different manner. Cotton, linen, ramie, rhea, china grass, etc.,
ignite and burn readily with a bright smokeless and odourless flame,
leaving but a small amount of ash, this being the characteristic
of vegetable fibres. Animal fibres, on the other hand, are slower
to ignite, the appearance of the flame is lifeless, and the fibres
burn more slowly than vegetable fibres. Wool, when burnt, emits
a disagreeable odour, and the residue or ash takes the form of a
bead or knob. Silk burns in the same way as wool when it is free of
"weighting." When artificially weighted, silk may have its weight
increased to almost any desired extent--from 80 to 200 per cent.
increase in weight can be obtained without creating suspicion. When
such weighted silk is burnt, instead of forming itself into small
black beads or knobs, it burns leaving a distinct ash, which retains
somewhat the shape of the original material. Artificial or cellulose
silk burns readily and in burning does not give off any odour.
=Test for Artificial Silk.=--The burning test should in most cases
be sufficient to distinguish artificial from true silk, but if a
chemical test is necessary, by immersing the suspect sample in a
caustic potash solution it will be seen that artificial silk turns
yellow, whereas true silk does not change colour. Artificial silk,
which is a nitro-cellulose, burns very rapidly, leaving practically
no ash whatever. A simple way of recognising artificial silk is by
testing the threads under moisture. Unravel a few threads of the
suspected fabric and place them in the mouth and masticate them
thoroughly. Artificial silk readily softens under this operation and
breaks up into minute particles, and when pulled between the fingers
shows no thread, but merely a mass of cellulose or pulp. Natural
silk, no matter how thoroughly masticated, will retain its fibrous
strength.
=Tests for Linen.=--Linen, like cotton, burns when a light is
applied, leaving a white ash. Linen yarns are more irregular in their
thickness longitudinally than cotton thread taken from similar woven
fabrics. This difference makes the detection of linen in a woven
cloth comparatively easy. The fibres are straighter, longer, and
stronger when separated in the thread than cotton. The threads often
snap sharp and clear when breaking them in the fingers. The oil test
for linen is based upon the property which linen has of more readily
absorbing oil than cotton does. When a linen and cotton mixture
fabric which has been freed from dressing by washing and boiling is
dipped in oil and then held up to the light it will be seen that
the linen fibres look transparent, whereas the cotton remains more
nearly opaque. This is due to the linen having absorbed the oil more
readily than the cotton. All the cotton contained in a linen and
cotton fabric can be readily dissolved by dipping the fabric in a
concentrated sulphuric acid bath for one or two minutes. The sample
is first freed of dressing. After washing and drying a sample so
tested the linen fibre only will remain.
=Test for Mercerised Cotton.=--Prepare a solution made by dissolving
1¼ ounces of iodide of potassium in 5 ounces of water, then add to
this solution ½ ounce of iodine, and mix with another solution made
by dissolving 7½ ounces of zinc chloride in 3 ounces of water. The
test is applied as follows: take the suspect sample and free it from
any dressing or sizing by soaking it in water; then, after freeing
the sample from any superfluous water, place it in some of the
prepared solution for three minutes, and then rinse the sample in
water. Should the cotton tested have been mercerised it will appear
of a deep blue colour. On washing with water the blue colour fades
very slowly and needs long washing, whereas ordinary cotton rapidly
becomes white on washing. Even dyed piece goods will show the deep
blue reaction, which is the result of the testing solution acting
upon the caustic soda used in the process of mercerisation. When
making this test it is best to treat a "known" unmercerised cotton
at the same time as the suspect sample so as to have a basis for
comparison.
=Tests for Silk.=--If a silk and wool mixture or union fabric is
boiled in strong hydrochloric acid for 15 minutes, it will be found
that the wool merely swells, whilst the silk acted upon by the acid
completely dissolves. By careful weighing before and after the test
it becomes a matter of simple calculation to arrive at the percentage
of silk present in the fabric.
=Test for Wool.=--If a fabric suspected of containing wool and cotton
or other vegetable fibre is boiled for 15 minutes in a solution made
by dissolving either 1 ounce of caustic soda or caustic potash in a
pint of water it will be found that all the wool will be destroyed
and only the vegetable fibres remain. This test, which is based upon
the well-known fact that caustic soda dissolves wool, may be used to
ascertain the percentage of wool in a cloth if the sample tested is
thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed before the test is applied.
After testing and drying, the loss in weight represents the amount
of wool which was present and destroyed during the test. This test
may be reversed and the cotton destroyed by treating the sample with
an 80 per cent. sulphuric acid solution. This, however, is a longer
test, necessitating the sample being kept in the sulphuric acid
solution for about 10 or 12 hours. Prior to drying and weighing the
sample should be well washed in alcohol.
=Textile Fibres.=--The principal fibres which enter into the
construction of textiles can be divided into the following six
classes:--
_Vegetable._--Cotton, flax, ramie, rhea, china grass, jute, hemp,
kapok, and marine fibre.
_Modification of Vegetable._--Mercerised cotton, artificial silk,
animalised cotton, artificial wool, paper yarn.
_Animal._--Sheep's wool, mohair, cashmere, camel hair, alpaca,
vicuna, llama, guanaco, rabbit hair, horsehair, cow and calf hair.
_Animal Secretions._--Silk and wild silk.
_Mineral._--Asbestos.
_Metallic._--Gold, silver, and other wires, metal-coated fibres.
=Thickset.=--One of the many varieties of Fustian, which comprise
Corduroys, Velveteens, Moleskins, Thickset, etc.
=Thread.=--In general, a twisted strand of cotton, flax, wool,
silk, etc., spun out to considerable length is called thread. In a
specific sense, thread is a compound cord consisting of two or more
yarns firmly united together by twisting. Thread made of silk is
technically known as sewing thread; that made of flax is known as
linen thread; while cotton thread intended for sewing is commonly
called spool cotton. These distinctions are generally observed by the
trade.
=Three-quarter Hose.=--A variety of ribbed-top stockings made for
children and reaching nearly to the knees.
=Ticks, or Ticking.=--Ticking is a single cloth of either medium or
heavy weight woven from cotton yarns of from 14's to 22's in warp
and filling or from yarns which would give the same weight material,
such as 18's warp and 20's filling. Usually woven with two-over-one
or three-over-one twill weave. Ticking belongs to the class of stiff,
hard-faced cotton fabrics. This feature is due to the warp-faced
twill weave. These goods are made usually in two coloured warp
patterns, dark blue and white and red and white. One feature which
is worthy of mention in regard to Ticking and other similar lines
is that they are to-day being stock-dyed in increasing quantities.
This method consists of dyeing the cotton or bleaching it, as the
case may be, in the raw state and then carding, drawing, and spinning
just as if a grey fabric were to be made. Stock-dyeing results in the
dye affecting the fibres which form the very centre of a yarn, and
for this reason is a better process than dyeing the finished yarn.
Brushed, sheared, sized, and calendered Ticking is either packed
lapped or rolled into bolts.
=Tire Cloth.=--A fabric made from strong slackly folded yarns of
good-quality cotton used in the lining of tires. The warp threads are
very closely set, so as best to withstand strain. The weft threads
are very openly set, so as to prevent undue pressure on the warp
threads, which should lie straight and so avoid friction or cutting
which might arise from the action of the inflated inner tube and the
tire whilst in use. The yarn used in this type of cloth is usually
made from 30's to 34's count, doubled 11 or 12 fold, necessitating
great care in the subsequent twisting to ensure evenness of strength
and elasticity, which in this class of cloth is essential. Tire
fabrics, as used in the manufacture of automobile and bicycle tires,
are made from long-staple Sea Island cotton, the yarn being combed
and of a comparatively coarse number, usually 8's to 40's, and from
single yarn to 12-ply. A wide range of weights is found in these
fabrics, varying from 3 to 20 ounces per square yard. This fabric
forms the base of the finished rubber tire.
=Tram.=--A thrown silk thread taking its name from the French
_trame_, meaning weft, softer and more flossy and having less twist
than organzine. It is generally used for weft, which, as it bears
little strain in weaving, need not be as strong as the warp, but
should be soft and bulky, so that when beaten in successive threads
will lie close together and fill up the interstices of the web.
Tram and organzine are, with the exception of spun waste silk, the
only kinds of silk thread used for weaving--varying, however, in
quality of silk, amount of twist, and in size.
=Trunk Length.=--Applied to women's hosiery midway between ordinary
and opera length, usually widened gradually above the knee.
=Tubular Cloth.=--The most commonly met with examples of Tubular
Cloths are the ordinary pillow slip, tubular lampwick, tapes, etc.,
which are in common use.
=Tulle.=--A plain, fine silk net. Practically the same as Maline.
=Turkish Towelling.=--Essentially Terry Cloth woven as an all-cotton
fabric having as a salient feature an uncut loop-pile surface.
Sold by the linear yard for the making of bath robes, etc. Woven
unbleached or with some coloured yarns for bordering effect and
subsequently bleached, the coloured yarns used resisting bleaching.
Otherwise woven in sizes suitable for cutting into lengths, which are
then sold as Turkish Towels.
=Tussore, or Tussah.=--The wild silk from which Shantung and Pongee
are made. Applied to these fabrics when heavily and coarsely woven.
=Tweed.=--Rough, unfinished fabric of soft, open, and flexible
texture, woven on a plain weave from wool or cotton and wool, usually
of yarn of two or more shades. Originally the product of the weavers
on the banks of the River Tweed. The face of the cloth presents
an unfinished appearance rather than a sharp and clearly defined
pattern.
=Twill Weave.=--A twill weave is a weave that produces diagonal lines
across the cloth. In this class of weave the filling threads pass
over one and under two, or over one and under three, four, five, or
six, or over two or three and under one, two, three, or four, or over
four and under four, three, six, etc. Where there are the same number
of warp and filling threads to the inch, twill lines will form an
angle of 45 degrees; if the warp threads are closer together than the
filling threads, the twilled lines produced will approach more the
horizontal. Twill weaving permits the introduction of more material
into the cloth than a plain weave and produces, therefore, a closer
and heavier fabric. A twill effect in a material is also called a
diagonal, from the direction it has in relation to the length of the
cloth. This diagonal effect is continually produced by the warp and
weft intersections traversing one thread and one pick further from
their respective positions each time a pick of weft is inserted.
Twill weaves may be divided into four common classes: (1) regular,
(2) broken, (3) fancy, (4) figured.
_Regular Twills._--A regular twill is referred to as a twill of so
many "ends" or "shafts"; by this is meant a twill which contains a
number of warp and weft threads which, added together, equal the
number of "ends." Thus a five-end twill can either have (_a_) four
warps and one weft, (_b_) three warps and two wefts, or (_c_) two
warps and three wefts--this form of twill will be seen to be a
reverse weave to (_b_).
_Broken Twills._--A twill effect produces a twill line which, when
the number of warp and weft threads are equal, is at an angle of 45
degrees. In a broken twill effect this line, which may be compared to
the left-hand stroke of a letter @V@, is combined with another
twill line running in an opposite direction and which is simply a
turning or "reversing" of the threads in the regular twill weave.
Broken twill effect enters largely into the weave design of Harvard
Shirting.
_Fancy Twills._--As the term indicates, fancy twills is a style
of weave which, whilst always retaining the main features and
essentials of a "regular" twill, has been made fancy by alternating
the arrangements of the thread and thus producing "elongated twills,"
"corkscrew twills," or "combination twills." The description of fancy
twills could only be attempted by the use of illustrations and pages
of explanations.
_Figured Twills._--Figured twills are regular twills with a small
figure introduced between the diagonal lines. The designs introduced
are generally small figures produced by plain weave or a small
diamond-shaped spot made by either the warp or the weft threads being
brought to the surface and made to form the design. The designs are
never very elaborate.
=Twin Needle.=--A double row of interlocked machine stitching used
for covering raw edges and seams of knit underwear.
=Unclassed Native Cotton Cloth (China).=--All Native Cotton Cloths,
whether woven on a hand or power loom, which are not--
(_a._) Nankeen as defined in Customs Notification No. 876 (_see_
Nankeen);
(_b._) Specially enumerated in the General Tariff of 1858 for the
Trade of China; or
(_c._) the produce of a Privileged Factory and at the same time
enumerated in either the General Tariff of 1858 or the Revised
Import Tariff--
are grouped under the heading "Unclassed Native Cotton Cloth." This
group comprises:--
1º. All cotton fabrics woven with a plain, satin, or twill weave
or a combination of these weaves, in part or whole, from yarns,
whether single or folded, which have been either mercerised,
gassed, dyed and mercerised, or dyed and gassed prior to weaving,
whether woven in a cloth having a solid colour effect or whether
woven so as to produce a striped or woven figured effect.
2º. All fabrics woven with a plain, satin, or twill weave or a
combination of these weaves from grey, white, or dyed yarns which
subsequent to weaving have been mercerised or dyed in the piece.
3º. Generally all cotton fabrics woven so as to imitate foreign
yarn-dyed fabrics, whether same are devoid of a raised finish
or have been raised on either back or face of the cloth,
irrespective of whether the yarn has or has not been mercerised
prior to weaving and irrespective of whether the cloth has or has
not been mercerised after leaving the loom.
The term "=Native Cotton Cloth=" (China) is applied to hand-loom
fabrics other than Nankeen, unclassed native cotton cloths or fabrics
that are specifically enumerated in the General Tariff of 1858 for
the Trade of China. The name is given to a group of cloths which
answer to the following description:--
1º. All hand-loom plain-weave fabrics which do not exceed 20
inches in width woven from ordinary grey or white single cotton
yarn which have been piece-dyed after leaving the loom, but which
have not been either mercerised or gassed.
2º. All hand-loom plain-weave fabrics which do not exceed 20
inches in width woven from ordinary grey or white single cotton
yarn which have been either resist, discharge, or direct printed
but which have not been either mercerised or gassed after leaving
the loom.
=Union Broadcloth.=--This fabric, also known under the name of Poncho
Cloth, is a plain-woven cotton warp and woollen weft fabric, woven in
the unusual width of 74 inches and averaging in length of piece from
36 to 38 yards. The selvedge of this class of fabric is distinctive,
showing a long unshorn hairy surface. The face of the cloth does
not show the weave or yarn intersection points, as it has a typical
Broadcloth finish, but these are distinctly to be seen on the back of
the fabric. A Union Broadcloth of the above description, typical of
that generally exported to China, averaged in value during the years
1904 to 1914 about 1_s._ 6_d._ per yard.
=Union Cloth.=--As the name implies, Union Cloths are woven with warp
and weft of different fibres. They are also called "mixed cloths,"
and the union of the two different kinds of fibres may be arrived at
by intermingling the wool and cotton fibres to form the warp or weft
of a fabric or, as in most cases, each kind of fibre may be confined
to separate threads, forming part or the whole of the warp or weft.
Union Cloths are generally "cross-dyed," although they may also be
"dyed in the grey." In the case of "cross-dyeing," the cotton warp is
dyed the desired colour and interlaced with a wool weft, which is in
a grey or undyed condition, and subsequently the weft only is dyed,
this being possible as the affinity of cotton and wool are different.
When light colours are desired in the fabric the cotton warp and wool
weft are woven in a grey or undyed condition, and then both are dyed
in the fabric: this method is styled "dyeing in the grey." In some
cases the wool and cotton are treated separately, in others union
dyes are employed.
The principal Union Cloths met with are: Brilliantines, Glacés, and
Sicilians, plain-weave materials with cotton warp and mohair weft;
Alpacas, plain or twill weave, cotton warp and alpaca weft; Lustres,
plain or twill weave, cotton warp and lustre or demi-lustre weft;
Italians, five-shaft weft, sateen weave, cotton warp, fine Botany
weft; Cashmeres, 2/1 weft twill weave, cotton warp, fine Botany weft;
Beatrice Twill, five-end (four weft and one warp) twill, cotton warp,
demi-lustre weft. All authorities do not agree as to what constitutes
a Union, the following definition having been met with: "Fabrics are
union when composed of two materials otherwise than by blending."
In the Morley (Yorkshire) trade a "Union" is a cotton warp cloth of
boiled and teazled finish superficially resembling Broadcloth.
=Union Yarns.=--These yarns, as the name indicates, are the product
of combining two or more different materials into a yarn, generally
wool and cotton or wool, and any of the many vegetable fibres capable
of being spun.
Union Yarns may be produced by the mixing together of the two or more
different fibres when they are still in the state of loose fibres;
in such a case the cotton fibres act as binders upon the rest of the
fibres. When the various fibres are thoroughly mixed together, the
mixture obtained is spun: this produces the variety known as Carded
Union Yarns. Another form of Union Yarn is obtained by twisting
together two threads of different material. Some Union Yarns have
the appearance of pure wool threads, and only careful scrutiny will
reveal the presence of cotton fibre; this type of yarn is known by
the name of Angola yarn.
Union Yarns, being composed of materials that are not affected by
dyes in the same way, can be recognised when found in a so-called
wool fabric from the fact that the wool in the yarn will have taken
up the dye, whereas the cotton will not have done so to the same
extent, but will have retained more or less its original colour.
=Velour.=--This name is given to a soft, thick, nappy flannel used in
the making of dressing-gowns, etc., made from either wool or cotton
or a combination of both. As a cotton fabric, it is of the coarse,
stiff, pile variety. The name is French for Velvet, hence its use
in connexion with a pile-surface fabric. As a woollen and worsted
term, there is a considerable diversity of opinion as to the precise
cloth designated by the term Velour. Some manufacturers would class
as Velours any cloth having a soft velvety nap, others make finer
distinctions, classing one as a "face-finished Cashmere," a second as
a "Saxony," with Velour slightly different from either of these.
=Velvet.=--This name is given to a pure all-silk pile fabric with
a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that the surface
consists of silk threads or fibres standing closely together like
the bristles in a brush. These threads appear as threads sheared
off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface. "All-silk" in
this definition of Velvet applies to the pile only, for Velvets are
so generally woven with a cotton back that a Silk Velvet should be
considered as having a cotton back unless specially designated as
"silk backed."
=Velvet Finish.=--A finish produced upon woollen fabrics by
wet-raising in various directions and subsequently cropping the pile
thus raised level, which leaves the velvet-finished material with a
fairly dense pile of a velvety appearance.
=Velvet of Silk mixed with other Fibres.=--This class of fabric
includes all pile fabrics which, in the first instance, answer to the
description of Velvet, _i.e._, have their pile shorter than that of
Plush, and the pile of which, whilst being partly of silk, contains
other animal fibres, such as wool or mohair, or even vegetable
fibres, such as cotton. Where it is clearly stipulated that they are
"Velvets of silk mixed with other fibres and having cotton backs,"
the foundation cloth must not contain warp or weft threads wholly or
in part composed of any material other than cotton.
=Velveteen.=--This name is given to the class of fabrics that in
reality are but Cotton Velvets. Like true Velvets, they are woven
with a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that the
surface consists of threads or fibres standing closely together like
the bristles in a brush. These threads appear as threads sheared
off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface. Velveteens
are generally woven on the weft-pile basis, that is to say, that
the "pile floats" or "flushings" are produced with the weft
threads--which are afterwards cut--additional to and on a firmly
constructed woven ground texture. Weft pile can be recognised by
removing from the fabric a weft thread, when, upon withdrawing this
thread, it will be seen that the bits of "cut pile" are not looped
round it or attached to it but remain entangled among the warp
threads. Common Velveteen, which is "all cotton," will be identified
as a weft pile in this manner. Velveteens are also known as Velverets
or Fustians. Standard widths for Velveteens are 19 inches, 22½
inches, 24½ inches, and 27½ or 28 inches.
=Venetians.=--A wool fabric, closely woven in a fine twill. As
applied to a cotton fabric, it is used to designate a heavy,
warp-face, Dress Satin (or Sateen) of strong texture and closely
woven, dyed in the piece, silky and lustrous in appearance. Light
weights would be sold as Sateen or Dress Sateen. Woven with about 200
to 250 threads to the square inch, the style of weave in itself tends
to produce lustre; this is intensified by calendering and sometimes
by mercerising the fabric. The weave is of an upright warp twill
character, and the name was first applied to a dress face woollen
cloth; later, worsted dress Venetians were made, and later still the
name was applied to an all-cotton fabric of similar weave.
=Vesting (Vestings).=--A generic term embracing a wide range of
fabrics more or less ornamented, used in most countries for men's
vests, but used in China for either men's or women's outer or inner
garments. Fabrics of several combination of weaves showing fancy
stripes or small checkings, and often coloured to the extent of some
coloured warp threads appearing here and there on the surface and
left floating (where not used) on the back of the fabric are common
in this class of goods. This heading covers Welts, Piqué, Fancy
Piqué, etc.
=Vigogne.=--The French form of the word "vicuña"; applied to a soft
woollen dress material.
=Vigoreux.=--A worsted material, printed in the yarn so as to produce
a mélange, or mixture, effect in colouring. This differs from Beige
in that the yarns are printed before being spun, giving the finished
goods the appearance of having been woven from mixed yarns.