, are even called nomads by J. A.

Friis, who tells us that there is a continual movement of small bands

between Finland and Scandinavia. "The wandering Kwaens pass round the

Gulf of Bothnia and up through Lappmarken to Kittalae, where they

separate, some going to Varanger, and others to Alten. They follow the

same route as that which, according to historians, some of the Norsemen

followed in their wanderings from Finland[722]." The references of the

Sagas are mostly to these primitive Bothnian Finns, with whom the

Norsemen first came in contact, and who in the sixth and following

centuries were still in a rude state not greatly removed from that of

their Ugrian forefathers. As shown by Almqvist's researches, they lived

almost exclusively by hunting and fishing, had scarcely a rudimentary

knowledge of agriculture, and could prepare neither butter nor cheese

from the milk of their half-wild reindeer herds.

Such were also, and in some measure still are, the kindred Lapps, who

with the allied _Yurak Samoyeds_ of Arctic Russia are the only true

nomads still surviving in Europe. A. H. Cocks, who travelled amongst all

these rude aborigines in 1888, describes the Kwaens who range north to

Lake Enara, as "for the most part of a very rough class," and found that

the Russian Lapps of the Kola Peninsula, "except as to their clothing

and the addition of coffee and sugar to their food supply, are living

now much the same life as their ancestors probably lived 2000 or more

years ago, a far more primitive life, in fact, than the Reindeer Lapps

[of Scandinavia]. They have not yet begun to use tobacco, and reading

and writing are entirely unknown among them. Unlike the three other

divisions of the race [the Norwegian, Swedish, and Finnish Lapps], they

are a very cheerful, light-hearted people, and have the curious habit

of expressing their thoughts aloud in extempore sing-song[723]."

Similar traits have been noticed in the Samoyeds, whom F. G. Jackson

describes as an extremely sociable and hospitable people, delighting in

gossip, and much given to laughter and merriment[724]. He gives their

mean height as nearly 5 ft. 2 in., which is about the same as that of

the Lapps (Von Dueben, 5 ft. 2 in., others rather less), while that of

the Finns averages 5 ft. 5 in. (Topinard). Although the general Mongol

appearance is much less pronounced in the Lapps than in the Samoyeds, in

some respects--low stature, flat face with peculiar round outline--the

latter reminded Jackson of the Ziryanians, who are a branch of the

Beormas (Permian Finns), though like them now much mixed with the

Russians. The so-called prehistoric "Lapp Graves," occurring throughout

the southern parts of Scandinavia, are now known from their contents to

have belonged to the Norse race, who appear to have occupied this region

since the New Stone Age, while the Lapp domain seems never to have

reached very much farther south than Trondhjem.

All these facts, taken especially in connection with the late arrival of

the Finns themselves in Finland, lend support to the view that the Lapps

are a branch, not of the Suomalaiset, but of the Permian Finns, and

reached their present homes, not from Finland, but from North Russia

through the Kanin and Kola Peninsulas, if not round the shores of the

White Sea, at some remote period prior to the occupation of Finland by

its present inhabitants. This assumption would also explain Ohthere's

statement that Lapps and Permians seemed to speak nearly the same

language. The resemblance is still close, though I am not competent to

say to which branch of the Finno-Ugrian family Lapp is most nearly

allied.

Of the Mongol physical characters the Lapp still retains the round low

skull (index 83), the prominent cheek-bones, somewhat flat features, and

ungainly figure. The temperament, also, is still perhaps more Asiatic

than European, although since the eighteenth century they have been

Christians--Lutherans in Scandinavia, Orthodox in Russia. In pagan times

Shamanism had nowhere acquired a greater development than among the

Lapps. A great feature of the system were the "rune-trees," made of

pine or birch bark, inscribed with figures of gods, men, or animals,

which were consulted on all important occasions, and their mysterious

signs interpreted by the Shamans. Even foreign potentates hearkened to

the voice of these renowned magicians, and in England the expression

"Lapland witches" became proverbial, although it appears that there

never were any witches, but only wizards, in Lapland. Such rites have

long ceased to be practised, although some of the crude ideas of a

material after-life still linger on. Money and other treasures are often

buried or hid away, the owners dying without revealing the secret,

either through forgetfulness, or more probably of set purpose in the

hope of thus making provision for the other world.

Amongst the kindred Samoyeds, despite their Russian orthodoxy, the old

pagan beliefs enjoy a still more vigorous existence. "As long as things

go well with him, he is a Christian; but should his reindeer die, or

other catastrophe happen, he immediately returns to his old god _Num_ or

_Chaddi_.... He conducts his heathen services by night and in secret,

and carefully screens from sight any image of Chaddi[725]." Jackson

noticed several instances of this compromise between the old and the

new, such as the wooden cross supplemented on the Samoyed graves by an

overturned sledge to convey the dead safely over the snows of the

under-world, and the rings of stones, within which the human sacrifices

were perhaps formerly offered to propitiate Chaddi; and although these

things have ceased, "it is only a few years ago that a Samoyad living on

Novaia Zemlia sacrificed a young girl[726]."

Similar beliefs and practices still prevail not only amongst the

Siberian Finns--Ostyaks of the Yenisei and Obi rivers, Voguls of the

Urals--but even amongst the Votyaks, Mordvinians, Cheremisses and other

scattered groups still surviving in the Volga basin. So recently as the

year 1896 a number of Votyaks were tried and convicted for the murder of

a passing mendicant, whom they had beheaded to appease the wrath of

Kiremet, Spirit of Evil and author of the famine raging at that time in

Central Russia. Besides Kiremet, the Votyaks--who appear to have

migrated from the Urals to their present homes between the Kama and the

Viatka rivers about 400 A.D., and are mostly heathens--also worship

Inmar, God of Heaven, to whom they sacrifice animals as well as human

beings whenever it can be safely done. We are assured by Baron de Baye

that even the few who are baptized take part secretly in these

unhallowed rites[727].

To the Ugrian branch, rudest and most savage of all the Finnish peoples,

belong these now moribund Volga groups, as well as the fierce Bulgar and

Magyar hordes, if not also their precursors, the _Jazyges_ and

_Rhoxolani_, who in the second century A.D. swarmed into Pannonia from

the Russian steppe, and in company with the Germanic Quadi and

Marcomanni twice (168 and 172) advanced to the walls of Aquileia, and

were twice arrested by the legions of Marcus Aurelius and Verus. Of the

once numerous Jazyges, whom Pliny calls Sarmates, there were several

branches--_Maeotae_, Metanastae, _Basilii_ ("Royal")--who were first

reduced by the Goths spreading from the Baltic to the Euxine and Lower

Danube, and then overwhelmed with the Dacians, Getae, Bastarnae, and a

hundred other ancient peoples in the great deluge of the Hunnish

invasion.

From the same South Russian steppe--the plains watered by the Lower Don

and Dnieper--came the _Bulgars_, first in association with the Huns,

from whom they are scarcely distinguished by the early Byzantine

writers, and then as a separate people, who, after throwing off the yoke

of the Avars (635 A.D.), withdrew before the pressure of the Khazars

westwards to the Lower Danube (678). But their records go much farther

back than these dates, and while philologists and archaeologists are

able to trace their wanderings step by step north to the Middle Volga

and the Ural Mountains, authentic Armenian documents carry their history

back to the second century B.C. Under the Arsacides numerous bands of

Bulgars, driven from their homes about the Kama confluence by civil

strife, settled on the banks of the Aras, and since that time (150-114

B.C.) the Bulgars were known to the Armenians as a great nation dwelling

away to the north far beyond the Caucasus.

Originally the name, which afterwards acquired such an odious notoriety

amongst the European peoples, may have been more geographical than

ethnical, implying not so much a particular nation as all the

inhabitants of the _Bulga_ (Volga) between the Kama and the Caspian. But

at that time this section of the great river seems to have been mainly

held by more or less homogeneous branches of the Finno-Ugrian family,

and palethnologists have now shown that to this connection beyond all

question belonged in physical appearance, speech, and usages those bands

known as Bulgars, who formed permanent settlements in Moesia south of

the Lower Danube towards the close of the seventh century[728]. Here

"these bold and dexterous archers, who drank the milk and feasted on the

flesh of their fleet and indefatigable horses; whose flocks and herds

followed, or rather guided, the motions of their roving camps; to whose

inroads no country was remote or impervious, and who were practised in

flight, though incapable of fear[729]," established a powerful state,

which maintained its independence for over seven hundred years

(678-1392).

Acting at first in association with the Slavs, and then assuming "a

vague dominion" over their restless Sarmatian allies, the Bulgars spread

the terror of their hated name throughout the Balkan lands, and were

prevented only by the skill of Belisarius from anticipating their Turki

kinsmen in the overthrow of the Byzantine Empire itself. Procopius and

Jornandes have left terrible pictures of the ferocity, debasement, and

utter savagery, both of the Bulgars and of their Slav confederates

during the period preceding the foundation of the Bulgar dynasty in

Moesia. Wherever the Slavs (Antes, Slavini) passed, no soul was left

alive; Thrace and Illyria were strewn with unburied corpses; captives

were shut up with horse and cattle in stables, and all consumed

together, while the brutal hordes danced to the music of their shrieks

and groans. Indescribable was the horror inspired by the Bulgars, who

killed for killing's sake, wasted for sheer love of destruction, swept

away all works of the human hand, burnt, razed cities, left in their

wake nought but a picture of their own cheerless native steppes. Of all

the barbarians that harried the Empire, the Bulgars have left the most

detested name, although closely rivalled by the Slavs.

To the ethnologist the later history of the Bulgarians is of exceptional

interest. They entered the Danubian lands in the seventh century as

typical Ugro-Finns, repulsive alike in physical appearance and mental

characters. Their dreaded chief, Krum, celebrated his triumphs with

sanguinary rites, and his followers yielded in no respects to the Huns

themselves in coarseness and brutality. Yet an almost complete moral if

not physical transformation had been effected by the middle of the ninth

century, when the Bulgars were evangelised by Byzantine missionaries,

exchanged their rude Ugrian speech for a Slavonic tongue, the so-called

"Church Slav," or even "Old Bulgarian," and became henceforth merged in

the surrounding Slav populations. The national name "Bulgar" alone

survives, as that of a somewhat peaceful southern "Slav" people, who in

our time again acquired the political independence of which they had

been deprived by Bajazet I. in 1392.

Nor did this name disappear from the Volga lands after the great

migration of Bulgar hordes to the Don basin during the third and fourth

centuries A.D. On the contrary, here arose another and a greater Bulgar

empire, which was known to the Byzantines of the tenth century as "Black

Bulgaria," and later to the Arabs and Western peoples as "Great

Bulgaria," in contradistinction to the "Little Bulgaria" south of the

Danube[730]. It fell to pieces during the later "Tatar" wars, and

nothing now remains of the Volga Bulgars, except the Volga itself from

which they were named.

In the same region, but farther north[731], lay also a "Great Hungary,"

the original seat of those other Ugrian Finns known as Hungarians and

Magyars, who followed later in the track of the Bulgars, and like them

formed permanent settlements in the Danube basin, but higher up in

Pannonia, the present kingdom of Hungary. Here, however, the Magyars had

been preceded by the kindred (or at least distantly connected) Avars,

the dominant people in the Middle Danube lands for a great part of the

period between the departure of the Huns and the arrival of the

Magyars[732]. Rolling up like a storm cloud from the depths of Siberia

to the Volga and Euxine, sweeping everything before them, reducing

Kutigurs, Utigurs, Bulgars, and Slavs, the Avars presented themselves in

the sixth century on the frontiers of the empire as the unwelcome allies

of Justinian. Arrested at the Elbe by the Austrasian Franks, and hard

pressed by the Gepidae, they withdrew to the Lower Danube under the

ferocious Khagan Bayan, who, before his overthrow by the Emperor

Mauritius and death in 602, had crossed the Danube, captured Sirmium,

and reduced the whole region bordering on the Byzantine empire. Later

the still powerful Avars with their Slav followers, "the Avar viper and

the Slav locust," overran the Balkan lands, and in 625 nearly captured

Constantinople. They were at last crushed by Pepin, king of Italy, who

reoccupied Sirmium in 799, and brought back such treasure that the value

of gold was for a time enormously reduced.

Then came the opportunity of the _Hunagars_ (Hungarians), who, after

advancing from the Urals to the Volga (550 A.D.), had reached the Danube

about 886. Here they were invited to the aid of the Germanic king

Arnulf, threatened by a formidable coalition of the western Slavs under

the redoubtable Zventibolg, a nominal Christian who would enter the

church on horseback followed by his wild retainers, and threaten the

priest at the altar with the lash. In the upland Transylvanian valleys

the Hunagars had been joined by eight of the derelict Khazar tribes,

amongst whom were the _Megers_ or _Mogers_, whose name under the form of

_Magyar_ was eventually extended to the united Hunagar-Khazar nation.

Under their renowned king Arpad, son of Almuth, they first overthrew

Zventibolg, and then with the help of the surviving Avars reduced the

surrounding Slav populations. Thus towards the close of the ninth

century was founded in Pannonia the present kingdom of Hungary, in

which were absorbed all the kindred Mongol and Finno-Turki elements

that still survived from the two previous Mongolo-Turki empires,

established in the same region by the Huns under Attila (430-453), and

by the Avars under Khagan Bayan (562-602).

After reducing the whole of Pannonia and ravaging Carinthia and Friuli,

the Hunagars raided Bavaria and Italy (899-900), imposed a tribute on

the feeble successor of Arnulf (910), and pushed their plundering

expeditions as far west as Alsace, Lorraine, and Burgundy, everywhere

committing atrocities that recalled the memory of Attila's savage

hordes. Trained riders, archers and javelin-throwers from infancy, they

advanced to the attack in numerous companies following hard upon each

other, avoiding close quarters, but wearing out their antagonists by the

persistence of their onslaughts. They were the scourge and terror of

Europe, and were publicly proclaimed by the Emperor Otto I. (955) the

enemies of God and humanity.

This period of lawlessness and savagery was closed by the conversion of

Saint Stephen I. (997-1038), after which the Magyars became gradually

assimilated in type and general culture, but not in speech, to the

western nations[733]. Their harmonious and highly cultivated language

still remains a typical member of the Ural-Altaic family, reflecting in

its somewhat composite vocabulary the various Finno-Ugric and Turki

elements (Ugrians and Permians from the Urals, Volga Finns, Turki Avars

and Khazars), of which the substratum of the Magyar nation is

constituted[734].

"The modern Magyars," says Peisker, "are one of the most varied

race-mixtures on the face of the earth, and one of the two chief Magyar

types of today--traced to the Arpad era [end of ninth century] by

tomb-findings--is dolichocephalic with a narrow visage. There we have

before us Altaian origin, Ugrian speech and Indo-European type

combined[735]."

Politically the Magyars continue to occupy a position of vital

importance in Eastern Europe, wedged in between the northern and

southern Slav peoples, and thus presenting an insurmountable obstacle to

the aspirations of the Panslavist dreamers. The fiery and vigorous

Magyar nationality, a compact body of about 8,000,000 (1898), holds the

boundless plains watered by the Middle Danube and the Theiss, and thus

permanently separates the Chechs, Moravians, and Slovaks of Bohemia and

the northern Carpathians from their kinsmen, the Yugo-Slavs ("Southern

Slavs") of Servia and the other now Slavonised Balkan lands. These

Yugo-Slavs are in their turn severed by the Rumanians of Neo-Latin

speech from their northern and eastern brethren, the Ruthenians, Poles,

Great and Little Russians. Had the Magyars and Rumanians adopted any of

the neighbouring Slav idioms, it is safe to say that, like the Ugrian

Bulgarians, they must have long ago been absorbed in the surrounding

Panslav world, with consequences to the central European nations which

it would not be difficult to forecast. Here we have a striking

illustration of the influence of language in developing and preserving

the national sentiment, analogous in many respects to that now witnessed

on a larger scale amongst the English-speaking populations on both sides

of the Atlantic and in the Austral lands. From this point of view the

ethnologist may unreservedly accept Ehrenreich's trenchant remark that

"the nation stands and falls with its speech[736]."

FOOTNOTES:

[671] _Natural History of Man_, 1865 ed. pp. 185-6.

[672] _Science of Language_, 1879, II. p. 190.

[673] _The Heart of a Continent,_ 1896, p. 118.

[674] O. Peschel, _Races of Man,_ 1894, p. 380.

[675] See Ch. de Ujfalvy, _Les Aryens_, etc., 1896, p. 25. Reference

should perhaps be also made to E. H. Parker's theory (_Academy_, Dec.

21, 1895) that the Turki cradle lay, not in the Altai or Altun-dagh

("Golden Mountains") of North Mongolia, but 1000 miles farther south in

the "Golden Mountains" (_Kin-shan_) of the present Chinese province of

Kansu. But the evidence relied on is not satisfactory, and indeed in one

or two important instances is not evidence at all.

[676] J. B. Bury, _English Historical Rev.,_ July, 1897.

[677] _L'Anthropologie,_ VI. No. 3.

[678] T. Peisker, "The Asiatic Background," _Cambridge Medieval

History,_ Vol. I. 1911, p. 354.

[679] _Academy,_ Dec. 21, 1895, p. 548.

[680] "Budini Gelonion urbem ligneam habitant; juxta Thyssagetae

_Turcaeque_ vastas silvas occupant, alunturque venando" (I. 19, p. 27 of

Leipzig ed. 1880).

[681] "Dein Tanain amnem gemino ore influentem incolunt Sarmatae ...

Tindari, Thussagetae, _Tyrcae_, usque ad solitudines saltuosis

convallibus asperas, etc." (Bk. VIII. 7, Vol. I. p. 234 of Berlin ed.

1886). The variants _Turcae_ and _Tyrcae_ are noteworthy, as indicating

the same vacillating sound of the root vowel (_u_ and _y = ue_) that

still persists.

[682] Not only was the usurper Nadir Shah a Turkoman of the Afshar tribe

but the present reigning family belongs to the rival clan of Qajar

Turkomans long settled in Khorasan, the home of their Parthian

forefathers.

[683] Of 59 Turkomans the hair was generally a dark brown; the eyes

brown (45) and light grey (14); face orthognathous (52) and prognathous

(7); eyes mostly _not_ oblique; cephalic index 68.69 to 81.76, mean

75.64; dolicho 28, sub-dolicho 18, 9 mesati, 4 sub-brachy. Five skulls

from an old graveyard at Samarkand were also very heterogeneous,

cephalic index ranging from 77.72 to 94.93. This last, unless deformed,

exceeds in brachycephaly "le celebre crane d'un Slave vende qu'on cite

dans les manuels d'anthropologie" (Th. Volkov, _L'Anthropologie,_ 1897,

pp. 355-7).

[684] Quoted by W. Crooke, who points out that "the opinion of the best

Indian authorities seems to be gradually turning to the belief that the

connection between Jats and Rajputs is more intimate than was formerly

supposed" (_The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and

Oudh_, Calcutta, 1896, III. p. 27).

[685] Virgil's "indomiti Dahae" (_Aen._ VIII. 728): possibly the

Dehavites (Dievi) of Ezra iv. 9.

[686] _Herodotus_, Vol. I. p. 413.

[687] From Pers. [Arabic Symbol], _dih, dah_, village (Parsi _dahi_).

[688] _Les Aryens_, etc., p. 68 sq.

[689] _De Bello Persico, passim._

[690] Crooke, _op. cit._ IV. p. 221.

[691] _The Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, 1892; _The People of India_,

1908.

[692] Discovered in 1889 by N. M. Yadrintseff in the Orkhon valley,

which drains to the Selenga affluent of Lake Baikal. The inscriptions,

one in Chinese and three in Turki, cover the four sides of a monument

erected by a Chinese emperor to the memory of Kyul-teghin, brother of

the then reigning Turki Khan Bilga (Mogilan). In the same historical

district, where stand the ruins of Karakoram--long the centre of Turki

and later of Mongol power--other inscribed monuments have also been

found, all apparently in the same Turki language and script, but quite

distinct from the glyptic rock carvings of the Upper Yenisei river,

Siberia. The chief workers in this field were the Finnish

archaeologists, J. R. Aspelin, A. Snellman and Axel O. Heikel, the

results of whose labours are collected in the _Inscriptions de

l'Jenissei recueillies et publiees par la Societe Finlandaise

d'Archeologie_, Helsingfors, 1889; and _Inscriptions de l'Orkhon_, etc.,

Helsingfors, 1892.

[693] "La source d'ou est tiree l'origine de l'alphabet turc, sinon

immediatement, du moins par intermediaire, c'est la forme de l'alphabet

semitique qu'on appelle arameenne" (_Inscriptions de l'Orkhon

dechiffrees_, Helsingfors, 1894).

[694] See Klaproth, _Tableau Historique de l'Asie_, p. 116 sq.

[695] They are the _Onoi_, the "Tens," who at this time dwelt beyond the

Scythians of the Caspian Sea (Dionysius Periegetes).

[696] It still persists, however, as a tribal designation both amongst

the Kirghiz and Uzbegs, and in 1885 Potanin visited the _Yegurs_ of the

Edzin-gol valley in south-east Mongolia, said to be the last surviving

representatives of the Uigur nation (H. Schott, "Zur Uigurenfrage," in

_Abhandl. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss._, Berlin, 1873, pp. 101-21).

[697] Ch. de Ujfalvy, _Les Aryens au Nord et au Sud de l'Hindou-Kouch_,

p. 28.

[698] "Notes on the Physical Anthropology of Chinese Turkestan and the

Pamirs," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLII. 1912.

[699] "The Uzi of the Greeks are the Gozz [Ghuz] of the Orientals. They

appear on the Danube and the Volga, in Armenia, Syria, and Chorasan, and

their name seems to have been extended to the whole Turkoman [Turki]

race" [by the Arab writers]; Gibbon, Ch. LVII.

[700] Who take their name from a mythical Uz-beg, "Prince Uz" (_beg_ in

Turki = a chief, or hereditary ruler).

[701] Both of these take their name, not from mythical but from

historical chiefs:--_Kazan Khan_ of the Volga, "the rival of Cyrus and

Alexander," who was however of the house of Jenghiz, consequently not a

Turk, like most of his subjects, but a true Mongol (_ob._ 1304); and

_Noga_, the ally and champion of Michael Palaeologus against the Mongols

marching under the terrible Holagu almost to the shores of the Bosporus.

[702] Gibbon, Chap. LVII. By the "Turkish nation" is here to be

understood the western section only. The Turks of Mawar-en-Nahar and

Kashgaria (Eastern Turkestan) had been brought under the influences of

Islam by the first Arab invaders from Persia two centuries earlier.

[703] "Die Stellung der Tuerken in Europa," in _Geogr. Zeitschrift_,

Leipzig, 1897, Part 5, p. 250 sq.

[704] "Ethnographic Researches," edited by N. E. Vasilofsky for the

_Imperial Geogr. Soc._ 1896, quoted in _Nature_, Dec. 3, 1896, p. 97.

[705] A. Erman, _Reise um die Erde_, 1835, Vol. III. p. 51.

[706] Quoted by Peschel, _Races of Man_, p. 383.

[707] M. Balkashin in _Izvestia Russ. Geogr. Soc._, April, 1883.

[708] _Kara_ = "Black," with reference to the colour of their round felt

tents.

[709] On the obscure relations of these Hordes to the Kara-Kirghiz and

prehistoric Usuns some light has been thrown by the investigations of N.

A. Aristov, a summary of whose conclusions is given by A. Ivanovski in

_Centralblatt fuer Anthropologie_, etc., 1896, p. 47.

[710] Although officially returned as Muhammadans of the Sunni sect,

Levchine tells as that it is hard to say whether they are Moslem, Pagan

(Shamanists), or Manichean, this last because they believe God has made

good angels called _Mankir_ and bad angels called _Nankir_. Two of these

spirits sit invisibly on the shoulders of every person from his birth,

the good on the right, the bad on the left, each noting his actions in

their respective books, and balancing accounts at his death. It is

interesting to compare these ideas with those of the Uzbeg prince who

explained to Lansdell that at the resurrection, the earth being flat,

the dead grow out of it like grass; then God divides the good from the

bad, sending these below and those above. In heaven nobody dies, and

every wish is gratified; even the wicked creditor may seek out his

debtor, and in lieu of the money owing may take over the equivalent in

his good deeds, if there be any, and thus be saved (_Through Central

Asia_, 1887, p. 438).

[711] See especially his _Reiseberichte u. Briefe aus den Jahren

1845-49_, p. 401 sq.; and _Versuch einer Koibalischen u. Karagassischen

Sprachlehre_, 1858, Vol. I. _passim_. But cf. J. Szinnyei,

_Finnisch-ugrische Sprachwissenschaft_, 1910, pp. 19-20.

[712] Peschel, _Races of Man_, p. 386.

[713] In a suggestive paper on this collection of Finnish songs C. U.

Clark (_Forum_, April, 1898, p. 238 sq.) shows from the primitive

character of the mythology, the frequent allusions to copper or bronze,

and the almost utter absence of Christian ideas and other indications,

that these songs must be of great antiquity. "There seems to be no doubt

that some parts date back to at least 3000 years ago, before the Finns

and the Hungarians had become distinct peoples; for the names of the

divinities, many of the customs, and even particular incantations and

bits of superstitions mentioned in the Kalevala are curiously duplicated

in ancient Hungarian writings."

[714] When Ohthere made his famous voyage round North Cape to the Cwen

Sea (White Sea) all this Arctic seaboard was inhabited, not by Samoyeds,

as at present, but by true Finns, whom King Alfred calls _Beormas_,

_i.e._ the _Biarmians_ of the Norsemen, and the _Permiaki_ (_Permians_)

of the Russians (_Orosius_, I. 13). In medieval times the whole region

between the White Sea and the Urals was often called Permia; but since

the withdrawal southwards of the Zirynians and other Permian Finns this

Arctic region has been thinly occupied by Samoyed tribes spreading

slowly westward from Siberia to the Pechora and Lower Dvina.

[715] See A. Hackman, _Die Bronzezeit Finnlands_, Helsingfors, 1897;

also M. Aspelin, O. Montelius, V. Thomsen and others, who have all, on

various grounds, arrived at the same conclusion. Even D. E. D.

Europaeus, who has advanced so many heterodox views on the Finnish

cradleland, and on the relations of the Finnic to the Mongolo-Turki

languages, agrees that "vers l'epoque de la naissance de J. C.,

c'est-a-dire bien longtemps avant que ces tribus immigrassent en

Finlande, elles [the western Finns] etaient etablies immediatement au

sud des lacs d'Onega et de Ladoga." (_Travaux Geographiques executes en

Finlande jusqu'en_ 1895, Helsingfors, 1895, p. 141.)

[716] _Finska Forminnesfoereningens Tidskrift, Journ. Fin. Antiq. Soc._

1896, p. 137 sq.

[717] "Les Finnois et leurs congeneres ont occupe autrefois, sur

d'immenses espaces, les vastes regions forestieres de la Russie

septentrionale et centrale, et de la Siberie occidentale; mais plus

tard, refoules et divises par d'autres peuples, ils furent reduits a des

tribus isolees, dont il ne reste maintenant que des debris epars"

(_Travaux Geographiques_, p. 132).

[718] A word of doubtful meaning, commonly but wrongly supposed to mean

_swamp_ or _fen_, and thus to be the original of the Teutonic _Finnas_,

"Fen People" (see Thomsen, _Einfluss d. ger. Spr. auf die

finnisch-lappischen_, p. 14).

[719] "Şa Finnas, him şuhte, and şa Beormas spraecon neah an geetheode"

(Orosius, I. 14).

[720] See my paper on the Finns in Cassel's _Storehouse of Information_,

p. 296.

[721] The fullest information concerning Finland and its inhabitants is

found in the _Atlas de Finlande_, with _Texte_ (2 vols.) published by

the _Soc. Geog. Finland_ in 1910.

[722] _Laila_, Earl of Ducie's English ed., p. 58. The Swedish _Bothnia_

is stated to be a translation of _Kwaen_, meaning low-lying coastlands;

hence _Kainulaiset_, as they call themselves, would mean "Coastlanders."

[723] _A Boat Journey to Inari_, Viking Club, Feb. 1, 1895.

[724] _The Great Frozen Land_, 1895, p. 61.

[725] _The Great Frozen Land_, p. 84.

[726] Cf. M. A. Czaplicka, _Aboriginal Siberia_, 1914, pp. 162, 289 _n._

[727] _Notes sur les Votiaks payens des Gouvernements de Kazan et

Viatka_, Paris, 1897. They are still numerous, especially in Viatka,

where they numbered 240,000 in 1897.

[728] See especially Schafarik's classical work _Slavische Alterthuemer_,

II. p. 159 sq. and V. de Saint-Martin, _Etudes de Geographie Ancienne et

d'Ethnographie asiatique_, II. p. 10 sq., also the still indispensable

Gibbon, Ch. XLII., etc.

[729] _Decline and Fall_, XLII.

[730] Rubruquis (thirteenth century): "We came to the Etil, a very large

and deep river four times wider than the Seine, flowing from 'Great

Bulgaria,' which lies to the north." Farther on he adds: "It is from

this Great Bulgaria that issued those Bulgarians who are beyond the

Danube, on the Constantinople side" (quoted by V. de Saint-Martin).

[731] Evidently much nearer to the Ural Mountains, for Jean du Plan

Carpin says this "Great Hungary was the land of _Bascart_," that is,

_Bashkir_, a large Finno-Turki people, who still occupy a considerable

territory in the Orenburg Government about the southern slopes of the

Urals.

[732] With them were associated many of the surviving fugitive On-Uigurs

(Gibbon's "Ogors or Varchonites"), whence the report that they were not

true Avars. But the Turki genealogies would appear to admit their claim

to the name, and in any case the Uigurs and Avars of those times cannot

now be ethnically distinguished. _Kandish_, one of their envoys to

Justinian, is clearly a Turki name, and _Varchonites_ seems to point to

the Warkhon (Orkhon), seat in successive ages of the eastern Turks, the

Uigurs, and the true Mongols.

[733] _Ethnology_, p. 309.

[734] Vambery, perhaps the best authority on this point, holds that in

its structure Magyar leans more to the Finno-Ugric, and in its

vocabulary to the Turki branch of the Ural-Altaic linguistic family. He

attributes the effacement of the physical type partly to the effects of

the environment, partly to the continuous interminglings of the Ugric,

Turki, Slav, and Germanic peoples in Pannonia ("Ueber den Ursprung der

Magyaren," in _Mitt. d. K. K. Geograph. Ges._, Vienna, 1897, XL. Nos. 3

and 4).

[735] T. Peisker, "The Asiatic Background," _Cambridge Medieval

History_, Vol. I. 1911, p. 356.

[736] "Das Volk steht und faellt mit der Sprache" (_Urbewohner

Brasiliens_, 1897, p. 14).