waves, one is amazed at the number of ruins that stud the landscape, and
show what must once have been the natural fertility of the country.
Whence has come the change? Is the blight natural and permanent? or has
it been caused by accidental and artificial circumstances which may be
only temporary? Doubtless, each ruin has its tale of horror, but all
trace their destruction to Islamism, and especially to the blighting and
desolating presence of the Turk.
That short, thick, beetle-browed, bandy-legged, obese man, that so many
fresh tourists find so charming, is a Turkish official. He and his
ancestors have ruled the land since 1517. A Wilberforce in sentiment, he
is the representation of "that shadow of shadows for good--Ottoman
rule." The Turks, whether in their Pagan or Mohammedan phase, have only
appeared on the world's scene to destroy. No social or civilizing art
owes anything to the Turks but progressive debasement and decay.
That heap of stones, in which you trace the foundations of temples and
palaces, where now the owl hoots and the jackal lurks, was once a
prosperous Christian village. Granted that the Christianity was pure
neither in creed nor ritual; yet it had, even in its debased form, a
thew and sinew that brought prosperity to its possessors. The history of
that ruin is the history of a thousand such throughout the empire. Its
prosperity led to its destruction. The insolent Turk, restrained by no
public opinion, and curbed by no law, would wring from the villagers the
fruits of their labour. Oppression makes even wise men mad, and the
Christians, goaded to madness, turned on their oppressors. Then followed
submission, on promise of forgiveness. The Christians surrendered their
arms, and the flashing scymitar of Islam fell upon the defenceless; and
the place became a ruin amid horrors too foul to narrate. No greater
proof of the exhaustless fertility of the soil of Syria and Palestine
could be furnished than this: that the spoiler, unrestrained, has been
in it for 365 years, and that he has not yet succeeded in reducing it
all to a howling wilderness.
II. Those who embark capital in land, with a view to securing a home for
themselves and their children, should look closely to the character of
their title-deeds. The foremost Englishman in the Levant assured me that
he never invested money in houses or land because there was no such
thing as security of title in the Turkish Empire. My own opinion, based
on an experience of ten years, is that it is impossible to know whether
or not you have a title in Syria. Unfortunately this judgment does not
rest on mere opinions as to what might happen, but it is fortified by
the authoritative Commercial Reports of Her Majesty's Consuls throughout
Syria and Palestine, and by a series of facts of daily occurrence.
Vice-Consul Jago, of Beyrout, in a report dated July 11, 1876, thus
writes:--
"Efforts made by wealthy native Christians and Europeans to employ
capital in agriculture have been invariably met by great obstacles,
the apparent impossibility of getting _incontestable title-deeds_
being one of the many, although such documents may have emanated
from the highest authority in the land. Actions of ejectment have
invariably followed such efforts, to which the fact of the
Government itself being often the seller opposed no bar."
The same Vice-Consul, writing from Damascus, under date March 13, 1880,
referring to the difficulty of investing capital in agricultural
enterprise, says:--
"Unfortunately, the present judicial system is of a nature to
permit, if not to foster, the thousand and one intrigues and
vexations which seem to be almost inseparably connected with the
possession of land in Syria, and additional facilities for such are
to be found, if wanting, in the state in which the land registry
offices are kept. Erasures, irregular entries, at the request of
the interested, change of one name for another as the legitimate
owner, resulting often in persons finding their names down in the
Government books as owners of property, the existence of which was
unknown to them, and _vice versâ_, cause the validity of
title-deeds, issued as they are by various courts in the country,
to be a fertile source of litigation, and fraudulent action.... The
fact, however, that title-deeds can be set aside by verbal
testimony perhaps sufficiently accounts for the little value they
practically possess."
I could cite many instances in illustration of Mr. Jago's statements. An
effort made by the Rev. E. B. Frankel, of Damascus, to secure the
title-deeds of a worthless piece of barren rock without resorting to the
degrading practices of the country, is interesting, not only as an
illustration in point, but also as showing that an honest man would
suffer loss rather than gain his point by questionable means. I was
privy to the transactions as they occurred, but as Mr. Frankel has
kindly furnished me with a brief history, I shall give it in his own
words:--
"During my residence in Damascus, I tried one or two villages in
the neighbourhood as a summer retreat, and at length fixed upon a
village called Maraba, as being at a convenient distance from the
city to ride there in the morning and return at night. Finding,
however, that the native houses were scarcely habitable, I
determined to have a small house built, close to, yet not
overlooking, the village. To carry out my plan I had first of all
to apply to the Vali for permission to do so. His Highness, with an
outburst of Oriental liberality, declared his readiness to give me
not only a piece of ground but a garden as well. This I declined
with thanks, knowing the value of such an offer, but showed him on
paper the spot I had chosen, consisting of a barren rock, and asked
him to send a competent person to the place to examine the site and
value it, and at the same time see from the plan that none of my
windows would overlook my neighbours. In the course of a few days,
I received a notice that a commission of six officials would meet
me on the spot and settle the matter at once. I provided a luncheon
_al fresco_, to which the sheikh of the village was invited to
negotiate on the part of the villagers.
"After a long preamble, setting forth the value of land in general,
and of this spot in particular, he offered at length to sell the
site for 5,000 piastres (a piastre is equal to 2_d._).
"'Fifty piastres,' wrote down the scribe. 'By the life of your
father, it is too little--say 3,000.' 'Seventy-five,' said the
scribe. 'Say 1,000--by Allah, it is worth 5,000; but Allah is
great.' 100 piastres was the sum agreed to at last, and I had the
permission to begin building at once.
"When the house was half finished, an order came to stop, on the
ground that it was built over the tomb of a Moslem saint, and that
the departed spirit might not relish the vicinity of Christians,
and avenge himself by doing us some bodily harm for which the Vali
would be responsible.
"After a great deal of trouble and investigation, his Highness was
convinced that the existence of such a tomb was a myth. The next
charge brought against me was, that whilst I pretended to build a
house, I was in reality building a convent in the midst of a
Mohammedan population. I had a hard struggle to convince him that
Protestants had no such institutions.
"Now all these charges had been trumped up by the officials in the
hope of receiving the usual bribe, which I was determined not to
give--having made up my mind to carry the business through honestly
and legally. One more effort was made to annoy me, or rather to
force me to give the customary 'backsheesh,'--viz., that the house
was built over a road leading from the village to the stream to the
great inconvenience of the villagers. The Consul had at length to
interfere; the Government engineer was sent to investigate the
matter and report upon it, which was to the effect that there was
no vestige of road or foot-path in the vicinity of the house.
"After this, I was left in peaceful possession so far, that no one
could turn me out of the house, but not having the title-deeds, I
could scarcely expect to find a purchaser in case I wished to sell
it. My next effort was to secure the necessary papers. Month after
month I applied in vain for them. The Governor pretended to be
shocked to hear that his orders had not been carried out, he sent
for the scribe, and threatened him with his fiercest displeasure if
such an act of negligence should ever again be reported against
him. The scribe pleaded a sprained wrist as an excuse for the
delay, but by the life of the Prophet, he would write the document
at once. I took a hasty leave of the Vali, and rushed off after the
scribe, determined not to lose sight of him again; he had, however,
disappeared, as if the earth had swallowed him up. These scenes
were repeated over and ever again, till at the end of twelve
months, having to leave Damascus, I had to sell the house at a
great loss, not having the title-deeds. The purchaser, the American
Vice-Consul, trusting to his official position, hoped to be able to
succeed where I had failed.
"I have no doubt but that by following the usual Oriental custom of
backsheesh, and dividing £10 or £20 among the officials, every
obstacle would have been removed to my obtaining the title-deeds of
a property for which I paid the sum of 16_s._ 8_d._"
There are a few most interesting groups of German colonists in
Palestine, who belong to a religious order called "The Temple;" and who
assume to be a Spiritual Temple in the Holy Land. As far as I had
opportunity of judging, the colonists were men who, as colonists, would
succeed in any land, except perhaps Syria. There were among them masons
and carpenters and blacksmiths and shoemakers and doctors. They were all
accustomed to work with their hands, and they were prepared to do, not
only whatever hard work was to be done in their own colony, but also to
do any jobs for their neighbours, wherever their superior skill might be
employed. They were strong, patient, sober, devout, and they entered on
their work with lofty but calm enthusiasm. One branch settled at Jaffa,
on the ruins of an American colony which had been led there by a Mr.
Adams, and which ended in sad disaster. Another has settled "under the
shadow of Mount Carmel," about a mile out of Haifa, and a third near
Jerusalem. Besides settling in these places, some of the girls were
prepared to go out as servants, with results, in some cases, that cannot
be detailed. The first batch of these colonists settled near Nazareth in
1867, and all died of malarious fever.[60] But the German colonists were
not daunted by preliminary disaster, and they have been since battling
with the difficulties of the situation with a patient energy bordering
on heroism.
Mr. Oliphant visited the colonies at Jerusalem and Haifa, and after
describing the streets and gardens and homesteads created by German
industry, he adds, "The colonists have scarcely any trouble in their
dealings with the Government."
Captain Conder, who spent much time among the colonists, gives a more
realistic picture. He says--
"The Turkish government is quite incapable of appreciating their
real motives in colonization, and cannot see any reason beyond a
political one for the settlement of Europeans in the country. The
colonists have therefore _never obtained title-deeds to the land
they have bought_, and there can be little doubt that should the
Turks deem it expedient they would entirely deny the right of the
Germans to hold their property. Not only do they extend no favour
to the colony, though its presence has been most beneficial to the
neighbourhood, but the inferior officials, indignant at the
attempts of the Germans to obtain justice, without any regard to
'the customs of the country' (that is, to bribery), have thrown
every obstacle they can devise in the way of the community, both
individually and collectively."[61]
The two most successful agricultural enterprises in Palestine are those
of Bergheim and Sursuk, and as these are often referred to with a view
to induce Englishmen to embark capital in similar enterprises, a few
words about each may not be superfluous. Captain Conder, writing with
full and accurate information, says:--
"Probably the most successful undertaking of an agricultural kind
in Palestine is the farm at Abu Shûsheh, belonging to the
Bergheims, the principal banking firm in Jerusalem. The lands of
Abu Shûsheh belong to this family, and include 5,000 acres; a fine
spring exists on the east, but in other respects the property is
not exceptional. The native inhabitants are employed to till the
land, under the supervision of Mr. Bergheim's son; a farmhouse has
been built, a pump erected, and various modern improvements have
been introduced. The same hindrance is, however, experienced by the
Bergheims which has paralyzed all other efforts for the improvement
of the land. The difficulties raised by the venal and corrupt
under-officials of the Government have been vexatious and
incessant, being due to the determination to extort money by some
means or other, or else to ruin the enterprise from which they
could gain nothing. The Turkish Government recognizes the right of
foreigners to hold land, subject to the ordinary laws and taxes;
but there is a long step between this abstract principle and the
practical encouragement of such undertakings, and nothing is easier
than to raise groundless difficulties, _on the subject of title_,
or of assessment, in a land where the judges are as corrupt as the
rest of the governing body."[62]
More important still is the estate of seventy square miles in the plain
of Esdraelon, now in the hands of Mr. Sursuk, a wealthy banker at
Beyrout. Mr. Oliphant gives an account of the enterprise. "The
investment," he adds, "has turned out eminently successful; indeed, so
much so, that I found it difficult to credit the accounts of the
enormous profits which Mr. Sursuk derives from his estate."[63]
From Mr. Oliphant's description, I turn to the excellent Commercial
Report, written by Vice-Consul Jago, in plain prose, and I find he thus
speaks of the undertaking:--
"Some few years ago, the wealthiest native Christian in the
country, tempted by the low price of land near Acre offered for
sale by the Government, purchased a large tract, containing thirty
villages, for £18,000. The revenue accruing to the Government was,
prior to the purchase, between £T.1,500 and £T.2,000 per annum,
owing to the poverty of the peasants, and consequently little
production.
"Large sums were spent in importing labour from other districts for
cultivation, and in providing the peasants with proper means. Under
judicious management the speculation paid well, as much as thirty
per cent. on capital, besides increasing the taxes paid to the
Government to £5,000. The peasantry likewise benefited, being
assured of protection and prompt return for their labours. This
state of prosperity produced local intrigue and jealousies. Actions
of ejectment were brought to which _the government title-deeds
proved no bar_. Journeys to Constantinople, and endless special
commissions were the result, and it was only after a liberal
expenditure of money, time, and labour, that the judicial courts of
the country gave a decision, which, it is hoped, has set the matter
finally at rest.... In short, a capitalist wishing to employ money
in agriculture must be prepared to light his way, as it were, inch
by inch, and that, too, with the weapons of the country."[64]
Apparently Mr. Oliphant would have no objection to use the weapons of
the country. At least he seems ready to base the successful launching of
his Company on such considerations. Looking out over the province of
Ajlun, which is a fertile region about forty miles long by twenty-five
in width, he exclaims: "I feel no moral doubt that £50,000, partly
expended judiciously in bribes at Constantinople, and partly applied to
the purchase of land, not belonging to the State, from its present
proprietors, would purchase the entire province, and could be made to
return a fabulous interest on the investment."[65]
I need only suggest that where investors embark their capital in
philanthropic undertakings for "fabulous interest," it might be well if
they reflected on the character of their proposed security and the means
used to secure it.
III. Tenure of land in Syria and Palestine is regulated by Mohammedan
law as administered in the Ottoman Empire. That law contemplates land
under a five-fold classification.
_First._ Crown lands set apart at the time of the conquest as the
personal share of the Sultan and the Mussulman nation. These crown lands
were farmed to the highest bidders, and the rent paid for them was known
as _Miri_. Several changes at different times were introduced with
respect to the _Miri_, and in 1864 these were superseded by the _Tapoo_
code, the effect of which was to give titles of possession to those who,
for ten years previously, had cultivated the crown lands, on condition
of their paying five per cent. of the value of the land against the
issue of their title-deeds. Under the _Tapoo_ system the crown lands
become subject to two fixed taxes--the _Verghoo_, about four per mil. on
the estimated value of the land; and the _Ushr_ or tithe, which should
be a tenth part of the produce of the soil.
_Second._ _Wakoof_ lands dedicated to the maintenance of holy places at
Mecca, or to charitable institutions and sacred sanctuaries.
_Third._ _Mulk_, or freehold property. This is subdivided into four
categories, which I need not enumerate. Such lands are owned and
cultivated by private individuals, without payment to the Government.
The owners of such lands are free to dispose of them as they please, and
at their deaths they pass to their descendants in accordance with the
rules of inheritance prescribed by Mohammedan law.
_Fourth._ Waste lands.
_Fifth._ Lands abandoned through non-cultivation.
The above classification has the advantage of being theoretically
simple, and easily understood by the people; and the different items of
taxation, as laid down by law, cannot be said to be onerous. The
following are the chief heads:--
_Verghi._--A rate of four per mil., as stated above.
_Ushr._--A tenth of the produce of the soil. This is sometimes raised to
12-1/2 per cent., and in the manner in which it is collected it
sometimes amounts to 20 or 30 per cent.
_Income Tax._--Which amounts to 3 per cent. on the estimated income of
those engaged in trade.
_Military Exoneration Tax._--Payable by Jews, Christians, and other
non-Moslems, at the rate of £T.50 for every 182 males of all ages. There
is a new law limiting this payment to males between the ages of 15 and
60, but it has not yet come into operation.
_Military Exemption Tax._--Payable by Moslems who are drawn by
conscription, but wish to escape service, at the rate of £T.50 each.
_Tax on the Registration of Real Property._
_Sheep and Goat Tax_ of sixpence per head (3 piastres).
Besides these there are stamp duties:--auction fees of 2-1/2 per cent.,
fees on contracts of 2-1/2 per cent., on sale of all animals 2-1/2 per
cent., on recovery of debts 3 per cent., on transfer of real estate 1
per cent.; import duties of 8 per cent., export duties of 1 per cent.,
and a charge of 8 per cent. on all native produce and manufactures when
carried by sea from one part of the Turkish Empire to another. There are
also the duties on tobacco, liquors, salt, &c. In addition to these
Vice-Consul Jago, in his Commercial Report, dated Beyrout, July 11,
1876, gives a summary of seventeen agricultural burdens, which are
worthy of the consideration of all who feel disposed to embark in
agriculture in Syria under its present rulers.
IV. European emigrants, on landing in Syria, would find themselves in an
unhealthy climate. The whole of the first batch of German settlers, and
a very large number of the American emigrants who preceded them, fell
victims to the fevers of the country. Captain Conder, referring to the
difficulties of the German colonists, says:--
"There are other reasons which militate against the idea of the
final success of the Colony. The Syrian climate is not adapted to
Europeans, and year by year it must infallibly tell on the Germans,
exposed as they are to sun and miasma. It is true that Haifa is,
perhaps, the healthiest place in Palestine, yet even here they
suffer from fever and dysentery, and if they should attempt to
spread inland, they will find their difficulties from climate
increase tenfold."[66]
The privations and discomforts of Syrian peasant life would be
intolerable to European emigrants. The men would work by day under a
blistering sun, and sleep at night the centre of attraction for
sand-flies and mosquitoes, and all the other nameless tormentors that
leap and bite. Mr. Oliphant speaks feelingly of a night spent at Kefr
Assad:--
"No sooner had the sounds of day died away, and the family and our
servants gone to roost, than a pack of jackals set up that
plaintive and mournful wail by which they seem to announce to the
world that they are in a starving condition. They came so close to
the village that all the dogs in it set up a furious barking. This
woke the baby, of whose vocal powers we had been till then unaware.
Fleas and mosquitoes innumerable seemed to take advantage of the
disturbed state of things generally to make a combined onslaught.
Vainly did I thrust my hands into my socks, tie handkerchiefs round
my face and neck, and so arrange the rest of my night attire as to
leave no opening by which they could crawl in. Our necks and wrists
especially seemed circled with rings of fire. Anything like the
number and voracity of the fleas of that 'happy village' I have
never, during a long and varied intimacy with the insect,
experienced."[67]
These experiences were made near the troglodyte village es-Sal; and as
Mr. Oliphant peeped into the subterranean dwellings and dark caves, with
a view to his colonization company, he exclaimed,
"Indeed, there is probably no country in the world where an
immigrant population would find such excellent shelter all ready
prepared for them, or where they could step into the identical
abodes which had been vacated by their occupants at least 1,500
years ago, and use the same doors and windows."[68]
It is just possible, however, that emigrants might not care to have
their necks and wrists circled with rings of fire, and their bodies
covered with swarms of loathsome insects, for the romantic delights of
living in underground dens that had not been occupied for 1,500 years.
Mr. Oliphant's scheme only contemplates Jewish emigrants, to whom such
conditions would not be altogether novel.
"I should not," he says, "expect men to come from England or
France, but from European and Asiatic Turkey itself, as well as
from Russia, Galicia, Roumania, Servia, and the Slav countries."
He has, however, his eye on the whole Jewish race throughout the world
when he says:--
"As the area of land which I should propose, in the first instance,
for colonization would not exceed a million, or, at most, a million
and a half acres, it would be hard if, out of nearly 7,000,000 of
people attached to it by the tradition of former possession, enough
could not be found to subscribe a capital of £1,000,000, or even
more, for its purchase and settlement, and if, out of that number,
a selection of emigrants could not be made, possessing sufficient
capital of their own to make them desirable colonists."[69]
This article is not a review of Mr. Oliphant's interesting book, and
therefore I shall not follow him into the details of his colonization
scheme, where he narrows it, first, to Oriental Jews exclusively, and
second to the elevation of such Jews into petty landlords.