The Dog, various expressive movements of—Cats—Horses—Ruminants—Monkeys,
their expression of joy and affection—Of pain—Anger—Astonishment and
Terror.
_The Dog_.—I have already described (figs. 5 and 7) the appearance of a
dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions, namely, with
erected ears, eyes intently directed forwards, hair on the neck and
back bristling, gait remarkably stiff, with the tail upright and rigid.
So familiar is this appearance to us, that an angry man is sometimes
said “to have his back up.” Of the above points, the stiff gait and
upright tail alone require further discussion. Sir C. Bell remarks[501]
that, when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is suddenly
roused to ferocity, every muscle is in tension, and the limbs are in an
attitude of strained exertion, prepared to spring. This tension of the
muscles and consequent stiff gait may be accounted for on the principle
of associated habit, for anger has continually led to fierce struggles,
and consequently to all the muscles of the body having been violently
exerted. There is also reason to suspect that the muscular system
requires some short preparation, or some degree of innervation, before
being brought into strong action. My own sensations lead me to this
inference; but I cannot discover that it is a conclusion admitted by
physiologists. Sir J. Paget, however, informs me that when muscles are
suddenly contracted with the greatest force, without any preparation,
they are liable to be ruptured, as when a man slips unexpectedly; but
that this rarely occurs when an action, however violent, is
deliberately performed.
With respect to the upright position of the tail, it seems to depend
(but whether this is really the case I know not) on the elevator
muscles being more powerful than the depressors, so that when all the
muscles of the hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, the
tail is raised. A dog in cheerful spirits, and trotting before his
master with high, elastic steps, generally carries his tail aloft,
though it is not held nearly so stiffly as when he is angered. A horse
when first turned out into an open field, may be seen to trot with long
elastic strides, the head and tail being held high aloft. Even cows
when they frisk about from pleasure, throw up their tails in a
ridiculous fashion. So it is with various animals in the Zoological
Gardens. The position of the tail, however, in certain cases, is
determined by special circumstances; thus as soon as a horse breaks
into a gallop, at full speed, he always lowers his tail, so that as
little resistance as possible may be offered to the air.
When a dog is on the point of springing on his antagonist, he utters a
savage growl; the ears are pressed closely backwards, and the upper lip
(fig. 14) is retracted out of the way of his teeth, especially of his
canines. These movements may be observed with dogs and puppies in their
play. But if a dog gets really savage in his play, his expression
immediately changes. This, however, is simply due to the lips and ears
being drawn back with much greater energy. If a dog only snarls at
another, the lip is generally retracted on one side alone, namely
towards his enemy.
Head of Snarling Dog. Fig 14
{illust. caption = FIG. 14.—Head of snarling Dog. From life, by Mr.
Wood.
The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection towards his master
were described (figs. 6 and 8) in our second chapter. These consist in
the head and whole body being lowered and thrown into flexuous
movements, with the tail extended and wagged from side to side. The
ears fall down and are drawn somewhat backwards, which causes the
eyelids to be elongated, and alters the whole appearance of the face.
The lips hang loosely, and the hair remains smooth. All these movements
or gestures are explicable, as I believe, from their standing in
complete antithesis to those naturally assumed by a savage dog under a
directly opposite state of mind. When a man merely speaks to, or just
notices, his dog, we see the last vestige of these movements in a
slight wag of the tail, without any other movement of the body, and
without even the ears being lowered. Dogs also exhibit their affection
by desiring to rub against their masters, and to be rubbed or patted by
them.
Gratiolet explains the above gestures of affection in the following
manner: and the reader can judge whether the explanation appears
satisfactory. Speaking of animals in general, including the dog, he
says,[502] “C’est toujours la partie la plus sensible de leurs corps
qui recherche les caresses ou les donne. Lorsque toute la longueur des
flancs et du corps est sensible, l’animal serpente et rampe sous les
caresses; et ces ondulations se propageant le long des muscles
analogues des segments jusqu’aux extrémités de la colonne vertébrale,
la queue se ploie et s’agite.” Further on, he adds, that dogs, when
feeling affectionate, lower their ears in order to exclude all sounds,
so that their whole attention may be concentrated on the caresses of
their master!
Dogs have another and striking way of exhibiting their affection,
namely, by licking the hands or faces of their masters. They sometimes
lick other dogs, and then it is always their chops. I have also seen
dogs licking cats with whom they were friends. This habit probably
originated in the females carefully licking their puppies—the dearest
object of their love—for the sake of cleansing them. They also often
give their puppies, after a short absence, a few cursory licks,
apparently from affection. Thus the habit will have become associated
with the emotion of love, however it may afterwards be aroused. It is
now so firmly inherited or innate, that it is transmitted equally to
both sexes. A female terrier of mine lately had her puppies destroyed,
and though at all times a very affectionate creature, I was much struck
with the manner in which she then tried to satisfy her instinctive
maternal love by expending it on me; and her desire to lick my hands
rose to an insatiable passion.
The same principle probably explains why dogs, when feeling
affectionate, like rubbing against their masters and being rubbed or
patted by them, for from the nursing of their puppies, contact with a
beloved object has become firmly associated in their minds with the
emotion of love.
The feeling of affection of a dog towards his master is combined with a
strong sense of submission, which is akin to fear. Hence dogs not only
lower their bodies and crouch a little as they approach their masters,
but sometimes throw themselves on the ground with their bellies
upwards. This is a movement as completely opposite as is possible to
any show of resistance. I formerly possessed a large dog who was not at
all afraid to fight with other dogs; but a wolf-like shepherd-dog in
the neighbourhood, though not ferocious and not so powerful as my dog,
had a strange influence over him. When they met on the road, my dog
used to run to meet him, with his tail partly tucked in between his
legs and hair not erected; and then he would throw himself on the
ground, belly upwards. By this action he seemed to say more plainly
than by words, “Behold, I am your slave.”
A pleasurable and excited state of mind, associated with affection, is
exhibited by some dogs in a very peculiar manner, namely, by grinning.
This was noticed long ago by Somerville, who says,
“And with a courtly grin, the fawning hound
Salutes thee cow’ring, his wide op’ning nose
Upward he curls, and his large sloe-back eyes
Melt in soft blandishments, and humble joy.”
_The Chase_, book i.
Sir W. Scott’s famous Scotch greyhound, Maida, had this habit, and it
is common with terriers. I have also seen it in a Spitz and in a
sheep-dog. Mr. Riviere, who has particularly attended to this
expression, informs me that it is rarely displayed in a perfect manner,
but is quite common in a lesser degree. The upper lip during the act of
grinning is retracted, as in snarling, so that the canines are exposed,
and the ears are drawn backwards; but the general appearance of the
animal clearly shows that anger is not felt. Sir C. Bell[503] remarks
“Dogs, in their expression of fondness, have a slight eversion of the
lips, and grin and sniff amidst their gambols, in a way that resembles
laughter.” Some persons speak of the grin as a smile, but if it had
been really a smile, we should see a similar, though more pronounced,
movement of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their bark of joy; but
this is not the case, although a bark of joy often follows a grin. On
the other hand, dogs, when playing with their comrades or masters,
almost always pretend to bite each other; and they then retract, though
not energetically, their lips and ears. Hence I suspect that there is a
tendency in some dogs, whenever they feel lively pleasure combined with
affection, to act through habit and association on the same muscles, as
in playfully biting each other, or their masters’ hands.
I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and appearance of a
dog when cheerful, and the marked antithesis presented by the same
animal when dejected and disappointed, with his head, ears, body, tail,
and chops drooping, and eyes dull. Under the expectation of any great
pleasure, dogs bound and jump about in an extravagant manner, and bark
for joy. The tendency to bark under this state of mind is inherited, or
runs in the breed: greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the Spitz-dog barks
so incessantly on starting for a walk with his master that he becomes a
nuisance.
An agony of pain is expressed by dogs in nearly the same way as by many
other animals, namely, by howling writhing, and contortions of the
whole body.
Attention is shown by the head being raised, with the ears erected, and
eyes intently directed towards the object or quarter under observation.
If it be a sound and the source is not known, the head is often turned
obliquely from side to side in a most significant manner, apparently in
order to judge with more exactness from what point the sound proceeds.
But I have seen a dog greatly surprised at a new noise, turning, his
head to one side through habit, though he clearly perceived the source
of the noise. Dogs, as formerly remarked, when their attention is in
any way aroused, whilst watching some object, or attending to some
sound, often lift up one paw (fig. 4) and keep it doubled up, as if to
make a slow and stealthy approach.
A dog under extreme terror will throw himself down, howl, and void his
excretions; but the hair, I believe, does not become erect unless some
anger is felt. I have seen a dog much terrified at a band of musicians
who were playing loudly outside the house, with every muscle of his
body trembling, with his heart palpitating so quickly that the beats
could hardly be counted, and panting for breath with widely open mouth,
in the same manner as a terrified man does. Yet this dog had not
exerted himself; he had only wandered slowly and restlessly about the
room, and the day was cold.
Even a very slight degree of fear is invariably shown by the tail being
tucked in between the legs. This tucking in of the fail is accompanied
by the ears being drawn backwards; but they are not pressed closely to
the head, as in snarling, and they are not lowered, as when a dog is
pleased or affectionate. When two young dogs chase each other in play,
the one that runs away always keeps his tail tucked inwards. So it is
when a dog, in the highest spirits, careers like a mad creature round
and round his master in circles, or in figures of eight. He then acts
as if another dog were chasing him. This curious kind of play, which
must be familiar to every one who has attended to dogs, is particularly
apt to be excited, after the animal has been a little startled or
frightened, as by his master suddenly jumping out on him in the dusk.
In this case, as well as when two young dogs are chasing each other in
play, it appears as if the one that runs away was afraid of the other
catching him by the tail; but as far as I can find out, dogs very
rarely catch each other in this manner. I asked a gentleman, who had
kept foxhounds all his life, and he applied to other experienced
sportsmen, whether they had ever seen hounds thus seize a fox; but they
never had. It appears that when a dog is chased, or when in danger of
being struck behind, or of anything falling on him, in all these cases
he wishes to withdraw as quickly as possible his whole hind-quarters,
and that from some sympathy or connection between the muscles, the tail
is then drawn closely inwards.
A similarly connected movement between the hind-quarters and the tail
may be observed in the hyaena. Mr. Bartlett informs me that when two of
these animals fight together, they are mutually conscious of the
wonderful power of each other’s jaws, and are extremely cautious. They
well know that if one of their legs were seized, the bone would
instantly be crushed into atoms; hence they approach each other
kneeling, with their legs turned as much as possible inwards, and with
their whole bodies bowed, so as not to present any salient point; the
tail at the same time being closely tucked in between the legs. In this
attitude they approach each other sideways, or even partly backwards.
So again with deer, several of the species, when savage and fighting,
tuck in their tails. When one horse in a field tries to bite the
hind-quarters of another in play, or when a rough boy strikes a donkey
from behind, the hind-quarters and the tail are drawn in, though it
does not appear as if this were done merely to save the tail from being
injured. We have also seen the reverse of these movements; for when an
animal trots with high elastic steps, the tail is almost always carried
aloft.
As I have said, when a dog is chased and runs away, he keeps his ears
directed backwards but still open; and this is clearly done for the
sake of hearing the footsteps of his pursuer. From habit the ears are
often held in this same position, and the tail tucked in, when the
danger is obviously in front. I have repeatedly noticed, with a timid
terrier of mine, that when she is afraid of some object in front, the
nature of which she perfectly knows and does not need to reconnoitre,
yet she will for a long time hold her ears and tail in this position,
looking the image of discomfort. Discomfort, without any fear, is
similarly expressed: thus, one day I went out of doors, just at the
time when this same dog knew that her dinner would be brought. I did
not call her, but she wished much to accompany me, and at the same time
she wished much for her dinner; and there she stood, first looking one
way and then the other, with her tail tucked in and ears drawn back,
presenting an unmistakable appearance of perplexed discomfort.
Almost all the expressive movements now described, with the exception
of the grinning from joy, are innate or instinctive, for they are
common to all the individuals, young and old, of all the breeds. Most
of them are likewise common to the aboriginal parents of the dog,
namely the wolf and jackal; and some of them to other species of the
same group. Tamed wolves and jackals, when caressed by their masters,
jump about for joy, wag their tails, lower their ears, lick their
master’s hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves on the ground
belly upwards.[504] I have seen a rather fox-like African jackal, from
the Gaboon, depress its ears when caressed. Wolves and jackals, when
frightened, certainly tuck in their tails; and a tamed jackal has been
described as careering round his master in circles and figures of
eight, like a dog, with his tail between his legs.
It has been stated[505] that foxes, however tame, never display any of
the above expressive movements; but this is not strictly accurate. Many
years ago I observed in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact
at the time, that a very tame English fox, When caressed by the keeper,
wagged its tail, depressed its ears, and then threw itself on the
ground, belly upwards. The black fox of North America likewise
depressed its ears in a slight degree. But I believe that foxes never
lick the hands of their masters, and I have been assured that when
frightened they never tuck in their tails. If the explanation which I
have given of the expression of affection in dogs be admitted, then it
would appear that animals which have never been domesticated—namely
wolves, jackals, and even foxes—have nevertheless acquired, through the
principle of antithesis, certain expressive gestures; for it is not
probable that these animals, confined in cages, should have learnt them
by imitating dogs.
_Cats_.—I have already described the actions of a cat (fig. 9), when
feeling savage and not terrified. She assumes a crouching attitude and
occasionally protrudes her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready for
striking. The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to
side. The hair is not erected—at least it was not so in the few cases
observed by me. The ears are drawn closely backwards and the teeth are
shown. Low savage growls are uttered. We can understand why the
attitude assumed by a cat when preparing to fight with another cat, or
in any way greatly irritated, is so widely different from that of a dog
approaching another dog with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her
fore-feet for striking, and this renders a crouching position
convenient or necessary. She is also much more accustomed than a dog to
lie concealed and suddenly spring on her prey. No cause can be assigned
with certainty for the tail being lashed or curled from side to side.
This habit is common to many other animals—for instance, to the puma,
when prepared to spring;[506] but it is not common to dogs, or to
foxes, as I infer from Mr. St. John’s account of a fox lying in wait
and seizing a hare. We have already seen that some kinds of lizards and
various snakes, when excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails.
It would appear as if, under strong excitement, there existed an
uncontrollable desire for movement of some kind, owing to nerve-force
being freely liberated from the excited sensorium; and that as the tail
is left free, and as its movement does not disturb the general position
of the body, it is curled or lashed about.
All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in complete
antithesis to those just described. She now stands upright, with
slightly arched back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected;
and she rubs her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress. The
desire to rub something is so strong in cats under this state of mind,
that they may often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs of
chairs or tables, or against door-posts. This manner of expressing
affection probably originated through association, as in the case of
dogs, from the mother nursing and fondling her young; and perhaps from
the young themselves loving each other and playing together. Another
and very different gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already been
described, namely, the curious manner in which young and even old cats,
when pleased, alternately protrude their fore-feet, with separated
toes, as if pushing against and sucking their mother’s teats. This
habit is so far analogous to that of rubbing against something, that
both apparently are derived from actions performed during the nursing
period. Why cats should show affection by rubbing so much more than do
dogs, though the latter delight in contact with their masters, and why
cats only occasionally lick the hands of their friends, whilst dogs
always do so, I cannot say. Cats cleanse themselves by licking their
own coats more regularly than do dogs. On the other hand, their tongues
seem less well fitted for the work than the longer and more flexible
tongues of dogs.
Cat Terrified at a Dog. Fig.15
Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch their backs in a
well-known and ridiculous fashion. They spit, hiss, or growl. The hair
over the whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect. In the
instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright,
the terminal part being thrown on one side; but sometimes the tail (see
fig. 15) is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base to
one side. The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed. When two
kittens are playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten the
other. From what we have seen in former chapters, all the above points
of expression are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back.
I am inclined to believe that, in the same manner as many birds, whilst
they ruffle their feathers, spread out their wings and tail, to make
themselves look as big as possible, so cats stand upright at their full
height, arch their backs, often raise the basal part of the tail, and
erect their hair, for the same purpose. The lynx, when attacked, is
said to arch its back, and is thus figured by Brehm. But the keepers in
the Zoological Gardens have never seen any tendency to this action in
the larger feline animals, such as tigers, lions, &c.; and these have
little cause to be afraid of any other animal.
Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter,
under various emotions and desires, at least six or seven different
sounds. The purr of satisfaction, which is made during both inspiration
and expiration, is one of the most curious. The puma, cheetah, and
ocelot likewise purr; but the tiger, when pleased, “emits a peculiar
short snuffle, accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.”[507] It is
said that the lion, jaguar, and leopard, do not purr.
_Horses_.—Horses when savage draw their ears closely back, protrude
their heads, and partially uncover their incisor teeth, ready for
biting. When inclined to kick behind, they generally, through habit,
draw back their ears; and their eyes are turned backwards in a peculiar
manner.[508] When pleased, as when some coveted food is brought to them
in the stable, they raise and draw in their heads, prick their ears,
and looking intently towards their friend, often whinny. Impatience is
expressed by pawing the ground.
The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive. One
day my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine, covered by a
tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. He raised his head so high, that
his neck became almost perpendicular; and this he did from habit, for
the machine lay on a slope below, and could not have been seen with
more distinctness through the raising of the head; nor if any sound had
proceeded from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard. His
eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and I could feel through
the saddle the palpitations of his heart. With red dilated nostrils he
snorted violently, and whirling round, would have dashed off at full
speed, had I not prevented him. The distension of the nostrils is not
for the sake of scenting the source of danger, for when a horse smells
carefully at any object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his
nostrils. Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, a horse when
panting does not breathe through his open mouth, but through his
nostrils; and these consequently have become endowed with great powers
of expansion. This expansion of the nostrils, as well as the snorting,
and the palpitations of the heart, are actions which have become firmly
associated during a long series of generations with the emotion of
terror; for terror has habitually led the horse to the most violent
exertion in dashing away at full speed from the cause of danger.
_Ruminants_.—Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in so
slight a degree their emotions or sensations, excepting that of extreme
pain. A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which
he holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and by bellowing.
He also often paws the ground; but this pawing seems quite different
from that of an impatient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws
up clouds of dust. I believe that bulls act in this manner when
irritated by flies, for the sake of driving them away. The wilder
breeds of sheep and the chamois when startled stamp on the ground, and
whistle through their noses; and this serves as a danger-signal to
their comrades. The musk-ox of the Arctic regions, when encountered,
likewise stamps on the ground.[509] How this stamping action arose I
cannot conjecture; for from inquiries which I have made it does not
appear that any of these animals fight with their fore-legs.
Some species of deer, when savage, display far more expression than do
cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has already been stated, they draw
back their ears, grind their teeth, erect their hair, squeal, stamp on
the ground, and brandish their horns. One day in the Zoological
Gardens, the Formosan deer (_Cervus pseudaxis_) approached me in a
curious attitude, with his muzzle raised high up, so that the horns
were pressed back on his neck; the head being held rather obliquely.
From the expression of his eye I felt sure that he was savage; he
approached slowly, and as soon as he came close to the iron bars, he
did not lower his head to butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards, and
struck his horns with great force against the railings. Mr. Bartlett
informs me that some other species of deer place themselves in the same
attitude when enraged.
_Monkeys_.—The various species and genera of monkeys express their
feelings in many different ways; and this fact is interesting, as in
some degree bearing on the question, whether the so-called races of man
should be ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we shall see
in the following chapters, the different races of man express their
emotions and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout the
world. Some of the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting in
another way, namely from being closely analogous to those of man. As I
have had no opportunity of observing any one species of the group under
all circumstances, my miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged under
different states of the mind.
_Pleasure, joy, affection_—It is not possible to distinguish in
monkeys, at least without more experience than I have had, the
expression of pleasure or joy from that of affection. Young chimpanzees
make a kind of barking noise, when pleased by the return of any one to
whom they are attached. When this noise, which the keepers call a
laugh, is uttered, the lips are protruded; but so they are under
various other emotions. Nevertheless I could perceive that when they
were pleased the form of the lips differed a little from that assumed
when they were angered. If a young chimpanzee be tickled—and the
armpits are particularly sensitive to tickling, as in the case of our
children,—a more decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered; though
the laughter is sometimes noiseless. The corners of the mouth are then
drawn backwards; and this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be
slightly wrinkled. But this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of
our own laughter, is more plainly seen in some other monkeys. The teeth
in the upper jaw in the chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter
their laughing noise, in which respect they differ from us. But their
eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as Mr. W. L. Martin,[510] who has
particularly attended to their expression, states.
Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make a chuckling sound;
and Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their
laughter ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their
faces, which, as Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile. I
have also noticed something of the same kind with the chimpanzee. Dr.
Duchenne—and I cannot quote a better authority—informs me that he kept
a very tame monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it during
meal-times some choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of its
mouth were slightly raised; thus an expression of satisfaction,
partaking of the nature of an incipient smile, and resembling that
often seen on the face of main, could be plainly perceived in this
animal.
The _Cebus azaræ_,[511] when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved person,
utters a peculiar tittering (_kichernden_) sound. It also expresses
agreeable sensations, by drawing back the corners of its mouth, without
producing any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter, but it would
be more appropriately called a smile. The form of the mouth is
different when either pain or terror is expressed, and high shrieks are
uttered. Another species of _Cebus_ in the Zoological Gardens (_C.
hypoleucus_) when pleased, makes a reiterated shrill note, and likewise
draws back the corners of its mouth, apparently through the contraction
of the same muscles as with us. So does the Barbary ape (_Inuus
ecaudatus_) to an extraordinary degree; and I observed in this monkey
that the skin of the lower eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the
same time it rapidly moved its lower jaw or lips in a spasmodic manner,
the teeth being exposed; but the noise produced was hardly more
distinct than that which we sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the
keepers affirmed that this slight sound was the animal’s laughter, and
when I expressed some doubt on this head (being at the time quite
inexperienced), they made it attack or rather threaten a hated Entellus
monkey, living in the same compartment. Instantly the whole expression
of the face of the Inuus changed; the mouth was opened much more
widely, the canine teeth were more fully exposed, and a hoarse barking
noise was uttered.
The Anubis baboon (_Cynocephalus anubis_) was first insulted and put
into a furious rage, as was easily done, by his keeper, who then made
friends with him and shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected
the baboon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and lips, and looked
pleased. When we laugh heartily, a similar movement, or quiver, may be
observed more or less distinctly in our jaws; but with man the muscles
of the chest are more particularly acted on, whilst with this baboon,
and with some other monkeys, it is the muscles of the jaws and lips
which are spasmodically affected.
Cynopithecus Niger, in a Placid Condition. Fig.16-17
I have already had occasion to remark on the curious manner in which
two or three species of Alacacus and the _Cynopithecus niger_ draw back
their ears and utter a slight jabbering noise, when they are pleased by
being caressed. With the Cynopithecus (fig. 17), the corners of the
mouth are at the same time drawn backwards and upwards, so that the
teeth are exposed. Hence this expression would never be recognized by a
stranger as one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is
depressed, and apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards.
The eyebrows are thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring
appearance. The lower eyelids also become slightly wrinkled; but this
wrinkling is not conspicuous, owing to the permanent transverse furrows
on the face.
_Painful emotions and sensations_.—With monkeys the expression of
slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation,
jealousy, &c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate anger;
and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other.
Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited by weeping. A
woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have
come from Borneo (_Macacus maurus_ or _M. inornatus_ of Gray), said
that it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr.
Sutton, have repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much
pitied, weeping so copiously that the tears rolled down its cheeks.
There is, however, something strange about this case, for two specimens
subsequently kept in the Gardens, and believed to be the same species,
have never been seen to weep, though they were carefully observed by
the keeper and myself when much distressed and loudly screaming.
Rengger states[512] that the eyes of the _Cebus azaræ_ fill with tears,
but not sufficiently to overflow, when it is prevented getting some
much desired object, or is much frightened. Humboldt also asserts that
the eyes of the _Callithrix sciureus_ “instantly fill with tears when
it is seized with fear;” but when this pretty little monkey in the
Zoological Gardens was teased, so as to cry out loudly, this did not
occur. I do not, however, wish to throw the least doubt on the accuracy
of Humboldt’s statement.
The appearance of dejection in young orangs and chimpanzees, when out
of health, is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our
children. This state of mind and body is shown by their listless
movements, fallen countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.
_Anger_.—This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of monkeys, and
is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks,[513] in many different ways. “Some
species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and savage
glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about to
spring forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds. Many
display their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts, at the
same time opening the mouth and pursing up the lips, so as to conceal
the teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy, as if in
savage defiance. Some again, and principally the long-tailed monkeys,
or Guenons, display their teeth, and accompany their malicious grins
with a sharp, abrupt, reiterated cry.” Mr. Sutton confirms the
statement that some species uncover their teeth when enraged, whilst
others conceal them by the protrusion of their lips; and some kinds
draw back their ears. The _Cynopithecus niger_, lately referred to,
acts in this manner, at the same time depressing the crest of hair on
its forehead, and showing its teeth; so that the movements of the
features from anger are nearly the same as those from pleasure; and the
two expressions can be distinguished only by those familiar with the
animal.
Baboons often show their passion and threaten their enemies in a very
odd manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely as in the act of
yawning. Mr. Bartlett has often seen two baboons, when first placed in
the same compartment, sitting opposite to each other and thus
alternately opening their mouths; and this action seems frequently to
end in a real yawn. Mr. Bartlett believes that both animals wish to
show to each other that they are provided with a formidable set of
teeth, as is undoubtedly the case. As I could hardly credit the reality
of this yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett insulted an old baboon and put
him into a violent passion; and he almost immediately thus acted. Some
species of Macacus and of Cereopithecus[514] behave in the same manner.
Baboons likewise show their anger, as was observed by Brehin with those
which he kept alive in Abyssinia, in another manner, namely, by
striking the ground with one hand, “like an angry man striking the
table with his fist.” I have seen this movement with the baboons in the
Zoological Gardens; but sometimes the action seems rather to represent
the searching for a stone or other object in their beds of straw.
Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the _Macacus rhesus_, when
much enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me, another
monkey attacked a _rhesus_, and I saw its face redden as plainly as
that of a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes,
after the battle, the face of this monkey recovered its natural tint.
At the same time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part of
the body, which is always red, seemed to grow still redder; but I
cannot positively assert that this was the case. When the Mandrill is
in any way excited, the brilliantly coloured, naked parts of the skin
are said to become still more vividly coloured.
With several species of baboons the ridge of the forehead projects much
over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs, representing our
eyebrows. These animals are always looking about them, and in order to
look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have thus, as it would
appear, acquired the habit of frequently moving their eyebrows. However
this may be, many kinds of monkeys, especially the baboons, when
angered or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly move their
eyebrows up and down, as well as the hairy skin of their
foreheads.[515] As we associate in the case of man the raising and
lowering of the eyebrows with definite states of the mind, the almost
incessant movement of the eyebrows by monkeys gives them a senseless
expression. I once observed a man who had a trick of continually
raising his eyebrows without any corresponding emotion, and this gave
to him a foolish appearance; so it is with some persons who keep the
corners of their mouths a little drawn backwards and upwards, as if by
an incipient smile, though at the time they are not amused or pleased.
A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another monkey,
slightly uncovered her teeth, and, uttering a peevish noise like
_tish-shist_, turned her back on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when
a little more angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh
barking noise. A young female chimpanzee, in a violent passion,
presented a curious resemblance to a child in the same state. She
screamed loudly with widely open mouth, the lips being retracted so
that the teeth were fully exposed. She threw her arms wildly about,
sometimes clasping them over her head. She rolled on the ground,
sometimes on her back, sometimes on her belly, and bit everything
within reach. A young gibbon (_Hylobates syndactylus_) in a passion has
been described[516] as behaving in almost exactly the same manner.
The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are protruded, sometimes to a
wonderful degree, under various circumstances. They act thus, not only
when slightly angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at
anything—in one instance, at the sight of a turtle,[517]—and likewise
when pleased. But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape of the
mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases; and the sounds
which are then uttered are different. The accompanying drawing
represents a chimpanzee made sulky by an orange having been offered
him, and then taken away. A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips,
though to a much slighter degree, may be seen in sulky children.
Chimpanzee Disappointed and Sulky. Fig. 18
Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass on
the floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had
never before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images with the
most steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. They then
approached close and protruded their lips towards the image, as if to
kiss it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done towards
each other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room.
They next made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various
attitudes before the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface; they
placed their hands at different distances behind it; looked behind it;
and finally seemed almost frightened, started a little, became cross,
and refused to look any longer.
When we try to perform some little action which is difficult and
requires precision, for instance, to thread a needle, we generally
close our lips firmly, for the sake, I presume, of not disturbing our
movements by breathing; and I noticed the same action in a young Orang.
The poor little creature was sick, and was amusing itself by trying to
kill the flies on the window-panes with its knuckles; this was
difficult as the flies buzzed about, and at each attempt the lips were
firmly compressed, and at the same time slightly protruded.
Although the countenances, and more especially the gestures, of orangs
and chimpanzees are in some respects highly expressive, I doubt whether
on the whole they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of
monkeys. This may be attributed in part to their ears being immovable,
and in part to the nakedness of their eyebrows, of which the movements
are thus rendered less conspicuous. When, however, they raise their
eyebrows their foreheads become, as with us, transversely wrinkled. In
comparison with man, their faces are inexpressive, chiefly owing to
their not frowning under any emotion of the mind—that is, as far as I
have been able to observe, and I carefully attended to this point.
Frowning, which is one of the most important of all the expressions in
man, is due to the contraction of the corrugators by which the eyebrows
are lowered and brought together, so that vertical furrows are formed
on the forehead. Both the orang and chimpanzee are said[518] to possess
this muscle, but it seems rarely brought into action, at least in a
conspicuous manner. I made my hands into a sort of cage, and placing
some tempting fruit within, allowed both a young orang and chimpanzee
to try their utmost to get it out; but although they grew rather cross,
they showed not a trace of a frown. Nor was there any frown when they
were enraged. Twice I took two chimpanzees from their rather dark room
suddenly into bright sunshine, which would certainly have caused us to
frown; they blinked and winked their eyes, but only once did I see a
very slight frown. On another occasion, I tickled the nose of a
chimpanzee with a straw, and as it crumpled up its face, slight
vertical furrows appeared between the eyebrows. I have never seen a
frown on the forehead of the orang.
The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting its crest of hair,
throwing down its under lip, dilating its nostrils, and uttering
terrific yells. Messrs. Savage and Wyman[519] state that the scalp can
be freely moved backwards and forwards, and that when the animal is
excited it is strongly contracted; but I presume that they mean by this
latter expression that the scalp is lowered; for they likewise speak of
the young chimpanzee, when crying out, as having the eyebrows strongly
contracted. The great power of movement in the scalp of the gorilla, of
many baboons and other monkeys, deserves notice in relation to the
power possessed by some few men, either through reversion or
persistence, of voluntarily moving their scalps.[520]
_Astonishment, Terror_—A living fresh-water turtle was placed at my
request in the same compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many
monkeys; and they showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear.
This was displayed by their remaining motionless, staring intently with
widely opened eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down. Their
faces seemed somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised themselves
on their hind-legs to get abetter view. They often retreated a few
feet, and then turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared
intently. It was curious to observe how much less afraid they were of
the turtle than of a living snake which I had formerly placed in their
compartment;[521] for in the course of a few minutes some of the
monkeys ventured to approach and touch the turtle. On the other hand,
some of the larger baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on
the point of screaming out. When I showed a little dressed-up doll to
the _Cynopithecus niger_, it stood motionless, stared intently with
widely opened eyes, and advanced its ears a little forwards. But when
the turtle was placed in its compartment, this monkey also moved its
lips in an odd, rapid, jabbering manner, which the keeper declared was
meant to conciliate or please the turtle.
I was never able clearly to perceive that the eyebrows of astonished
monkeys were kept permanently raised, though they were frequently moved
up and down. Attention, which precedes astonishment, is expressed by
man by a slight raising of the eyebrows; and Dr. Duchenne informs me
that when he gave to the monkey formerly mentioned some quite new
article of food, it elevated its eyebrows a little, thus assuming an
appearance of close attention. It then took the food in its fingers,
and, with lowered or rectilinear eyebrows, scratched, smelt, and
examined it,—an expression of reflection being thus exhibited.
Sometimes it would throw back its head a little, and again with
suddenly raised eyebrows re-examine and finally taste the food.
In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished.
Mr. Sutton observed for me a young orang and chimpanzee during a
considerable length of time; and however much they were astonished, or
whilst listening intently to some strange sound, they did not keep
their mouths open. This fact is surprising, as with mankind hardly any
expression is more general than a widely open mouth under the sense of
astonishment. As far as I have been able to observe, monkeys breathe
more freely through their nostrils than men do; and this may account
for their not opening their mouths when they are astonished; for, as we
shall see in a future chapter, man apparently acts in this manner when
startled, at first for the sake of quickly drawing a full inspiration,
and afterwards for the sake of breathing as quietly as possible.
Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by the utterance of shrill
screams; the lips being drawn back, so that the teeth are exposed. The
hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr.
Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the _Macacus rhesus_ grow pale
from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear; and sometimes they void
their excretions. I have seen one which, when caught, almost fainted
from an excess of terror.
Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to the expressions of
various animals. It is impossible to agree with Sir C. Bell when he
says[522] that “the faces of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing
rage and fear;” and again, when he says that all their expressions “may
be referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or
necessary instincts.” He who will look at a dog preparing to attack
another dog or a man, and at the same animal when caressing his master,
or will watch the countenance of a monkey when insulted, and when
fondled by his keeper, will be forced to admit that the movements of
their features and their gestures are almost as expressive as those of
man. Although no explanation can be given of some of the expressions in
the lower animals, the greater number are explicable in accordance with
the three principles given at the commencement of the first chapter.