CHAPTER XIV. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.

The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements

of expression—Their inheritance—On the part which the will and

intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions—The

instinctive recognition of expression—The bearing of our subject on the

specific unity of the races of man—On the successive acquirement of

various expressions by the progenitors of man—The importance of

expression—Conclusion.

I have now described, to the best of my ability, the chief expressive

actions in man, and in some few of the lower animals. I have also

attempted to explain the origin or development of these actions through

the three principles given in the first chapter. The first of these

principles is, that movements which are serviceable in gratifying some

desire, or in relieving some sensation, if often repeated, become so

habitual that they are performed, whether or not of any service,

whenever the same desire or sensation is felt, even in a very weak

degree.

Our second principle is that of antithesis. The habit of voluntarily

performing opposite movements under opposite impulses has become firmly

established in us by the practice of our whole lives. Hence, if certain

actions have been regularly performed, in accordance with our first

principle, under a certain frame of mind, there will be a strong and

involuntary tendency to the performance of directly opposite actions,

whether or not these are of any use, under the excitement of an

opposite frame of mind.

Our third principle is the direct action of the excited nervous system

on the body, independently of the will, and independently, in large

part, of habit. Experience shows that nerve-force is generated and set

free whenever the cerebro-spinal system is excited. The direction which

this nerve-force follows is necessarily determined by the lines of

connection between the nerve-cells, with each other and with various

parts of the body. But the direction is likewise much influenced by

habit; inasmuch as nerve-force passes readily along accustomed

channels.

The frantic and senseless actions of an enraged man may be attributed

in part to the undirected flow of nerve-force, and in part to the

effects of habit, for these actions often vaguely represent the act of

striking. They thus pass into gestures included under our first

principle; as when an indignant man unconsciously throws himself into a

fitting attitude for attacking his opponent, though without any

intention of making an actual attack. We see also the influence of

habit in all the emotions and sensations which are called exciting; for

they have assumed this character from having habitually led to

energetic action; and action affects, in an indirect manner, the

respiratory and circulatory system; and the latter reacts on the brain.

Whenever these emotions or sensations are even slightly felt by us,

though they may not at the time lead to any exertion, our whole system

is nevertheless disturbed through the force of habit and association.

Other emotions and sensations are called depressing, because they have

not habitually led to energetic action, excepting just at first, as in

the case of extreme pain, fear, and grief, and they have ultimately

caused complete exhaustion; they are consequently expressed chiefly by

negative signs and by prostration. Again, there are other emotions,

such as that of affection, which do not commonly lead to action of any

kind, and consequently are not exhibited by any strongly marked outward

signs. Affection indeed, in as far as it is a pleasurable sensation,

excites the ordinary signs of pleasure.

On the other hand, many of the effects due to the excitement of the

nervous system seem to be quite independent of the flow of nerve-force

along the channels which have been rendered habitual by former

exertions of the will. Such effects, which often reveal the state of

mind of the person thus affected, cannot at present be explained; for

instance, the change of colour in the hair from extreme terror or

grief,—the cold sweat and the trembling of the muscles from fear,—the

modified secretions of the intestinal canal,—and the failure of certain

glands to act.

Notwithstanding that much remains unintelligible in our present

subject, so many expressive movements and actions can be explained to a

certain extent through the above three principles, that we may hope

hereafter to see all explained by these or by closely analogous

principles.

Actions of all kinds, if regularly accompanying any state of the mind,

are at once recognized as expressive. These may consist of movements of

any part of the body, as the wagging of a dog’s tail, the shrugging of

a man’s shoulders, the erection of the hair, the exudation of

perspiration, the state of the capillary circulation, laboured

breathing, and the use of the vocal or other sound-producing

instruments. Even insects express anger, terror, jealousy, and love by

their stridulation. With man the respiratory organs are of especial

importance in expression, not only in a direct, but in a still higher

degree in an indirect manner.

Few points are more interesting in our present subject than the

extraordinarily complex chain of events which lead to certain

expressive movements. Take, for instance, the oblique eyebrows of a man

suffering from grief or anxiety. When infants scream loudly from hunger

or pain, the circulation is affected, and the eyes tend to become

gorged with blood: consequently the muscles surrounding the eyes are

strongly contracted as a protection: this action, in the course of many

generations, has become firmly fixed and inherited: but when, with

advancing years and culture, the habit of screaming is partially

repressed, the muscles round the eyes still tend to contract, whenever

even slight distress is felt: of these muscles, the pyramidals of the

nose are less under the control of the will than are the others and

their contraction can be checked only by that of the central fasciae of

the frontal muscle: these latter fasciae draw up the inner ends of the

eyebrows, and wrinkle the forehead in a peculiar manner, which we

instantly recognize as the expression of grief or anxiety. Slight

movements, such as these just described, or the scarcely perceptible

drawing down of the corners of the mouth, are the last remnants or

rudiments of strongly marked and intelligible movements. They are as

full of significance to us in regard to expression, as are ordinary

rudiments to the naturalist in the classification and genealogy of

organic beings.

That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man and by the lower

animals, are now innate or inherited,—that is, have not been learnt by

the individual,—is admitted by every one. So little has learning or

imitation to do with several of them that they are from the earliest

days and throughout life quite beyond our control; for instance, the

relaxation of the arteries of the skin in blushing, and the increased

action of the heart in anger. We may see children, only two or three

years old, and even those born blind, blushing from shame; and the

naked scalp of a very young infant reddens from passion. Infants scream

from pain directly after birth, and all their features then assume the

same form as during subsequent years. These facts alone suffice to show

that many of our most important expressions have not been learnt; but

it is remarkable that some, which are certainly innate, require

practice in the individual, before they are performed in a full and

perfect manner; for instance, weeping and laughing. The inheritance of

most of our expressive actions explains the fact that those born blind

display them, as I hear from the Rev. R. H. Blair, equally well with

those gifted with eyesight. We can thus also understand the fact that

the young and the old of widely different races, both with man and

animals, express the same state of mind by the same movements.

We are so familiar with the fact of young and old animals displaying

their feelings in the same manner, that we hardly perceive how

remarkable it is that a young puppy should wag its tail when pleased,

depress its ears and uncover its canine teeth when pretending to be

savage, just like an old dog; or that a kitten should arch its little

back and erect its hair when frightened and angry, like an old cat.

When, however, we turn to less common gestures in ourselves, which we

are accustomed to look at as artificial or conventional,—such as

shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence, or the raising the

arms with open hands and extended fingers, as a sign of wonder,—we feel

perhaps too much surprise at finding that they are innate. That these

and some other gestures are inherited, we may infer from their being

performed by very young children, by those born blind, and by the most

widely distinct races of man. We should also bear in mind that new and

highly peculiar tricks, in association with certain states of the mind,

are known to have arisen in certain individuals, and to have been

afterwards transmitted to their offspring, in some cases, for more than

one generation.

Certain other gestures, which seem to us so natural that we might

easily imagine that they were innate, apparently have been learnt like

the words of a language. This seems to be the case with the joining of

the uplifted hands, and the turning up of the eyes, in prayer. So it is

with kissing as a mark of affection; but this is innate, in so far as

it depends on the pleasure derived from contact with a beloved person.

The evidence with respect to the inheritance of nodding and shaking the

head, as signs of affirmation and negation, is doubtful; for they are

not universal, yet seem too general to have been independently acquired

by all the individuals of so many races.

We will now consider how far the will and consciousness have come into

play in the development of the various movements of expression. As far

as we can judge, only a few expressive movements, such as those just

referred to, are learnt by each individual; that is, were consciously

and voluntarily performed during the early years of life for some

definite object, or in imitation of others, and then became habitual.

The far greater number of the movements of expression, and all the more

important ones, are, as we have seen, innate or inherited; and such

cannot be said to depend on the will of the individual. Nevertheless,

all those included under our first principle were at first voluntarily

performed for a definite object,—namely, to escape some danger, to

relieve some distress, or to gratify some desire. For instance, there

can hardly be a doubt that the animals which fight with their teeth,

have acquired the habit of drawing back their ears closely to their

heads, when feeling savage, from their progenitors having voluntarily

acted in this manner in order to protect their ears from being torn by

their antagonists; for those animals which do not fight with their

teeth do not thus express a savage state of mind. We may infer as

highly probable that we ourselves have acquired the habit of

contracting the muscles round the eyes, whilst crying gently, that is,

without the utterance of any loud sound, from our progenitors,

especially during infancy, having experienced, during the act of

screaming, an uncomfortable sensation in their eyeballs. Again, some

highly expressive movements result from the endeavour to cheek or

prevent other expressive movements; thus the obliquity of the eyebrows

and the drawing down of the corners of the mouth follow from the

endeavour to prevent a screaming-fit from coming on, or to cheek it

after it has come on. Here it is obvious that the consciousness and

will must at first have come into play; not that we are conscious in

these or in other such cases what muscles are brought into action, any

more than when we perform the most ordinary voluntary movements.

With respect to the expressive movements due to the principle of

antithesis, it is clear that the will has intervened, though in a

remote and indirect manner. So again with the movements coming under

our third principle; these, in as far as they are influenced by

nerve-force readily passing along habitual channels, have been

determined by former and repeated exertions of the will. The effects

indirectly due to this latter agency are often combined in a complex

manner, through the force of habit and association, with those directly

resulting from the excitement of the cerebro-spinal system. This seems

to be the case with the increased action of the heart under the

influence of any strong emotion. When an animal erects its hair,

assumes a threatening attitude, and utters fierce sounds, in order to

terrify an enemy, we see a curious combination of movements which were

originally voluntary with those that are involuntary. It is, however,

possible that even strictly involuntary actions, such as the erection

of the hair, may have been affected by the mysterious power of the

will.

Some expressive movements may have arisen spontaneously, in association

with certain states of the mind, like the tricks lately referred to,

and afterwards been inherited. But I know of no evidence rendering this

view probable.

The power of communication between the members of the same tribe by

means of language has been of paramount importance in the development

of man; and the force of language is much aided by the expressive

movements of the face and body. We perceive this at once when we

converse on an important subject with any person whose face is

concealed. Nevertheless there are no grounds, as far as I can discover,

for believing that any muscle has been developed or even modified

exclusively for the sake of expression. The vocal and other

sound-producing organs, by which various expressive noises are

produced, seem to form a partial exception; but I have elsewhere

attempted to show that these organs were first developed for sexual

purposes, in order that one sex might call or charm the other. Nor can

I discover grounds for believing that any inherited movement, which now

serves as a means of expression, was at first voluntarily and

consciously performed for this special purpose,—like some of the

gestures and the finger-language used by the deaf and dumb. On the

contrary, every true or inherited movement of expression seems to have

had some natural and independent origin. But when once acquired, such

movements may be voluntarily and consciously employed as a means of

communication. Even infants, if carefully attended to, find out at a

very early age that their screaming brings relief, and they soon

voluntarily practise it. We may frequently see a person voluntarily

raising his eyebrows to express surprise, or smiling to express

pretended satisfaction and acquiescence. A man often wishes to make

certain gestures conspicuous or demonstrative, and will raise his

extended arms with widely opened fingers above his head, to show

astonishment, or lift his shoulders to his ears, to show that he cannot

or will not do something. The tendency to such movements will be

strengthened or increased by their being thus voluntarily and

repeatedly performed; and the effects may be inherited.

It is perhaps worth consideration whether movements at first used only

by one or a few individuals to express a certain state of mind may not

sometimes have spread to others, and ultimately have become universal,

through the power of conscious and unconscious imitation. That there

exists in man a strong tendency to imitation, independently of the

conscious will, is certain. This is exhibited in the most extraordinary

manner in certain brain diseases, especially at the commencement of

inflammatory softening of the brain, and has been called the “echo

sign.” Patients thus affected imitate, without understanding every

absurd gesture which is made, and every word which is uttered near

them, even in a foreign language.[1401] In the case of animals, the

jackal and wolf have learnt under confinement to imitate the barking of

the dog. How the barking of the dog, which serves to express various

emotions and desires, and which is so remarkable from having been

acquired since the animal was domesticated, and from being inherited in

different degrees by different breeds, was first learnt we do not know;

but may we not suspect that imitation has had something to do with its

acquisition, owing to dogs having long lived in strict association with

so loquacious an animal as man?

In the course of the foregoing remarks and throughout this volume, I

have often felt much difficulty about the proper application of the

terms, will, consciousness, and intention. Actions, which were at first

voluntary, soon became habitual, and at last hereditary, and may then

be performed even in opposition to the will. Although they often reveal

the state of the mind, this result was not at first either intended or

expected. Even such words as that “certain movements serve as a means

of expression,” are apt to mislead, as they imply that this was their

primary purpose or object. This, however, seems rarely or never to have

been the case; the movements having been at first either of some direct

use, or the indirect effect of the excited state of the sensorium. An

infant may scream either intentionally or instinctively to show that it

wants food; but it has no wish or intention to draw its features into

the peculiar form which so plainly indicates misery; yet some of the

most characteristic expressions exhibited by man are derived from the

act of screaming, as has been explained.

Although most of our expressive actions are innate or instinctive, as

is admitted by everyone, it is a different question whether we have any

instinctive power of recognizing them. This has generally been assumed

to be the case; but the assumption has been strongly controverted by M.

Lemoine.[1402] Monkeys soon learn to distinguish, not only the tones of

voice of their masters, but the expression of their faces, as is

asserted by a careful observer.[1403] Dogs well know the difference

between caressing and threatening gestures or tones; and they seem to

recognize a compassionate tone. But as far as I can make out, after

repeated trials, they do not understand any movement confined to the

features, excepting a smile or laugh; and this they appear, at least in

some cases, to recognize. This limited amount of knowledge has probably

been gained, both by monkeys and dogs, through their associating harsh

or kind treatment with our actions; and the knowledge certainly is not

instinctive. Children, no doubt, would soon learn the movements of

expression in their elders in the same manner as animals learn those of

man. Moreover, when a child cries or laughs, he knows in a general

manner what he is doing and what he feels; so that a very small

exertion of reason would tell him what crying or laughing meant in

others. But the question is, do our children acquire their knowledge of

expression solely by experience through the power of association and

reason?

As most of the movements of expression must have been gradually

acquired, afterwards becoming instinctive, there seems to be some

degree of _a priori_ probability that their recognition would likewise

have become instinctive. There is, at least, no greater difficulty in

believing this than in admitting that, when a female quadruped first

bears young, she knows the cry of distress of her offspring, or than in

admitting that many animals instinctively recognize and fear their

enemies; and of both these statements there can be no reasonable doubt.

It is however extremely difficult to prove that our children

instinctively recognize any expression. I attended to this point in my

first-born infant, who could not have learnt anything by associating

with other children, and I was convinced that he understood a smile and

received pleasure from seeing one, answering it by another, at much too

early an age to have learnt anything by experience. When this child was

about four months old, I made in his presence many odd noises and

strange grimaces, and tried to look savage; but the noises, if not too

loud, as well as the grimaces, were all taken as good jokes; and I

attributed this at the time to their being preceded or accompanied by

smiles. When five months old, he seemed to understand a compassionate,

expression and tone of voice. When a few days over six months old, his

nurse pretended to cry, and I saw that his face instantly assumed a

melancholy expression, with the corners of the mouth strongly

depressed; now this child could rarely have seen any other child

crying, and never a grown-up person crying, and I should doubt whether

at so early an age he could have reasoned on the subject. Therefore it

seems to me that an innate feeling must have told him that the

pretended crying of his nurse expressed grief; and this through the

instinct of sympathy excited grief in him.

M. Lemoine argues that, if man possessed an innate knowledge of

expression, authors and artists would not have found it so difficult,

as is notoriously the case, to describe and depict the characteristic

signs of each particular state of mind. But this does not seem to me a

valid argument. We may actually behold the expression changing in an

unmistakable manner in a man or animal, and yet be quite unable, as I

know from experience, to analyse the nature of the change. In the two

photographs given by Duchenne of the same old man (Plate III. figs. 5

and 6), almost every one recognized that the one represented a true,

and the other a false smile; but I have found it very difficult to

decide in what the whole amount of difference consists. It has often

struck me as a curious fact that so many shades of expression are

instantly recognized without any conscious process of analysis on our

part. No one, I believe, can clearly describe a sullen or sly

expression; yet many observers are unanimous that these expressions can

be recognized in the various races of man. Almost everyone to whom I

showed Duchenne’s photograph of the young man with oblique eyebrows

(Plate II. fig. 2) at once declared that it expressed grief or some

such feeling; yet probably not one of these persons, or one out of a

thousand persons, could beforehand have told anything precise about the

obliquity of the eyebrows with their inner ends puckered, or about the

rectangular furrows on the forehead. So it is with many other

expressions, of which I have had practical experience in the trouble

requisite in instructing others what points to observe. If, then, great

ignorance of details does not prevent our recognizing with certainty

and promptitude various expressions, I do not see how this ignorance

can be advanced as an argument that our knowledge, though vague and

general, is not innate.

I have endeavoured to show in considerable detail that all the chief

expressions exhibited by man are the same throughout the world. This

fact is interesting, as it affords a new argument in favour of the

several races being descended from a single parent-stock, which must

have been almost completely human in structure, and to a large extent

in mind, before the period at which the races diverged from each other.

No doubt similar structures, adapted for the same purpose, have often

been independently acquired through variation and natural selection by

distinct species; but this view will not explain close similarity

between distinct species in a multitude of unimportant details. Now if

we bear in mind the numerous points of structure having no relation to

expression, in which all the races of man closely agree, and then add

to them the numerous points, some of the highest importance and many of

the most trifling value, on which the movements of expression directly

or indirectly depend, it seems to me improbable in the highest degree

that so much similarity, or rather identity of structure, could have

been acquired by independent means. Yet this must have been the case if

the races of man are descended from several aboriginally distinct

species. It is far more probable that the many points of close

similarity in the various races are due to inheritance from a single

parent-form, which had already assumed a human character.

It is a curious, though perhaps an idle speculation, how early in the

long line of our progenitors the various expressive movements, now

exhibited by man, were successively acquired. The following remarks

will at least serve to recall some of the chief points discussed in

this volume. We may confidently believe that laughter, as a sign of

pleasure or enjoyment, was practised by our progenitors long before

they deserved to be called human; for very many kinds of monkeys, when

pleased, utter a reiterated sound, clearly analogous to our laughter,

often accompanied by vibratory movements of their jaws or lips, with

the corners of the mouth drawn backwards and upwards, by the wrinkling

of the cheeks, and even by the brightening of the eyes.

We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from an extremely remote

period, in almost the same manner as it now is by man; namely, by

trembling, the erection of the hair, cold perspiration, pallor, widely

opened eyes, the relaxation of most of the muscles, and by the whole

body cowering downwards or held motionless.

Suffering, if great, will from the first have caused screams or groans

to be uttered, the body to be contorted, and the teeth to be ground

together. But our progenitors will not have exhibited those highly

expressive movements of the features which accompany screaming and

crying until their circulatory and respiratory organs, and the muscles

surrounding the eyes, had acquired their present structure. The

shedding of tears appears to have originated through reflex action from

the spasmodic contraction of the eyelids, together perhaps with the

eyeballs becoming gorged with blood during the act of screaming.

Therefore weeping probably came on rather late in the line of our

descent; and this conclusion agrees with the fact that our nearest

allies, the anthropomorphous apes, do not weep. But we must here

exercise some caution, for as certain monkeys, which are not closely

related to man, weep, this habit might have been developed long ago in

a sub-branch of the group from which man is derived. Our early

progenitors, when suffering from grief or anxiety, would not have made

their eyebrows oblique, or have drawn down the corners of their mouth,

until they had acquired the habit of endeavouring to restrain their

screams. The expression, therefore, of grief and anxiety is eminently

human.

Rage will have been expressed at a very early period by threatening or

frantic gestures, by the reddening of the skin, and by glaring eyes,

but not by frowning. For the habit of frowning seems to have been

acquired chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to

contract round the eyes, whenever during infancy pain, anger, or

distress is felt, and there consequently is a near approach to

screaming; and partly from a frown serving as a shade in difficult and

intent vision. It seems probable that this shading action would not

have become habitual until man had assumed a completely upright

position, for monkeys do not frown when exposed to a glaring light. Our

early progenitors, when enraged, would probably have exposed their

teeth more freely than does man, even when giving full vent to his

rage, as with the insane. We may, also, feel almost certain that they

would have protruded their lips, when sulky or disappointed, in a

greater degree than is the case with our own children, or even with the

children of existing savage races.

Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately angry, would not

have held their heads erect, opened their chests, squared their

shoulders, and clenched their fists, until they had acquired the

ordinary carriage and upright attitude of man, and had learnt to fight

with their fists or clubs. Until this period had arrived the

antithetical gesture of shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence

or of patience, would not have been developed. From the same reason

astonishment would not then have been expressed by raising the arms

with open hands and extended fingers. Nor, judging from the actions of

monkeys, would astonishment have been exhibited by a widely opened

mouth; but the eyes would have been opened and the eyebrows arched.

Disgust would have been shown at a very early period by movements round

the mouth, like those of vomiting,—that is, if the view which I have

suggested respecting the source of the expression is correct, namely,

that our progenitors had the power, and used it, of voluntarily and

quickly rejecting any food from their stomachs which they disliked. But

the more refined manner of showing contempt or disdain, by lowering the

eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face, as if the despised person

were not worth looking at, would not probably have been acquired until

a much later period.

Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most strictly human; yet

it is common to all or nearly all the races of man, whether or not any

change of colour is visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small

arteries of the surface, on which blushing depends, seems to have

primarily resulted from earnest attention directed to the appearance of

our own persons, especially of our faces, aided by habit, inheritance,

and the ready flow of nerve-force along accustomed channels; and

afterwards to have been extended by the power of association to

self-attention directed to moral conduct. It can hardly be doubted that

many animals are capable of appreciating beautiful colours and even

forms, as is shown by the pains which the individuals of one sex take

in displaying their beauty before those of the opposite sex. But it

does not seem possible that any animal, until its mental powers had

been developed to an equal or nearly equal degree with those of man,

would have closely considered and been sensitive about its own personal

appearance. Therefore we may conclude that blushing originated at a

very late period in the long line of our descent.

From the various facts just alluded to, and given in the course of this

volume, it follows that, if the structure of our organs of respiration

and circulation had differed in only a slight degree from the state in

which they now exist, most of our expressions would have been

wonderfully different. A very slight change in the course of the

arteries and veins which run to the head, would probably have prevented

the blood from accumulating in our eyeballs during violent expiration;

for this occurs in extremely few quadrupeds. In this case we should not

have displayed some of our most characteristic expressions. If man had

breathed water by the aid of external branchiae (though the idea is

hardly conceivable), instead of air through his mouth and nostrils, his

features would not have expressed his feelings much more efficiently

than now do his hands or limbs. Rage and disgust, however, would still

have been shown by movements about the lips and mouth, and the eyes

would have become brighter or duller according to the state of the

circulation. If our ears had remained movable, their movements would

have been highly expressive, as is the case with all the animals which

fight with their teeth; and we may infer that our early progenitors

thus fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth on one side when we

sneer at or defy any one, and we uncover all our teeth when furiously

enraged.

The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin

may have been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare.

They serve as the first means of communication between the mother and

her infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child on the

right path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceive sympathy in

others by their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our

pleasures increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The

movements of expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words.

They reveal the thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do

words, which may be falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called

science of physiognomy may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long

ago remarked,[1404] on different persons bringing into frequent use

different facial muscles, according to their dispositions; the

development of these muscles being perhaps thus increased, and the

lines or furrows on the face, due to their habitual contraction, being

thus rendered deeper and more conspicuous. The free expression by

outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the

repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens

our emotions.[1405] He who gives way to violent gestures will increase

his rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will experience

fear in a greater degree; and he who remains passive when overwhelmed

with grief loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of mind.

These results follow partly from the intimate relation which exists

between almost all the emotions and their outward manifestations; and

partly from the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and

consequently on the brain. Even the simulation of an emotion tends to

arouse it in our minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge

of the human mind ought to be an excellent judge, says:—

Is it not monstrous that this player here,

But in a fiction, in a dream of passion,

Could force his soul so to his own conceit,

That, from her working, all his visage wann’d;

Tears in his eyes, distraction in ’s aspect,

A broken voice, and his whole function suiting

With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!

_Hamlet_, act ii. sc. 2.

We have seen that the study of the theory of expression confirms to a

certain limited extent the conclusion that man is derived from some

lower animal form, and supports the belief of the specific or

sub-specific unity of the several races; but as far as my judgment

serves, such confirmation was hardly needed. We have also seen that

expression in itself, or the language of the emotions, as it has

sometimes been called, is certainly of importance for the welfare of

mankind. To understand, as far as possible, the source or origin of the

various expressions which may be hourly seen on the faces of the men

around us, not to mention our domesticated animals, ought to possess

much interest for us. From these several causes, we may conclude that

the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the attention which it

has already received from several excellent observers, and that it

deserves still further attention, especially from any able

physiologist.

FOOTNOTES:

1 (return) [ J. Parsons, in his paper in the Appendix to the

‘Philosophical Transactions’ for 1746, p. 41, gives a list of forty-one

old authors who have written on Expression.]

2 (return) [ Conférences sur l’expression des différents Caractères des

Passions.’ Paris, 4to, 1667. I always quote from the republication of

the ‘Conférences’ in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared

in 1820, as given in vol. ix. p. 257.]

3 (return) [ ‘Discours par Pierre Camper sur le moyen de représenter

les diverses passions,’ &c. 1792. 1844]

4 (return) [ I always quote from the third edition, 1844, which was

published after the death of Sir C. Bell, and contains his latest

corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much inferior in merit, and

does not include some of his more important views.]

5 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie et de la Parole,’ par Albert Lemoine,

1865, p. 101.]

6 (return) [ ‘L’Art de connaître les Hommes,’ &c., par G. Lavater. The

earliest edition of this work, referred to in the preface to the

edition of 1820 in ten volumes, as containing the observations of M.

Moreau, is said to have been published in 1807; and I have no doubt

that this is correct, because the ‘Notice sur Lavater’ at the

commencement of volume i. is dated April 13, 1806. In some

bibliographical works, however, the date of 1805—1809 is given, but it

seems impossible that 1805 can be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks

(‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’-8vo edit. 1862, p. 5, and

‘Archives Générales de Médecine,’ Jan. et Fév. 1862) that M. Moreau “_a

composé pour son ouvrage un article important_,” &c., in the year 1805;

and I find in volume i. of the edition of 1820 passages bearing the

dates of December 12, 1805, and another January 5, 1806, besides that

of April 13, 1806, above referred to. In consequence of some of these

passages having thus been _composed_ in 1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to

M. Moreau the priority over Sir C. Bell, whose work, as we have seen,

was published in 1806. This is a very unusual manner of determining the

priority of scientific works; but such questions are of extremely

little importance in comparison with their relative merits. The

passages above quoted from M. Moreau and from Le Brun are taken in this

and all other cases from the edition of 1820 of Lavater, tom. iv. p.

228, and tom. ix. p. 279.]

7 (return) [ ‘Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.’ Band

I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858.]

8 (return) [ ‘The Senses and the Intellect,’ 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and

288. The preface to the first edition of this work is dated June, 1855.

See also the 2nd edition of Mr. Bain’s work on the ‘Emotions and

Will.’]

9 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. p. 121.]

10 (return) [ ‘Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,’ Second

Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a discussion on Laughter in the First

Series of Essays, which discussion seems to me of very inferior value.]

11 (return) [ Since the publication of the essay just referred to, Mr.

Spencer has written another, on “Morals and Moral Sentiments,” in the

‘Fortnightly Review,’ April 1, 1871, p. 426. He has, also, now

published his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the second edit. of the

‘Principles of Psychology,’ 1872, p. 539. I may state, in order that I

may not be accused of trespassing on Mr. Spencer’s domain, that I

announced in my ‘Descent of Man,’ that I had then written a part of the

present volume: my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear

the date of the year 1838.]

12 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131.]

13 (return) [ Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830,

p. 28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies

all the more important muscles which are well known to serve with man

for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a description of several

of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in

‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 342.]

14 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ pp. 121, 138.]

15 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 12, 73.]

16 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ 8vo edit. p. 31.]

17 (return) [ ‘Elements of Physiology,’ English translation, vol. ii.

p. 934.]

18 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. p. 198.]

19 (return) [ See remarks to this effect in Lessing’s ‘Lacooon,’

translated by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19.]

20 (return) [ Mr. Partridge in Todd’s ‘Cyclopædia of Anatomy and

Physiology,’ vol. ii. p. 227.]

21 (return) [ ‘La Physionomie,’ par G. Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274.

On the number of the facial muscles, see vol. iv. pp. 209-211.]

22 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 91.]

101 (return) [ Mr. Herbert Spencer (‘Essays,’ Second Series, 1863, p.

138) has drawn a clear distinction between emotions and sensations, the

latter being “generated in our corporeal framework.” He classes as

Feelings both emotions and-sensations.]

102 (return) [ Müller, ‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol.

ii. p. 939. See also Mr. H. Spencer’s interesting speculations on the

same subject, and on the genesis of nerves, in his ‘Principles of

Biology,’ vol. ii. p. 346; and in his ‘Principles of Psychology,’ 2nd

edit. pp. 511-557.]

103 (return) [ A remark to much the same effect was made long ago by

Hippocrates and by the illustrious Harvey; for both assert that a young

animal forgets in the course of a few days the art of sucking, and

cannot without some difficulty again acquire it. I give these

assertions on the authority of Dr. Darwin, ‘Zoonomia,’ 1794, vol. i. p.

140.]

104 (return) [ See for my authorities, and for various analogous facts,

‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ 1868, vol.

ii. p. 304.]

105 (return) [ ‘The Senses and the Intellect,’ 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332.

Prof. Huxley remarks (‘Elementary Lessons in Physiology,’ 5th edit.

1872, p. 306), “It may be laid down as a rule, that, if any two mental

states be called up together, or in succession, with due frequency and

vividness, the subsequent production of the one of them will suffice to

call up the other, and that whether we desire it or not.”]

106 (return) [ Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ p. 324), in his

discussion on this subject, gives many analogous instances. See p. 42,

on the opening and shutting of the eyes. Engel is quoted (p. 323) on

the changed paces of a man, as his thoughts change.]

107 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ 1862, p. 17.]

108 (return) [ ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under

Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 6. The inheritance of habitual gestures is

so important for us, that I gladly avail myself of Mr. F. Galton’s

permission to give in his own words the following remarkable case:—“The

following account of a habit occurring in individuals of three

consecutive generations {footnote continues:} is of peculiar interest,

because it occurs only during sound sleep, and therefore cannot be due

to imitation, but must be altogether natural. The particulars are

perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired fully into them, and speak

from abundant and independent evidence. A gentleman of considerable

position was found by his wife to have the curious trick, when he lay

fast asleep on his back in bed, of raising his right arm slowly in

front of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with a

jerk, so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The

trick did not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent

of any ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an

hour or more. The gentleman’s nose was prominent, and its bridge often

became sore from the blows which it received. At one time an awkward

sore was produced, that was long in healing, on account of the

recurrence, night after night, of the blows which first caused it. His

wife had to remove the button from the wrist of his night-gown as it

made severe scratches, and some means were attempted of tying his arm.

“Many years after his death, his son married a lady who had never heard

of the family incident. She, however, observed precisely the same

peculiarity in her husband; but his nose, from not being particularly

prominent, has never as yet suffered from the blows. The trick does not

occur when he is half-asleep, as, for example, when dozing in his

arm-chair, but the moment he is fast asleep it is apt to begin. It is,

as with his father, intermittent; sometimes ceasing for many nights,

and sometimes almost incessant during a part of every night. It is

performed, as it was by his father, with his right hand.

“One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She

performs it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly modified

form; for, after raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist to drop

upon the bridge of the nose, but the palm of the half-closed hand falls

over and down the nose, striking it rather rapidly. It is also very

intermittent with this child, not occurring for periods of some months,

but sometimes occurring almost incessantly.”]

109 (return) [ Prof. Huxley remarks (‘Elementary Physiology,’ 5th edit.

p. 305) that reflex actions proper to the spinal cord are _natural_;

but, by the help of the brain, that is through habit, an infinity of

_artificial_ reflex actions may be acquired. Virchow admits (‘Sammlung

wissenschaft. Vorträge,’ &c., “Ueber das Rückenmark,” 1871, ss. 24, 31)

that some reflex actions can hardly be distinguished from instincts;

and, of the latter, it may be added, some cannot be distinguished from

inherited habits.]

110 (return) [ Dr. Maudsley, ‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, p. 8.]

111 (return) [ See the very interesting discussion on the whole subject

by Claude Bernard, ‘Tissus Vivants,’ 1866, p. 353-356.]

112 (return) [ ‘Chapters on Mental Physiology,’ 1858, p. 85.]

113 (return) [ Müller remarks (‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. tr. vol.

ii. p. 1311) on starting being always accompanied by the closure of the

eyelids.]

114 (return) [ Dr. Maudsley remarks (‘Body and Mind,’ p. 10) that

“reflex movements which commonly effect a useful end may, under the

changed circumstances of disease, do great mischief, becoming even the

occasion of violent suffering and of a most painful death.”]

115 (return) [ See Mr. F. H. Salvin’s account of a tame jackal in ‘Land

and Water,’ October, 1869.]

116 (return) [ “Dr. Darwin, ‘Zoonomia,’ 1794, vol. i. p. 160. I find

that the fact of cats protruding their feet when pleased is also

noticed (p. 151) in this work.]

117 (return) [ Carpenter, ‘Principles of Comparative Physiology,’ 1854,

p. 690, and Müller’s ‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii.

p. 936.]

118 (return) [ Mowbray on ‘Poultry,’ 6th edit. 1830, p. 54.]

119 (return) [ See the account given by this excellent observer in

‘Wild Sports of the Highlands,’ 1846, p. 142.]

120 (return) [ ‘Philosophical Translations,’ 1823, p. 182.]

201 (return) [ ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s.

55.]

202 (return) [ Mr. Tylor gives an account of the Cistercian

gesture-language in his ‘Early History of Mankind’ (2nd edit. 1870, p.

40), and makes some remarks on the principle of opposition in

gestures.]

203 (return) [ See on this subject Dr. W. R. Scott’s interesting work,

‘The Deaf and Dumb,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 12. He says, “This contracting

of natural gestures into much shorter gestures than the natural

expression requires, is very common amongst the deaf and dumb. This

contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as nearly to lose all

semblance of the natural one, but to the deaf and dumb who use it, it

still has the force of the original expression.”]

301 (return) [ See the interesting cases collected by M. G. Pouchet in

the ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ January 1, 1872, p. 79. An instance was

also brought some years ago before the British Association at Belfast.]

302 (return) [ Müller remarks (‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat.

vol. ii. p. 934) that when the feelings are very intense, “all the

spinal nerves become affected to the extent of imperfect paralysis, or

the excitement of trembling of the whole body.”]

303 (return) [ ‘Leçons sur les Prop. des Tissus Vivants,’ 1866, pp.

457-466.]

304 (return) [ Mr. Bartlett, “Notes on the Birth of a Hippopotamus,”

Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1871, p. 255.]

305 (return) [ See, on this subject, Claude Bernard, ‘Tissus Vivants,’

1866, pp. 316, 337, 358. Virchow expresses himself to almost exactly

the same effect in his essay “Ueber das Rückenmark” (Sammlung

wissenschaft. Vorträge, 1871, s. 28).]

306 (return) [ Müller (‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol.

ii. p. 932) in speaking of the nerves, says, “any sudden change of

condition of whatever kind sets the nervous principle into action.” See

Virchow and Bernard on the same subject in passages in the two works

referred to in my last foot-note.]

307 (return) [ H. Spencer, ‘Essays, Scientific, Political,’ &c., Second

Series, 1863, pp. 109, 111.]

308 (return) [ Sir H. Holland, in speaking (‘Medical Notes and

Reflexions,’ 1839, p. 328) of that curious state of body called the

_fidgets_, remarks that it seems due to “an accumulation of some cause

of irritation which requires muscular action for its relief.”]

309 (return) [ I am much indebted to Mr. A. H. Garrod for having

informed me of M. Lorain’s work on the pulse, in which a sphygmogram of

a woman in a rage is given; and this shows much difference in the rate

and other characters from that of the same woman in her ordinary

state.]

310 (return) [ How powerfully intense joy excites the brain, and how

the brain reacts on the body, is well shown in the rare cases of

Psychical Intoxication. Dr. J. Crichton Browne (‘Medical Mirror,’ 1865)

records the case of a young man of strongly nervous temperament, who,

on hearing by a telegram that a fortune had been bequeathed him, first

became pale, then exhilarated, and soon in the highest spirits, but

flushed and very restless. He then took a walk with a friend for the

sake of tranquillising himself, but returned staggering in his gait,

uproariously laughing, yet irritable in temper, incessantly talking,

and singing loudly in the public streets. It was positively ascertained

that he had not touched any spirituous liquor, though every one thought

that he was intoxicated. Vomiting after a time came on, and the

half-digested contents of his stomach were examined, but no odour of

alcohol could be detected. He then slept heavily, and on awaking was

well, except that he suffered from headache, nausea, and prostration of

strength.]

311 (return) [ Dr. Darwin, ‘Zoonomia,’ 1794, vol. i. p. 148.]

312 (return) [ Mrs. Oliphant, in her novel of ‘Miss Majoribanks,’ p.

362. All this reacts on the brain, and prostration soon follows with

collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As associated habit no longer

prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by his friends to voluntary

exertion, and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion

stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind

to bear its heavy load.]

401 (return) [ See the evidence on this head in my ‘Variation of

Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 27. On the cooing

of pigeons, vol. i. pp. 154, 155.]

402 (return) [ ‘Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,’ 1858.

‘The Origin and Function of Music,’ p. 359.]

403 (return) [ ‘The Descent of Man,’ 1870, vol. ii. p. 332. The words

quoted are from Professor Owen. It has lately been shown that some

quadrupeds much lower in the scale than monkeys, namely Rodents, are

able to produce correct musical tones: see the account of a singing

Hesperomys, by the Rev. S. Lockwood, in the ‘American Naturalist,’ vol.

v. December, 1871, p. 761.]

404 (return) [ Mr. Tylor (‘Primitive Culture,’ 1871, vol. i. p. 166),

in his discussion on this subject, alludes to the whining of the dog.]

405 (return) [ ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s.

46.]

406 (return) [ Quoted by Gratiolet, ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 115.]

407 (return) [ ‘Théorie Physiologique de la Musique,’ Paris, 1868, P.

146. Helmholtz has also fully discussed in this profound work the

relation of the form of the cavity of the mouth to the production of

vowel-sounds.]

408 (return) [ I have given some details on this subject in my ‘Descent

of Man,’ vol. i. pp. 352, 384.]

409 (return) [ As quoted in Huxley’s ‘Evidence as to Man’s Place in

Nature,’ 1863, p. 52.]

410 (return) [ Illust. Thierleben, 1864, B. i. s. 130.]

411 (return) [ The Hon. J. Caton, Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences, May,

1868, pp. 36, 40. For the _Capra, Ægagrus_, ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p.

37.]

412 (return) [ ‘Land and Water,’ July 20, 1867, p. 659.]

413 (return) [ _Phaeton rubricauda_: ‘Ibis,’ vol. iii. 1861, p. 180.]

414 (return) [ On the _Strix flammea_, Audubon, ‘Ornithological

Biography,’ 1864, vol. ii. p. 407. I have observed other cases in the

Zoological Gardens.]

415 (return) [ _Melopsittacus undulatus_. See an account of its habits

by Gould, ‘Handbook of Birds of Australia,’ 1865, vol. ii. p. 82.]

416 (return) [ See, for instance, the account which I have given

(‘Descent of Man,’ vol. ii. p. 32) of an Anolis and Draco.]

417 (return) [ These muscles are described in his well-known works. I

am greatly indebted to this distinguished observer for having given me

in a letter information on this same subject.]

418 (return) [ ‘Lehrbuch der Histologie des Menschen,’ 1857, s. 82. I

owe to Prof. W. Turner’s kindness an extract from this work.]

419 (return) [ ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ 1853, vol.

i. p. 262.]

420 (return) [ ‘Lehrbuch der Histologie,’ 1857, s. 82.]

421 (return) [ ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ p. 403.]

422 (return) [ See the account of the habits of this animal by Dr.

Cooper, as quoted in ‘Nature,’ April 27, 1871, p. 512.]

423 (return) [ Dr. Günther, ‘Reptiles of British India,’ p. 262.]

424 (return) [ Mr. J. Mansel Weale, ‘Nature,’ April 27, 1871, p. 508.]

425 (return) [ ‘Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the

“Beagle,”’ 1845, p. 96. I have compared the rattling thus produced with

that of the Rattle-snake.]

426 (return) [ See the account by Dr. Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871,

p. 196.]

427 (return) [ The ‘American Naturalist,’ Jan. 1872, p. 32. I regret

that I cannot follow Prof. Shaler in believing that the rattle has been

developed, by the aid of natural selection, for the sake of producing

sounds which deceive and attract birds, so that they may serve as prey

to the snake. I do not, however, wish to doubt that the sounds may

occasionally subserve this end. But the conclusion at which I have

arrived, viz. that the rattling serves as a warning to would-be

devourers, appears to me much more probable, as it connects together

various classes of facts. If this snake had acquired its rattle and the

habit of rattling, for the sake of attracting prey, it does not seem

probable that it would have invariably used its instrument when angered

or disturbed. Prof. Shaler takes nearly the same view as I do of the

manner of development of the rattle; and I have always held this

opinion since observing the Trigonocephalus in South America.]

428 (return) [ From the accounts lately collected, and given in the

‘Journal of the Linnean Society,’ by Airs. Barber, on the habits of the

snakes of South Africa; and from the accounts published by several

writers, for instance by Lawson, of the rattle-snake in North

America,—it does not seem improbable that the terrific appearance of

snakes and the sounds produced by them, may likewise serve in procuring

prey, by paralysing, or as it is sometimes called fascinating, the

smaller animals.]

429 (return) [ See the account by Dr. R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc.

1871, p. 39. He says that as soon as a pig sees a snake it rushes upon

it; and a snake makes off immediately on the appearance of a pig.]

430 (return) [ Dr. Günther remarks (‘Reptiles of British India,’ p.

340) on the destruction of cobras by the ichneumon or herpestes, and

whilst the cobras are young by the jungle-fowl. It is well known that

the peacock also eagerly kills snakes.]

431 (return) [ Prof. Cope enumerates a number of kinds in his ‘Method

of Creation of Organic Types,’ read before the American Phil. Soc.,

December 15th, 1871, p. 20. Prof. Cope takes the same view as I do of

the use of the gestures and sounds made by snakes. I briefly alluded to

this subject in the last edition of my ‘Origin of Species.’ Since the

passages in the text above have been printed, I have been pleased to

find that Mr. Henderson (‘The American Naturalist,’ May, 1872, p. 260)

also takes a similar view of the use of the rattle, namely “in

preventing an attack from being made.”]

432 (return) [ Mr. des Vœux, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 3.]

433 (return) [ ‘The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,’ 1866, p. 53.

p. 53.{sic}]

434 (return) [ ‘The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,’ 1867, p. 443.]

501 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 1844, p. 190.]

502 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, pp. 187, 218.]

503 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 1844, p. 140.]

504 (return) [ Many particulars are given by Gueldenstädt in his

account of the jackal in Nov. Comm. Acad. Sc. Imp. Petrop. 1775, tom.

xx. p. 449. See also another excellent account of the manners of this

animal and of its play, in ‘Land and Water,’ October, 1869. Lieut.

Annesley, R. A., has also communicated to me some particulars with

respect to the jackal. I have made many inquiries about wolves and

jackals in the Zoological Gardens, and have observed them for myself.]

505 (return) [ ‘Land and Water,’ November 6, 1869.]

506 (return) [ Azara, ‘Quadrupèdes du Paraquay,’ 1801, tom. 1. p. 136.]

507 (return) [ ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 657. See also Azara on the

Puma, in the work above quoted.]

508 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. p. 123.

See also p. 126, on horses not breathing through their mouths, with

reference to their distended nostrils.]

509 (return) [ ‘Land and Water,’ 1869, p. 152.]

510 (return) [ ‘Natural History of Mammalia,’ 1841, vol. 1. pp. 383,

410.]

511 (return) [ Rengger (‘Sagetheire von Paraquay’, 1830, s. 46) kept

these monkeys in confinement for seven years in their native country of

Paraguay.]

512 (return) [ Rengger, ibid. s. 46. Humboldt, ‘Personal Narrative,

Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 527.]

513 (return) [ Nat. Hist. of Mammalia, 1841, p. 351.]

514 (return) [ Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 84. On baboons striking

the ground, s. 61.]

515 (return) [ Brehm remarks (‘Thierleben,’ s. 68) that the eyebrows of

the _Inuus ecaudatus_ are frequently moved up and down when the animal

is angered.]

516 (return) [ G. Bennett, ‘Wanderings in New South Wales,’ &c. vol.

ii. 1834, p. 153. FIG. 18.-Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky. Drawn

from life by Mr. Wood.]

517 (return) [ W. L. Martin, Nat. Hist. of Mamm. Animals, 1841, p.

405.]

518 (return) [ Prof. Owen on the Orang, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1830, p. 28.

On the Chimpanzee, see Prof. Macalister, in Annals and Mag. of Nat.

Hist. vol. vii. 1871, p. 342, who states that the _corrugator

supercilii_ is inseparable from the _orbicularis palpebrarum_.]

519 (return) [ Boston Journal of Nat. Hist. 1845—-47, vol. v. p. 423.

On the Chimpanzee, ibid. 1843-44, vol. iv. p. 365.]

520 (return) [ See on this subject, ‘Descent of Man,’ vol. i. p. 20.]

521 (return) [ ‘Descent of Man,’ vol, i. p, 43.]

522 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. 1844, pp. 138, 121.]

601 (return) [ The best photographs in my collection are by Mr.

Rejlander, of Victoria Street, London, and by Herr Kindermann, of

Hamburg. Figs. 1, 3, 4, and 6 are by the former; and figs. 2 and 5, by

the latter gentleman. Fig. 6 is given to show moderate crying in an

older child.]

602 (return) [ Henle (‘Handbuch d. Syst. Anat. 1858, B. i. s. 139)

agrees with Duchenne that this is the effect of the contraction of the

_pyramidalis nasi_.]

603 (return) [ These consist of the _levator labii superioris alaeque

nasi_, the _levator labii proprius_, the _malaris_, and the

_zygomaticus minor_, or little zygomatic. This latter muscle runs

parallel to and above the great zygomatic, and is attached to the outer

part of the upper lip. It is represented in fig. 2 (I. p. 24), but not

in figs. 1 and 3. Dr. Duchenne first showed (‘Mécanisme de la

Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, 1862, p. 39) the importance of the

contraction of this muscle in the shape assumed by the features in

crying. Henle considers the above-named muscles (excepting the

_malaris_) as subdivisions of the _quadratus labii superioris_.]

604 (return) [ Although Dr. Duchenne has so carefully studied the

contraction of the different muscles during the act of crying, and the

furrows on the face thus produced, there seems to be something

incomplete in his account; but what this is I cannot say. He has given

a figure (Album, fig. 48) in which one half of the face is made, by

galvanizing the proper muscles, to smile; whilst the other half is

similarly made to begin crying. Almost all those (viz. nineteen out of

twenty-one persons) to whom I showed the smiling half of the face

instantly recognized the expression; but, with respect to the other

half, only six persons out of twenty-one recognized it,—that is, if we

accept such terms as “grief,” “misery,” “annoyance,” as

correct;—whereas, fifteen persons were ludicrously mistaken; some of

them saying the face expressed “fun,” “satisfaction,” “cunning,”

“disgust,” &c. We may infer from this that there is something wrong in

the expression. Some of the fifteen persons may, however, have been

partly misled by not expecting to see an old man crying, and by tears

not being secreted. With respect to another figure by Dr. Duchenne

(fig. 49), in which the muscles of half the face are galvanized in

order to represent a man beginning to cry, with the eyebrow on the same

side rendered oblique, which is characteristic of misery, the

expression was recognized by a greater proportional number of persons.

Out of twenty-three persons, fourteen answered correctly, “sorrow,”

“distress,” “grief,” “just going to cry,” “endurance of pain,” &c. On

the other hand, nine persons either could form no opinion or were

entirely wrong, answering, “cunning leer,” “jocund,” “looking at an

intense light,” “looking at a distant object,” &c.]

605 (return) [ Mrs. Gaskell, ‘Mary Barton,’ new edit. p. 84.]

606 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 102. Duchenne,

Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 34.]

607 (return) [ Dr. Duchenne makes this remark, ibid. p. 39.]

608 (return) [ ‘The Origin of Civilization,’ 1870, p. 355.]

609 (return) [ See, for instance, Mr. Marshall’s account of an idiot in

Philosoph. Transact. 1864, p. 526. With respect to cretins, see Dr.

Piderit, ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 61.]

610 (return) [ ‘New Zealand and its Inhabitants,’ 1855, p. 175.]

611 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 126.]

612 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 1844, p. 106. See also his

paper in the ‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1822, p. 284, ibid. 1823,

pp. 166 and 289. Also ‘The Nervous System of the Human Body,’ 3rd edit.

1836, p. 175.]

613 (return) [ See Dr. Brinton’s account of the act of vomiting, in

Todd’s Cyclop. of Anatomy and Physiology, 1859, vol. v. Supplement, p.

318.]

614 (return) [ I am greatly indebted to Mr. Bowman for having

introduced me to Prof. Donders, and for his aid in persuading this

great physiologist to undertake the investigation of the present

subject. I am likewise much indebted to Mr. Bowman for having given me,

with the utmost kindness, information on many points.]

615 (return) [ This memoir first appeared in the ‘Nederlandsch Archief

voor Genees en Natuurkunde,’ Deel 5, 1870. It has been translated by

Dr. W. D. Moore, under the title of “On the Action of the Eyelids in

determination of Blood from expiratory effort,” in ‘Archives of

Medicine,’ edited by Dr. L. S. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 20.]

616 (return) [ Prof. Donders remarks (ibid. p. 28), that, “After injury

to the eye, after operations, and in some forms of internal

inflammation, we attach great value to the uniform support of the

closed eyelids, and we increase this in many instances by the

application of a bandage. In both cases we carefully endeavour to avoid

great expiratory pressure, the disadvantage of which is well known.”

Mr. Bowman informs me that in the excessive photophobia, accompanying

what is called scrofulous ophthalmia in children, when the light is so

very painful that during weeks or months it is constantly excluded by

the most forcible closure of the lids, he has often been struck on

opening the lids by the paleness of the eye,—not an unnatural paleness,

but an absence of the redness that might have been expected when the

surface is somewhat inflamed, as is then usually the case; and this

paleness he is inclined to attribute to the forcible closure of the

eyelids.]

617 (return) [ Donders, ibid. p. 36.]

618 (return) [ Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood (Dict. of English Etymology,

1859, vol. i. p. 410) says, “the verb to weep comes from Anglo-Saxon

_wop_, the primary meaning of which is simply outcry.”]

619 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 217.]

620 (return) [ ‘Ceylon,’ 3rd edit. 1859, vol. ii. pp. 364, 376. I

applied to Mr. Thwaites, in Ceylon, for further information with

respect to the weeping of the elephant; and in consequence received a

letter from the Rev. Mr Glenie, who, with others, kindly observed for

me a herd of recently captured elephants. These, when irritated,

screamed violently; but it is remarkable that they never when thus

screaming contracted the muscles round the eyes. Nor did they shed

tears; and the native hunters asserted that they had never observed

elephants weeping. Nevertheless, it appears to me impossible to doubt

Sir E. Tennent’s distinct details about their weeping, supported as

they are by the positive assertion of the keeper in the Zoological

Gardens. It is certain that the two elephants in the Gardens, when they

began to trumpet loudly, invariably contracted their orbicular muscles.

I can reconcile these conflicting statements only by supposing that the

recently captured elephants in Ceylon, from being enraged or

frightened, desired to observe their persecutors, and consequently did

not contract their orbicular muscles, so that their vision might not be

impeded. Those seen weeping by Sir E. Tennent were prostrate, and had

given up the contest in despair. The elephants which trumpeted in the

Zoological Gardens at the word of command, were, of course, neither

alarmed nor enraged.]

621 (return) [ Bergeon, as quoted in the ‘Journal of Anatomy and

Physiology,’ Nov. 1871, p. 235.]

622 (return) [ See, for instance, a case given by Sir Charles Bell,

‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1823, p. 177.]

623 (return) [ See, on these several points, Prof. Donders ‘On the

Anomalies of Accommodation and Refraction of the Eye,’ 1864, p. 573.]

624 (return) [ Quoted by Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 1865, p.

458.]

701 (return) [ The above descriptive remarks are taken in part from my

own observations, but chiefly from Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ pp.

53, 337; on Sighing, 232), who has well treated this whole subject.

See, also, Huschke, ‘Mimices et Physiognomices, Fragmentum

Physiologi-cum,’ 1821, p. 21. On the dulness of the eyes, Dr. Piderit,

‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 65.]

702 (return) [ On the action of grief on the organs of respiration, see

more especially Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. 1844,

p. 151.]

703 (return) [ In the foregoing remarks on the manner in which the

eyebrows are made oblique, I have followed what seems to be the

universal opinion of all the anatomists, whose works I have consulted

on the action of the above-named muscles, or with whom I have

conversed. Hence throughout this work I shall take a similar view of

the action of the corrugator supercilii, orbicularis, pyramidalis nasi,

and frontalis muscles. Dr. Duchenne, however, believes, and every

conclusion at which he arrives deserves serious consideration, that it

is the corrugator, called by him the sourcilier, which raises the inner

corner of the eyebrows and is antagonistic to the upper and inner part

of the orbicular muscle, as well as to the pyramidalis nasi (see

Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, 1862, folio, art. v., text and figures

19 to 29: octavo edit. 1862, p. 43 text). He admits, however, that the

corrugator draws together the eyebrows, causing vertical furrows above

the base of the nose, or a frown. He further believes that towards the

outer two-thirds of the eyebrow the corrugator acts in conjunction with

the upper orbicular muscle; both here standing in antagonism to the

frontal muscle. I am unable to understand, judging from Henle’s

drawings (woodcut, fig. 3), how the corrugator can act in the manner

described by Duchenne. See, also, on this subject, Prof. Donders’

remarks in the ‘Archives of Medicine,’ 1870, vol. v. p. 34. Mr. J.

Wood, who is so well known for his careful study of the muscles of the

human frame, informs me that he believes the account which I have given

of the action of the corrugator to be correct. But this is not a point

of any importance with respect to the expression which is caused by the

obliquity of the eyebrows, nor of much importance to the theory of its

origin.]

704 (return) [ I am greatly indebted to Dr. Duchenne for permission to

have these two photographs (figs. 1 and 2) reproduced by the heliotype

process from his work in folio. Many of the foregoing remarks on the

furrowing of the skin, when the eyebrows are rendered oblique, are

taken from his excellent discussion on this subject.]

705 (return) [ Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 15.]

706 (return) [ Henle, Handbuch der Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s.

148, figs. 68 and 69.]

707 (return) [ See the account of the action of this muscle by Dr.

Duchenne, ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine, Album (1862), viii. p.

34.]

801 (return) [ Herbert Spencer, ‘Essays Scientific,’ &c., 1858, p.

360.]

802 (return) [ F. Lieber on the vocal sounds of L. Bridgman,

‘Smithsonian Contributions,’ 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]

803 (return) [ See, also, Mr. Marshall, in Phil. Transact. 1864, p.

526.]

804 (return) [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 247) has

a long and interesting discussion on the Ludicrous. The quotation above

given about the laughter of the gods is taken from this work. See,

also, Mandeville, ‘The Fable of the Bees,’ vol. ii. p. 168.]

805 (return) [ ‘The Physiology of Laughter,’ Essays, Second Series,

1863, p. 114.]

806 (return) [ J. Lister in ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical

Science,’ 1853, vol. 1. p. 266.]

807 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ p. 186.]

808 (return) [ Sir C. Bell (Anat. of Expression, p. 147) makes some

remarks on the movement of the diaphragm during laughter.]

809 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende

vi.]

810 (return) [ Handbuch der System. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s.

144. See my woodcut (H. fig. 2).]

811 (return) [ See, also, remarks to the same effect by Dr. J. Crichton

Browne in ‘Journal of Mental Science,’ April, 1871, p. 149.]

812 (return) [ C. Vogt, ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 21.]

813 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 133.]

814 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 63-67.]

815 (return) [ Sir T. Reynolds remarks (‘Discourses,’ xii. p. 100), “it

is curious to observe, and it is certainly true, that the extremes of

contrary passions are, with very little variation, expressed by the

same action.” He gives as an instance the frantic joy of a Bacchante

and the grief of a Mary Magdalen.]

816 (return) [ Dr. Piderit has come to the same conclusion, ibid. s.

99.]

817 (return) [ ‘La Physionomie,’ par G. Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol.

iv. p. 224. See, also, Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 172,

for the quotation given below.]

818 (return) [ A ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ 2nd edit. 1872,

Introduction, p. xliv.]

819 (return) [ Crantz, quoted by Tylor, ‘Primitive Culture,’ 1871, Vol.

i. P. 169.]

820 (return) [ F. Lieber, ‘Smithsonian Contributions,’ 1851, vol. ii.

p. 7.]

821 (return) [ Mr. Bain remarks (‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868, p.

239), “Tenderness is a pleasurable emotion, variously stimulated, whose

effort is to draw human beings into mutual embrace.”]

822 (return) [ Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. 1869, p.

552, gives full authorities for these statements. The quotation from

Steele is taken from this work.]

823 (return) [ See a full acount,{sic} with references, by E. B. Tylor,

‘Researches into the Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 51.]

824 (return) [ ‘The Descent of Man,’ vol. ii. p. 336.]

825 (return) [ Dr. Mandsley has a discussion to this effect in his

‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, p. 85.]

826 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 103, and ‘Philosophical

Transactions,’ 1823, p. 182.]

827 (return) [ ‘The Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 146. Mr. Tylor

(‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 48) gives a more

complex origin to the position of the hands during prayer.]

901 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ pp. 137, 139. It is not

surprising that the corrugators should have become much more developed

in man than in the anthropoid apes; for they are brought into incessant

action by him under various circumstances, and will have been

strengthened and modified by the inherited effects of use. We have seen

how important a part they play, together with the orbiculares, in

protecting the eyes from being too much gorged with blood during

violent expiratory movements. When the eyes are closed as quickly and

as forcibly as possible, to save them from being injured by a blow, the

corrugators contract. With savages or other men whose heads are

uncovered, the eyebrows are continually lowered and contracted to serve

as a shade against a too strong light; and this is effected partly by

the corrugators. This movement would have been more especially

serviceable to man, as soon as his early progenitors held their heads

erect. Lastly, Prof. Donders believes (‘Archives of Medicine,’ ed. by

L. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 34), that the corrugators are brought into

action in causing the eyeball to advance in accommodation for proximity

in vision.]

902 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende

iii.]

903 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ s. 46.]

904 (return) [ ‘History of the Abipones,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii. p.

59, as quoted by Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 355.]

905 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 15, 144, 146. Mr. Herbert

Spencer accounts for frowning exclusively by the habit of contracting

the brows as a shade to the eyes in a bright light: see ‘Principles of

Physiology,’ 2nd edit. 1872, p. 546.]

906 (return) [ Gratiolet remarks (De la Phys. p. 35), “Quand

l’attention est fixee sur quelque image interieure, l’oeil regarde dons

le vide et s’associe automatiquement a la contemplation de l’esprit.”

But this view hardly deserves to be called an explanation.]

907 (return) [ ‘Miles Gloriosus,’ act ii. sc. 2.]

908 (return) [ The original photograph by Herr Kindermann is much more

expressive than this copy, as it shows the frown on the brow more

plainly.]

909 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende

iv. figs. 16-18.]

910 (return) [ Hensleigh Wedgwood on ‘The Origin of Language,’ 1866, p.

78.]

911 (return) [ Müller, as quoted by Huxley, ‘Man’s Place in Nature,’

1863, p. 38.]

912 (return) [ I have given several instances in my ‘Descent of Man,’

vol. i. chap. iv.]

913 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression.’ p. 190.]

914 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 118-121.]

915 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ s. 79.]

1001 (return) [ See some remarks to this effect by Mr. Bain, ‘The

Emotions and the Will,’ 2nd edit. 1865, p. 127.]

1002 (return) [ Rengger, Naturgesch. der Säugethiere von Paraguay,

1830, s. 3.]

1003 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 96. On the

other hand, Dr. Burgess (‘Physiology of Blushing,’ 1839, p. 31) speaks

of the reddening of a cicatrix in a negress as of the nature of a

blush.]

1004 (return) [ Moreau and Gratiolet have discussed the colour of the

face under the influence of intense passion: see the edit. of 1820 of

Lavater, vol. iv. pp. 282 and 300; and Gratiolet, ‘De la Physionomie,’

p. 345.]

1005 (return) [ Sir C. Bell ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ pp. 91, 107, has

fully discussed this subject. Moreau remarks (in the edit. of 1820 of

‘La Physionomie, par G. Lavater,’ vol. iv. p. 237), and quotes Portal

in confirmation, that asthmatic patients acquire permanently expanded

nostrils, owing to the habitual contraction of the elevatory muscles of

the wings of the nose. The explanation by Dr. Piderit (‘Mimik und

Physiognomik,’ s. 82) of the distension of the nostrils, namely, to

allow free breathing whilst the mouth is closed and the teeth clenched,

does not appear to be nearly so correct as that by Sir C. Bell, who

attributes it to the sympathy (_i. e_. habitual co-action) of all the

respiratory muscles. The nostrils of an angry man may be seen to become

dilated, although his mouth is open.]

1006 (return) [ Mr. Wedgwood, ‘On the Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 76.

He also observes that the sound of hard breathing “is represented by

the syllables _puff, huff, whiff_, whence a _huff_ is a fit of

ill-temper.”]

1007 (return) [ Sir C. Bell ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 95) has some

excellent remarks on the expression of rage.]

1008 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 346.]

1009 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 177. Gratiolet

(De la Phys. p. 369) says, ‘les dents se découvrent, et imitent

symboliquement l’action de déchirer et de mordre.’I If, instead of

using the vague term _symboliquement_, Gratiolet had said that the

action was a remnant of a habit acquired during primeval times when our

semi-human progenitors fought together with their teeth, like gorillas

and orangs at the present day, he would have been more intelligible.

Dr. Piderit (‘Mimik,’ &c., s. 82) also speaks of the retraction of the

upper lip during rage. In an engraving of one of Hogarth’s wonderful

pictures, passion is represented in the plainest manner by the open

glaring eyes, frowning forehead, and exposed grinning teeth.]

1010 (return) [ ‘Oliver Twist,’ vol. iii. p. 245.]

1011 (return) [ ‘The Spectator,’ July 11, 1868, p. 810.]

1012 (return) [ ‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, pp. 51-53.]

1013 (return) [ Le Brun, in his well-known ‘Conference sur

l’Expression’ (‘La Physionomie, par Lavater,’ edit. of 1820, vol. lx.

p. 268), remarks that anger is expressed by the clenching of the fists.

See, to the same effect, Huschke, ‘Mimices et Physiognomices,

Fragmentum Physiologicum,’ 1824, p. 20. Also Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of

Expression,’ p. 219.]

1014 (return) [ Transact. Philosoph. Soc., Appendix, 1746, p. 65.]

1015 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 136. Sir C. Bell calls (p.

131) the muscles which uncover the canines the snarling muscles.]

1016 (return) [ Hensleigh Wedgwood, ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’

1865, vol. iii. pp. 240, 243.]

1017 (return) [ ‘The Descent of Man,’ 1871, vol. L p. 126.]

1101 (return) [ ‘De In Physionomie et la Parole,’ 1865, p. 89.]

1102 (return) [ ‘Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende viii. p. 35.

Gratiolet also speaks (De la Phys. 1865, p. 52) of the turning away of

the eyes and body.]

1103 (return) [ Dr. W. Ogle, in an interesting paper on the Sense of

Smell (‘Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,’ vol. liii. p. 268), shows

that when we wish to smell carefully, instead of taking one deep nasal

inspiration, we draw in the air by a succession of rapid short sniffs.

If “the nostrils be watched during this process, it will be seen that,

so far from dilating, they actually contract at each sniff. The

contraction does not include the whole anterior opening, but only the

posterior portion.” He then explains the cause of this movement. When,

on the other hand, we wish to exclude any odour, the contraction, I

presume, affects only the anterior part of the nostrils.]

1104 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ ss. 84, 93. Gratiolet (ibid.

p. 155) takes nearly the same view with Dr. Piderit respecting the

expression of contempt and disgust.]

1105 (return) [ Scorn implies a strong form of contempt; and one of the

roots of the word ‘scorn’ means, according to Mr. Wedgwood (Dict. of

English Etymology, vol. iii. p. 125), ordure or dirt. A person who is

scorned is treated like dirt.]

1106 (return) [ ‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 45.]

1107 (return) [ See, to this effect, Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood’s

Introduction to the ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ 2nd edit. 1872,

p. xxxvii.]

1108 (return) [ Duchenne believes that in the eversion of the lower

lip, the corners are drawn downwards by the _depressores anguli oris_.

Henle (Handbuch d. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 151) concludes

that this is effected by the _musculus quadratus menti_.]

1109 (return) [ As quoted by Tylor, ‘Primitive Culture,’ 1871, vol. i.

p. 169.]

1110 (return) [ Both these quotations are given by Mr. H. Wedgwood, ‘On

the Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 75.]

1111 (return) [ This is stated to be the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist.

of Mankind, 2nd edit. 1870, p. 52); and he adds, “it is not clear why

this should be so.”]

1112 (return) [ ‘Principles of Psychology,’ 2nd edit. 1872, p. 552.]

1113 (return) [ Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 351) makes this remark, and

has some good observations on the expression of pride. See Sir C. Bell

(‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 111) on the action of the _musculus

superbus_.]

1114 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 166.]

1115 (return) [ ‘Journey through Texas,’ p. 352.]

1116 (return) [ Mrs. Oliphant, ‘The Brownlows,’ vol. ii. p. 206.]

1117 (return) [ ‘Essai sur le Langage,’ 2nd edit. 1846. I am much

indebted to Miss Wedgwood for having given me this information, with an

extract from the work.]

1118 (return) [ ‘On the Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 91.]

1119 (return) [ ‘On the Vocal Sounds of L. Bridgman;’ Smithsonian

Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 11.]

1120 (return) [ ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 27.]

1121 (return) [ Quoted by Tylor, ‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit.

1870, p. 38.]

1122 (return) [ Mr. J. B. Jukes, ‘Letters and Extracts,’ &c. 1871, p.

248.]

1123 (return) [ F. Lieber, ‘On the Vocal Sounds,’ &c. p. 11. Tylor,

ibid. p. 53.]

1124 (return) [ Dr. King, Edinburgh Phil. Journal, 1845, p. 313.]

1125 (return) [ Tylor, ‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p.

53.]

1126 (return) [ Lubbock, ‘The Origin of Civilization,’ 1870, p. 277.

Tylor, ibid. p. 38. Lieber (ibid. p. 11) remarks on the negative of the

Italians.]

1201 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie,’ Album, 1862, p. 42.]

1202 (return) [ ‘The Polyglot News Letter,’ Melbourne, Dec. 1858, p.

2.]

1203 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 106.]

1204 (return) [ Mécanisme de la Physionomie,’ Album, p. 6.]

1205 (return) [ See, for instance, Dr. Piderit (‘Mimik und

Physiognomik,’ s. 88), who has a good discussion on the expression of

surprise.]

1206 (return) [ Dr. Murie has also given me information leading to the

same conclusion, derived in part from comparative anatomy.]

1207 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 234.]

1208 (return) [ See, on this subject, Gratiolet, ibid. p. 254.]

1209 (return) [ Lieber, ‘On the Vocal Sounds of Laura Bridgman,’

Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 7.]

1210 (return) [ ‘Wenderholme,’ vol. ii. p. 91.]

1211 (return) [ Lieber, ‘On the Vocal Sounds,’ &c., ibid. p. 7.]

1212 (return) [ Huschke, ‘Mimices et Physiognomices,’ 1821, p. 18.

Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 255) gives a figure of a man in this

attitude, which, however, seems to me expressive of fear combined with

astonishment. Le Brun also refers (Lavater, vol. ix. p. 299) to the

hands of an astonished man being opened.]

1213 (return) [ Huschke, ibid. p. 18.]

1214 (return) [ ‘North American Indians,’ 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p.

105.]

1215 (return) [ H. Wedgwood, Dict. of English Etymology, vol. ii. 1862,

p. 35. See, also, Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ p. 135) on the

sources of such words as ‘terror, horror, rigidus, frigidus,’ &c.]

1216 (return) [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 54)

explains in the following manner the origin of the custom “of

subjecting criminals in India to the ordeal of the morsel of rice. The

accused is made to take a mouthful of rice, and after a little time to

throw it out. If the morsel is quite dry, the party is believed to be

guilty,—his own evil conscience operating to paralyse the salivating

organs.”]

1217 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, Transactions of Royal Phil. Soc. 1822, p.

308. ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 88 and pp. 164-469.]

1218 (return) [ See Moreau on the rolling of the eyes, in the edit. of

1820 of Lavater, tome iv. p. 263. Also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 17.]

1219 (return) [ ‘Observations on Italy,’ 1825, p. 48, as quoted in ‘The

Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 168.]

1220 (return) [ Quoted by Dr. Maudsley, ‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, p. 41.]

1221 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 168.]

1222 (return) [ Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, Légende xi.]

1223 (return) [ Ducheinne takes, in fact, this view (ibid. p. 45), as

he attributes the contraction of the platysma to the shivering of fear

(_frisson de la peur_); but he elsewhere compares the action with that

which causes the hair of frightened quadrupeds to stand erect; and this

can hardly be considered as quite correct.]

1224 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 51, 256, 346.]

1225 (return) [ As quoted in White’s ‘Gradation in Man,’ p. 57.]

1226 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 169.]

1227 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie,’ Album, pl. 65, pp. 44,

45.]

1228 (return) [ See remarks to this effect by Mr. Wedgwood, in the

Introduction to his ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ 2nd edit. 1872,

p. xxxvii. He shows by intermediate forms that the sounds here referred

to have probably given rise to many words, such as _ugly, huge_, &c.]

1301 (return) [ ‘The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,’ 1839, p.

156. I shall have occasion often to quote this work in the present

chapter.]

1302 (return) [ Dr. Burgess, ibid. p. 56. At p. 33 he also remarks on

women blushing more freely than men, as stated below.]

1303 (return) [ Quoted by Vogt, ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867,

p. 20. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 56) doubts whether idiots ever blush.]

1304 (return) [ Lieber ‘On the Vocal Sounds,’ &c.; Smithsonian

Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]

1305 (return) [ Ibid. p. 182.]

1306 (return) [ Moreau, in edit. of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. p. 303.]

1307 (return) [ Burgess. ibid. p. 38, on paleness after blushing, p.

177.]

1308 (return) [ See Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol. iv. p. 303.]

1309 (return) [ Burgess, ibid. pp. 114, 122. Moreau in Lavater, ibid.

vol. iv. p. 293.]

1310 (return) [ ‘Letters from Egypt,’ 1865, p. 66. Lady Gordon is

mistaken when she says Malays and Mulattoes never blush.]

1311 (return) [ Capt. Osborn (‘Quedah,’ p. 199), in speaking of a

Malay, whom he reproached for cruelty, says he was glad to see that the

man blushed.]

1312 (return) [ J. R. Forster, ‘Observations during a Voyage round the

World,’ 4to, 1778, p. 229. Waitz gives (‘Introduction to Anthropology,’

Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 135) references for other islands in

the Pacific. See, also, Dampier ‘On the Blushing of the Tunquinese’

(vol. ii. p. 40); but I have not consulted this work. Waitz quotes

Bergmann, that the Kalmucks do not blush, but this may be doubted after

what we have seen with respect to the Chinese. He also quotes Roth, who

denies that the Abyssinians are capable of blushing. Unfortunately,

Capt. Speedy, who lived so long with the Abyssinians, has not answered

my inquiry on this head. Lastly, I must add that the Rajah Brooke has

never observed the least sign of a blush with the Dyaks of Borneo; on

the contrary under circumstances which would excite a blush in us, they

assert “that they feel the blood drawn from their faces.”]

1313 (return) [ Transact. of the Ethnological Soc. 1870, vol. ii. p.

16.]

1314 (return) [ Humboldt, ‘Personal Narrative,’ Eng. translat. vol.

iii. p. 229.]

1315 (return) [ Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit

1851, vol. i. p. 271.]

1316 (return) [ See, on this head, Burgess, ibid. p. 32. Also Waitz,

‘Introduction to Anthropology,’ Eng. edit. vol. i. p. 139. Moreau gives

a detailed account (‘Lavater,’ 1820, tom. iv. p. 302) of the blushing

of a Madagascar negress-slave when forced by her brutal master to

exhibit her naked bosom.]

1317 (return) [ Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit.

1851, vol. i. p. 225.]

1318 (return) [ Burgess, ibid. p. 31. On mulattoes blushing, see p. 33.

I have received similar accounts with respect to, mulattoes.]

1319 (return) [ Barrington also says that the Australians of New South

Wales blush, as quoted by Waitz, ibid. p. 135.]

1320 (return) [ Mr. Wedgwood says (Dict. of English Etymology, vol.

iii. 1865, p. 155) that the word shame “may well originate in the idea

of shade or concealment, and may be illustrated by the Low German

_scheme_, shade or shadow.” Gratiolet (De la Phys. pp. 357-362) has a

good discussion on the gestures accompanying shame; but some of his

remarks seem to me rather fanciful. See, also, Burgess (ibid. pp. 69,

134) on the same subject.]

1321 (return) [ Burgess, ibid. pp. 181, 182. Boerhaave also noticed (as

quoted by Gratiolet, ibid. p. 361) the tendency to the secretion of

tears during intense blushing. Mr. Bulmer, as we have seen, speaks of

the “watery eyes” of the children of the Australian aborigines when

ashamed.]

1322 (return) [ See also Dr. J. Crichton Browne’s Memoir on this

subject in the ‘West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Report,’ 1871, pp.

95-98.]

1323 (return) [ In a discussion on so-called animal magnetism in ‘Table

Talk,’ vol. i.]

1324 (return) [ Ibid. p. 40.]

1325 (return) [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 65)

remarks on “the shyness of manners which is induced between the

sexes.... from the influence of mutual regard, by the apprehension on

either side of not standing well with the other.”]

1326 (return) [ See, for evidence on this subject, ‘The Descent of

Man,’ &c., vol. ii. pp. 71, 341.]

1327 (return) [ H. Wedgwood, Dict. English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865,

p. 184. So with the Latin word _verecundus_.]

1328 (return) [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions and the Will,’ p. 64) has

discussed the “abashed” feelings experienced on these occasions, as

well as the _stage-fright_ of actors unused to the stage. Mr. Bain

apparently attributes these feelings to simple apprehension or dread.]

1329 (return) [ ‘Essays on Practical Education,’ by Maria and R. L.

Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 38. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 187)

insists strongly to the same effect.]

1330 (return) [ ‘Essays on Practical Education,’ by Maria and R. L.

Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 50.]

1331 (return) [ Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 95. Burgess, as

quoted below, ibid. p. 49. Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 94.]

1332 (return) [ On the authority of Lady Mary Wortley Montague; see

Burgess, ibid. p. 43.]

1333 (return) [ In England, Sir H. Holland was, I believe, the first to

consider the influence of mental attention on various parts of the

body, in his ‘Medical Notes and Reflections,’ 1839 p. 64. This essay,

much enlarged, was reprinted by Sir H. Holland in his ‘Chapters on

Mental Physiology,’ 1858, p. 79, from which work I always quote. At

nearly the same time, as well as subsequently, Prof. Laycock discussed

the same subject: see ‘Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,’ 1839,

July, pp. 17-22. Also his ‘Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women,’

1840, p. 110; and ‘Mind and Brain,’ vol. ii. 1860, p. 327. Dr.

Carpenter’s views on mesmerism have a nearly similar bearing. The great

physiologist Müller treated (‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat.

vol. ii. pp. 937, 1085) of the influence of the attention on the

senses. Sir J. Paget discusses the influence of the mind on the

nutrition of parts, in his ‘Lectures on Surgical Pathology,’ 1853, vol.

i. p. 39: 1 quote from the 3rd edit. revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, p.

28. See, also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. pp. 283-287.]

1334 (return) [ De la Phys. p. 283.]

1340 (return) [ Dr. Maudsley has given (‘The Physiology and Pathology

of Mind,’ 2nd edit. 1868, p. 105), on good authority, some curious

statements with respect to the improvement of the sense of touch by

practice and attention. It is remarkable that when this sense has thus

been rendered more acute at any point of the body, for instance, in a

finger, it is likewise improved at the corresponding point on the

opposite side of the body.]

1341 (return) [ The Lancet,’ 1838, pp. 39-40, as quoted by Prof.

Laycock, ‘Nervous Diseases of Women,’ 1840, p. 110.]

1342 (return) [ ‘Chapters on Mental Physiology,’ 1858, pp. 91-93.]

1343 (return) [ ‘Lectures on Surgical Pathology,’ 3rd edit. revised by

Prof. Turner, 1870, pp. 28, 31.]

1344 (return) [ ‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii. p.

938.]

1345 (return) [ Prof. Laycock has discussed this point in a very

interesting manner. See his ‘Nervous Diseases of Women,’ 1840, p. 110.]

1346 (return) [ See, also, Mr. Michael Foster, on the action of the

vaso-motor system, in his interesting Lecture before the royal

Institution, as translated in the ‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’

Sept. 25, 1869, p. 683.]

1401 (return) [ See the interesting facts given by Dr. Bateman on

‘Aphasia,’ 1870, p. 110.]

1402 (return) [ ‘La Physionomie et la Parole,’ 1865, pp. 103, 118.]

1403 (return) [ Rengger, ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von

Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 55.]

1404 (return) [ Quoted by Moreau, in his edition of Lavater, 1820, tom.

iv. p. 211.]

1405 (return) [ Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 66) insists on

the truth of this conclusion.]