THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS
By Charles Darwin
_With Photographic And Other Illustrations_
New York
D. Appleton And Company
1899
CONTENTS
DETAILED CONTENTS.
ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS.
INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
CHAPTER II. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—_continued_.
CHAPTER III. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—_concluded_.
CHAPTER IV. — MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS.
CHAPTER V. — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
CHAPTER VI. — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
CHAPTER VII. — LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
CHAPTER VIII. — JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
CHAPTER IX. —
REFLECTION—MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER—SULKINESS—DETERMINATION.
CHAPTER X. — HATRED AND ANGER.
CHAPTER XI. — DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST-GUILT—PRIDE, ETC.
CHAPTER XII. — SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR.
CHAPTER XIII. — SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: BLUSHING.
CHAPTER XIV. — CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
FOOTNOTES
ILLUSTRATIONS
Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 1-2
Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 3
Small Dog Watching a Cat on A Table. Figure 4
Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 5
Dog in a humble and Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 6
Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 7
Dog Carressing his Master. Fig. 8
Cat, Savage, and Prepared to Fight. Fig. 9
Cat in an Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 10
Sound Producing Quills from Tail of a Porcupine. Fig. 11
Hen Driving Away a Dog from Her Chickens. Fig. 12
Swan Driving Away an Intruder. Fig 13
Head of Snarling Dog. Fig 14
Cat Terrified at a Dog. Fig.15
Cynopithecus Niger, Pleased by Being Caressed. Fig.17
Chimpanzee Disappointed and Sulky. Fig. 18
Screaming Infants. Plate I.
Obliquity of the Eyebrows. Plate II
Moderate Laughter and Smiling. Plate III
Ill-temper. Plate IV
Anger and Indignation. Plate VI
Scorn and Disdain. Plate V
Gestures of the Body. Plate VII
Photograph of an Insane Woman. Fig. 19
Terror. Fig. 20
Horror and Agony. Fig. 21
_N.B_.—Several of the figures in these seven Heliotype Plates have been
reproduced from photographs, instead of from the original negatives;
and they are in consequence somewhat indistinct. Nevertheless they are
faithful copies, and are much superior for my purpose to any drawing,
however carefully executed.
DETAILED CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION
CHAP. I—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
The three chief principles stated—The first principle—Serviceable
actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind,
and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case—The
force of habit—Inheritance—Associated habitual movements in man—Reflex
actions—Passage of habits into reflex actions—Associated habitual
movements in the lower animals—Concluding remarks
CHAP. II—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.—_continued_.
The Principle of Antithesis—Instances in the dog and cat—Origin of the
principle—Conventional signs—The principle of antithesis has not arisen
from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite
impulses
CHAP. III—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.—_concluded_.
The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on the
body, independently of the will and in part of habit—Change of colour
in the hair—Trembling of the muscles—Modified
secretions—Perspiration—Expression of extreme pain—Of rage, great joy,
and terror—Contrast between the emotions which cause and do not cause
expressive movements—Exciting and depressing states of the mind—Summary
CHAP. IV—MEANS OF EXPRESSION. IN ANIMALS.
The emission of sounds—Vocal sounds—Sounds otherwise produced—Erection
of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c., under the emotions of
anger and terror—The drawing back of the ears as a preparation for
fighting, and as an expression of anger—Erection of the ears and
raising the head, a sign of attention
CHAP. V.—SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
The Dog, various expressive movements of—Cats—Horses—Ruminants—Monkeys,
their expression of joy and affection—Of pain—Anger Astonishment and
Terror
CHAP. VI.—SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
The screaming and weeping of infants—Form of features—Age at which
weeping commences—The effects of habitual restraint on
weeping—Sobbing—Cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes
during screaming—Cause of the secretion of tears
CHAP. VII.—LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
General effect of grief on the system—Obliquity of the eyebrows under
suffering—On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows—On the
depression of the corners of the mouth
CHAP. VIII.—JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
Laughter primarily the expression of joy—Ludicrous ideas—Movements of
the features during laughter—Nature of the sound produced—The secretion
of tears during loud laughter—Gradation from loud laughter to gentle
smiling—High spirits—The expression of love—Tender feelings—Devotion
CHAP. IX.—REFLECTION—MEDITATION—ILL—TEMPER—SULKINESS DETERMINATION.
The act of frowning—Reflection with an effort or with the perception of
something difficult or disagreeable—Abstracted
meditation—Ill-temper—Moroseness—Obstinacy—Sulkiness and
pouting—Decision or determination—The firm closure of the mouth
CHAP. X.—HATRED AND ANGER.
Hatred—Rage, effects of on the system—Uncovering of the teeth—Rage in
the insane—Anger and indignation—As expressed by the various races of
man—Sneering and defiance—The uncovering of the canine teeth on one
side of the face
CHAP. XI.—DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST—GUILT—PRIDE,
ETC.—HELPLESSNESS—PATIENCE—AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.
Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed—Derisive
Smile—Gestures expressive of contempt—Disgust—Guilt, deceit, pride,
etc.—Helplessness or impotence—Patience—Obstinacy—Shrugging the
shoulders common to most of the races of man—Signs of affirmation and
negation
CHAP. XII.—SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR.
Surprise, astonishment—Elevation of the eyebrows—Opening the
mouth—Protrusion of the lips—Gestures accompanying surprise—Admiration
Fear—Terror—Erection of the hair—Contraction of the platysma
muscle—Dilatation of the pupils—horror—Conclusion.
CHAP. XIII.—SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: BLUSHING.
Nature of a blush—Inheritance—The parts of the body most
affected—Blushing in the various races of man—Accompanying
gestures—Confusion of mind—Causes of blushing—Self-attention, the
fundamental element—Shyness—Shame, from broken moral laws and
conventional rules—Modesty—Theory of blushing—Recapitulation
CHAP. XIV.—CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements
of expression—Their inheritance—On the part which the will and
intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions—The
instinctive recognition of expression—The bearing of our subject on the
specific unity of the races of man—On the successive acquirement of
various expressions by the progenitors of man—The importance of
expression—Conclusion
ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS.
INTRODUCTION.
Many works have been written on Expression, but a greater number on
Physiognomy,—that is, on the recognition of character through the study
of the permanent form of the features. With this latter subject I am
not here concerned. The older treatises,[1] which I have consulted,
have been of little or no service to me. The famous ‘Conférences’[2] of
the painter Le Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient work,
and contains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay, namely, the
‘Discours,’ delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist
Camper,[3] can hardly be considered as having made any marked advance
in the subject. The following works, on the contrary, deserve the
fullest consideration.
Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology,
published in 1806 the first edition, and in the third edition of his
‘Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.’[4] He may with justice be said,
not only to have laid the foundations of the subject as a branch of
science, but to have built up a noble structure. His work is in every
way deeply interesting; it includes graphic descriptions of the various
emotions, and is admirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that
his service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate relation
which exists between the movements of expression and those of
respiration. One of the most important points, small as it may at first
appear, is that the muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted
during violent expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate
organs from the pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully
investigated for me with the greatest kindness by Professors Donders of
Utrecht, throws, as we shall hereafter see, a flood of light on several
of the most important expressions of the human countenance. The merits
of Sir C. Bell’s work have been undervalued or quite ignored by several
foreign writers, but have been fully admitted by some, for instance by
M. Lemoine,[5] who with great justice says:—“Le livre de Ch. Bell
devrait être médité par quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de
l’homme, par les philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, car, sous
une apparence plus légère et sous le prétexte de l’esthétique, c’est un
des plus beaux monuments de la science des rapports du physique et du
moral.”
From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not
attempt to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried.
He does not try to explain why different muscles are brought into
action under different emotions; why, for instance, the inner ends of
the eyebrows are raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed, by a
person suffering from grief or anxiety.
In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy,[6] in
which he incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent
descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles, together with many
valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light on the
philosophy of the subject. For instance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the
act of frowning, that is, of the contraction of the muscle called by
French writers the _soucilier_ (_corrigator supercilii_), remarks with
truth:—“Cette action des sourciliers est un des symptômes les plus
tranchés de l’expression des affections pénibles ou concentrées.” He
then adds that these muscles, from their attachment and position, are
fitted “à resserrer, à concentrer les principaux traits de la _face_,
comme il convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives ou
profondes, dans ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter
l’organisation à revenir sur elle-même, à se contracter et à
_s’amoindrir_, comme pour offrir moins de prise et de surface à des
impressions redoutables ou importunes.” He who thinks that remarks of
this kind throw any light on the meaning or origin of the different
expressions, takes a very different view of the subject to what I do.
In the above passage there is but a slight, if any, advance in the
philosophy of the subject, beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun,
who, in 1667, in describing the expression of fright, says:—“Le sourcil
qui est abaissé d’un côté et élevé de l’autre, fait voir que la partie
élevée semble le vouloir joindre au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que
l’âme aperçoit, et le côté qui est abaissé et qui paraît enflé,—nous
fait trouver dans cet état par les esprits qui viennent du cerveau en
abondance, comme polir couvrir l’âme et la défendre du mal qu’elle
craint; la bouche fort ouverte fait voir le saisissement du cœur, par
le sang qui se retire vers lui, ce qui l’oblige, voulant respirer, à
faire un effort qui est cause que la bouche s’ouvre extrêmement, et
qui, lorsqu’il passe par les organes de la voix, forme un son qui n’est
point articulé; que si les muscles et les veines paraissent enflés, ce
n’est que par les esprits que le cerveau envoie en ces parties-là.” I
have thought the foregoing sentences worth quoting, as specimens of the
surprising nonsense which has been written on the subject.
‘The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,’ by Dr. Burgess, appeared in
1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth
Chapter.
In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo, of
his ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ in which he analyses by
means of electricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the
movements of the facial muscles. He has generously permitted me to copy
as many of his photographs as I desired. His works have been spoken
lightly of, or quite passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is
possible that Dr. Duchenne may have exaggerated the importance of the
contraction of single muscles in giving expression; for, owing to the
intimate manner in which the muscles are connected, as may be seen in
Henle’s anatomical drawings[7]—the best I believe ever published it is
difficult to believe in their separate action. Nevertheless, it is
manifest that Dr. Duchenne clearly apprehended this and other sources
of error, and as it is known that he was eminently successful in
elucidating the physiology of the muscles of the hand by the aid of
electricity, it is probable that he is generally in the right about the
muscles of the face. In my opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced
the subject by his treatment of it. No one has more carefully studied
the contraction of each separate muscle, and the consequent furrows
produced on the skin. He has also, and this is a very important
service, shown which muscles are least under the separate control of
the will. He enters very little into theoretical considerations, and
seldom attempts to explain why certain muscles and not others contract
under the influence of certain emotions.
A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of
lectures on Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published
(1865) after his death, under the title of ‘De la Physionomie et des
Mouvements d’Expression.’ This is a very interesting work, full of
valuable observations. His theory is rather complex, and, as far as it
can be given in a single sentence (p. 65), is as follows:—“Il résulte,
de tous les faits que j’ai rappelés, que les sens, l’imagination et la
pensée elle-même, si élevée, si abstraite qu’on la suppose, ne peuvent
s’exercer sans éveiller un sentiment corrélatif, et que ce sentiment se
traduit directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement ou
métaphoriquement, dans toutes les sphères des organs extérieurs, qui la
racontent tous, suivant leur mode d’action propre, comme si chacun
d’eux avait été directement affecté.”
Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some extent
habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to
give the right explanation, or any explanation at all, of many gestures
and expressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic
movements, I will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from M. Chevreul, on
a man playing at billiards. “Si une bille dévie légèrement de la
direction que le joueur prétend lui imprimer, ne l’avez-vous pas vu
cent fois la pousser du regard, de la tête et même des épaules, comme
si ces mouvements, purement symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son
trajet? Des mouvements non moins significatifs se produisent quand la
bille manque d’une impulsion suffisante. Et cliez les joueurs novices,
ils sont quelquefois accusés au point d’éveiller le sourire sur les
lèvres des spectateurs.” Such movements, as it appeirs to me, may be
attributed simply to habit. As often as a man has wished to move an
object to one side, he has always pushed it to that side when forwards,
he has pushed it forwards; and if he has wished to arrest it, he has
pulled backwards. Therefore, when a man sees his ball travelling in a
wrong direction, and he intensely wishes it to go in another direction,
he cannot avoid, from long habit, unconsciously performing movements
which in other cases he has found effectual.
As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212) the
following case:—“un jeune chien à oreilles droites, auquel son maître
présente de loin quelque viande appétissante, fixe avec ardeur ses yeux
sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, et pendant que les yeux
regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en avant comme si cet objet
pouvait être entendu.” Here, instead of speaking of sympathy between
the ears and eyes, it appears to me more simple to believe, that as
dogs during many generations have, whilst intently looking at any
object, pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; and
conversely have looked intently in the direction of a sound to which
they may have listened, the movements of these organs have become
firmly associated together through long-continued habit.
Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I have not
seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled Gratiolet in many of
his views. In 1867 he published his ‘Wissenschaftliches System der
Mimik und Physiognomik.’ It is hardly possible to give in a few
sentences a fair notion of his views; perhaps the two following
sentences will tell as much as can be briefly told: “the muscular
movements of expression are in part related to imaginary objects, and
in part to imaginary sensorial impressions. In this proposition lies
the key to the comprehension of all expressive muscular movements.” (s.
25) Again, “Expressive movements manifest themselves chiefly in the
numerous and mobile muscles of the face, partly because the nerves by
which they are set into motion originate in the most immediate vicinity
of the mind-organ, but partly also because these muscles serve to
support the organs of sense.” (s. 26.) If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir
C. Bell’s work, he would probably not have said (s. 101) that violent
laughter causes a frown from partaking of the nature of pain; or that
with infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes, and thus excite the
contraction of the surrounding in muscles. Many good remarks are
scattered throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter refer.
Short discussions on Expression may be found in various works, which
need not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works
has treated the subject at some length. He says,[8] “I look upon the
expression so-called as part and parcel of the feeling. I believe it to
be a general law of the mind that along with the fact of inward feeling
or consciousness, there is a diffusive action or excitement over the
bodily members.” In another place he adds, “A very considerable number
of the facts may be brought under the following principle: namely, that
states of pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain
with an abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions.” But the
above law of the diffusive action of feelings seems too general to
throw much light on special expressions.
Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his ‘Principles of
Psychology’ (1855), makes the following remarks:—“Fear, when strong,
expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in
palpitations and tremblings; and these are just the manifestations that
would accompany an actual experience of the evil feared. The
destructive passions are shown in a general tension of the muscular
system, in gnashing of the teeth and protrusion of the claws, in
dilated eyes and nostrils in growls; and these are weaker forms of the
actions that accompany the killing of prey.” Here we have, as I
believe, the true theory of a large number of expressions; but the
chief interest and difficulty of the subject lies in following out the
wonderfully complex results. I infer that some one (but who he is I
have not been able to ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly similar
view, for Sir C. Bell says,[9] “It has been maintained that what are
called the external signs of passion, are only the concomitants of
those voluntary movements which the structure renders necessary.” Mr.
Spencer has also published[10] a valuable essay on the physiology of
Laughter, in which he insists on “the general law that feeling passing
a certain pitch, habitually vents itself in bodily action,” and that
“an overflow of nerve-force undirected by any motive, will manifestly
take first the most habitual routes; and if these do not suffice, will
next overflow into the less habitual ones.” This law I believe to be of
the highest importance in throwing light on our subject.’[11]
All the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception of
Mr. Spencer—the great expounder of the principle of Evolution—appear to
have been firmly convinced that species, man of course included, came
into existence in their present condition. Sir C. Bell, being thus
convinced, maintains that many of our facial muscles are “purely
instrumental in expression;” or are “a special provision” for this sole
object.[12] But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes possess the
same facial muscles as we do,[13] renders it very improbable that these
muscles in our case serve exclusively for expression; for no one, I
presume, would be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with
special muscles solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct
uses, independently of expression, can indeed be assigned with much
probability for almost all the facial muscles.
Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible
between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that
with “the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be
referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary
instincts.” He further maintains that their faces “seem chiefly capable
of expressing rage and fear.”[14] But man himself cannot express love
and humility by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with
drooping ears, hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets
his beloved master. Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by
acts of volition or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes
and smiling cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell
had been questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he
would no doubt have answered that this animal had been created with
special instincts, adapting him for association with man, and that all
further enquiry on the subject was superfluous.
Although Gratiolet emphatically denies[15] that any muscle has been
developed solely for the sake of expression, he seems never to have
reflected on the principle of evolution. He apparently looks at each
species as a separate creation. So it is with the other writers on
Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements
of the limbs, refers to those which give expression to the face, and
remarks:[16] “Le créateur n’a donc pas eu à se préoccuper ici des
besoins de la mécanique; il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou—que l’on me
pardonne cette manière de parler—par une divine fantaisie, mettre en
action tel ou tel muscle, un seul ou plusieurs muscles à la fois,
lorsqu’il a voulu que les signes caractéristiques des passions, même
les plus fugaces, fussent écrits passagèrement sur la face de l’homme.
Ce langage de la physionomie une fois créé, il lui a suffi, pour le
rendre universel et immuable, de donner à tout être humain la faculté
instinctive d’exprimer toujours ses sendments par la contraction des
mêmes muscles.”
Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable.
Thus the illustrious physiologist Müller, says,[17] “The completely
different expression of the features in different passions shows that,
according to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups of
the fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the cause of this we
are quite ignorant.”
No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as independent
creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural desire to
investigate as far as possible the causes of Expression. By this
doctrine, anything and everything can be equally well explained; and it
has proved as pernicious with respect to Expression as to every other
branch of natural history. With mankind some expressions, such as the
bristling of the hair under the influence of extreme terror, or the
uncovering of the teeth under that of furious rage, can hardly be
understood, except on the belief that man once existed in a much lower
and animal-like condition. The community of certain expressions in
distinct though allied species, as in the movements of the same facial
muscles during laughter by man and by various monkeys, is rendered
somewhat more intelligible, if we believe in their descent from a
common progenitor. He who admits on general grounds that the structure
and habits of all animals have been gradually evolved, will look at the
whole subject of Expression in a new and interesting light.
The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being
often extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be
clearly perceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found
it so, to state in what the difference consists. When we witness any
deep emotion, our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close
observation is forgotten or rendered almost impossible; of which fact I
have had many curious proofs. Our imagination is another and still more
serious source of error; for if from the nature of the circumstances we
expect to see any expression, we readily imagine its presence.
Notwithstanding Dr. Duchenne’s great experience, he for a long time
fancied, as he states, that several muscles contracted under certain
emotions, whereas he ultimately convinced himself that the movement was
confined to a single muscle.
In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain,
independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of the
features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the
mind, I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the
first place, to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir
C. Bell remarks, “with extraordinary force;” whereas, in after life,
some of our expressions “cease to have the pure and simple source from
which they spring in infancy.”[18]
In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to be
studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give
uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this,
so I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an introduction to
Dr. J. Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asylum near
Wakefield, and who, as I found, had already attended to the subject.
This excellent observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious
notes and descriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points; and I
can hardly over-estimate the value of his assistance. I owe also, to
the kindness of Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum,
interesting statements on two or three points.
Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain
muscles in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and
thus produced various expressions which were photographed on a large
scale. It fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best
plates, without a word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons
of various ages and both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what
emotion or feeling the old man was supposed to be agitated; and I
recorded their answers in the words which they used. Several of the
expressions were instantly recognised by almost everyone, though
described in not exactly the same terms; and these may, I think, be
relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified. On the other
hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced in regard to
some of them. This exhibition was of use in another way, by convincing
me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination; for when I first
looked through Dr. Duchenne’s photographs, reading at the same time the
text, and thus learning what was intended, I was struck with admiration
at the truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions. Nevertheless,
if I had examined them without any explanation, no doubt I should have
been as much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have been.
Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in
painting and sculpture, who are such close observers. Accordingly, I
have looked at photographs and engravings of many well-known works;
but, with a few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt
is, that in works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly
contracted facial muscles destroy beauty.[19] The story of the
composition is generally told with wonderful force and truth by
skilfully given accessories.
Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same
expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted without
much evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those who
have associated but little with Europeans. Whenever the same movements
of the features or body express the same emotions in several distinct
races of man, we may infer with much probability, that such expressions
are true ones,—that is, are innate or instinctive. Conventional
expressions or gestures, acquired by the individual during early life,
would probably have differed in the different races, in the same manner
as do their languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the year
1867, the following printed queries with a request, which has been
fully responded to, that actual observations, and not memory, might be
trusted. These queries were written after a considerable interval of
time, during which my attention had been otherwise directed, and I can
now see that they might have been greatly improved. To some of the
later copies, I appended, in manuscript, a few additional remarks:—
(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide,
and by the eyebrows being raised?
(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to
be visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend?
(3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body
and head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists?
(4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any
puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids?
(5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and
the inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French
call the “Grief muscle”? The eyebrow in this state becomes slightly
oblique, with a little swelling at the Inner end; and the forehead is
transversely wrinkled in the middle part, but not across the whole
breadth, as when the eyebrows are raised in surprise.
(6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little
wrinkled round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back
at the corners?
(7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper
lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man whom
he addresses?
(8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is
chiefly shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow and a
slight frown?
(9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by
turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration?
(10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper lip
slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like incipient
vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth?
(11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with
Europeans?
(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears
into the eyes?
(13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being
done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn
inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms; with
the eyebrows raised?
(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips?
(15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though
I know not how these can be defined.
(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken
laterally in negation?
Observations on natives who have had little communication with
Europeans would be of course the most valuable, though those made on
any natives would be of much interest to me. General remarks on
expression are of comparatively little value; and memory is so
deceptive that I earnestly beg it may not be trusted. A definite
description of the countenance under any emotion or frame of mind, with
a statement of the circumstances under which it occurred, would possess
much value.
To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different
observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the
aborigines, to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble
which they have taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will
specify their names, &c., towards the close of this chapter, so as not
to interrupt my present remarks. The answers relate to several of the
most distinct and savage races of man. In many instances, the
circumstances have been recorded under which each expression was
observed, and the expression itself described. In such cases, much
confidence may be placed in the answers. When the answers have been
simply yes or no, I have always received them with caution. It follows,
from the information thus acquired, that the same state of mind is
expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity; and this
fact is in itself interesting as evidence of the close similarity in
bodily structure and mental disposition of all the races, of mankind.
Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended as closely as I could, to the
expression of the several passions in some of the commoner animals; and
this I believe to be of paramount importance, not of course for
deciding how far in man certain expressions are characteristic of
certain states of mind, but as affording the safest basis for
generalisation on the causes, or origin, of the various movements of
Expression. In observing animals, we are not so likely to be biassed by
our imagination; and we may feel safe that their expressions are not
conventional.
From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature of some
expressions (the changes in the features being often extremely slight);
our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion,
and our attention thus distracted; our imagination deceiving us, from
knowing in a vague manner what to expect, though certainly few of us
know what the exact changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even
our long familiarity with the subject,—from all these causes combined,
the observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons,
whom I have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered.
Hence it is difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the
movements of the features and of the body, which commonly characterize
certain states of the mind. Nevertheless, some of the doubts and
difficulties have, as I hope, been cleared away by the observation of
infants,—of the insane,—of the different races of man,—of works of
art,—and lastly, of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism,
as effected by Dr. Duchenne.
But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding the
cause or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether any
theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as we
can by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which of two or more
explanations is the most satisfactory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I
see only one way of testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether
the same principle by which one expression can, as it appears, be
explained, is applicable in other allied cases; and especially, whether
the same general principles can be applied with satisfactory results,
both to man and the lower animals. This latter method, I am inclined to
think, is the most serviceable of all. The difficulty of judging of the
truth of any theoretical explanation, and of testing it by some
distinct line of investigation, is the great drawback to that interest
which the study seems well fitted to excite.
Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they
were commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day,
I have occasionally attended to the subject. At the above date, I was
already inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or of the
derivation of species from other and lower forms. Consequently, when I
read Sir C. Bell’s great work, his view, that man had been created with
certain muscles specially adapted for the expression of his feelings,
struck me as unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the habit of
expressing our feelings by certain movements, though now rendered
innate, had been in some manner gradually acquired. But to discover how
such habits had been acquired was perplexing in no small degree. The
whole subject had to be viewed under a new aspect, and each expression
demanded a rational explanation. This belief led me to attempt the
present work, however imperfectly it may have been executed.
I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said, I
am deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions
exhibited by various races of man, and I will specify some of the
circumstances under which the observations were in each case made.
Owing to the great kindness and powerful influence of Mr. Wilson, of
Hayes Place, Kent, I have received from Australia no less than thirteen
sets of answers to my queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as
the Australian aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of all the
races of man. It will be seen that the observations have been chiefly
made in the south, in the outlying parts of the colony of Victoria; but
some excellent answers have been received from the north.
Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations, made
several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough
Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made by
himself, and for sending me several of the following letters,
namely:—From the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a missionary
in Gippsland, Victoria, who has had much experience with the natives.
From Mr. Samuel Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera,
Victoria. From the Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native
Industrial Settlement at Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, of
Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a school where aborigines, old and
young, are collected from all parts of the colony. From Mr. H. B. Lane,
of Belfast, Victoria, a police magistrate and warden, whose
observations, as I am assured, are highly trustworthy. From Mr.
Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station is on the borders of the
colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to observe many
aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men. He compared
his observations with those made by two other gentlemen long resident
in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote
part of Gippsland, Victoria.
I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Müller,
of Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me
others made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing
letters.
In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has
answered only a few of my queries; but the answers have been remarkably
full, clear, and distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which
the observations were made.
The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect to the
Dyaks of Borneo.
Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach
(to whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a
mining engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who
had never before associated with white men. He wrote me two long
letters with admirable and detailed observations on their expression.
He likewise observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago.
The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also observed for
me the Chinese in their native country; and he made inquiries from
others whom he could trust.
In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official capacity in
the Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency, attended to the
expression of the inhabitants, but found much difficulty in arriving at
any safe conclusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all
emotions in the presence of Europeans. He also obtained information for
me from Mr. West, the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some
intelligent native gentlemen on certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J.
Scott, curator of the Botanic Gardens, carefully observed the various
tribes of men therein employed during a considerable period, and no one
has sent me such full and valuable details. The habit of accurate
observation, gained by his botanical studies, has been brought to bear
on our present subject. For Ceylon I am much indebted to the Rev. S. O.
Glenie for answers to some of my queries.
Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes,
though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power. It would
have been comparatively easy to have obtained information in regard to
the negro slaves in America; but as they have long associated with
white men, such observations would have possessed little value. In the
southern parts of the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and
Fingoes, and sent me many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also
made some observations on the natives, and procured for me a curious
document, namely, the opinion, written in English, of Christian Gaika,
brother of the Chief Sandilli, on the expressions of his
fellow-countrymen. In the northern regions of Africa Captain Speedy,
who long resided with the Abyssinians, answered my queries partly from
memory and partly from observations made on the son of King Theodore,
who was then under his charge. Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray attended to
some points in the expressions of the natives, as observed by them
whilst ascending the Nile.
On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist residing with
the Fuegians, answered some few questions about their expression,
addressed to him many years ago. In the northern half of the continent
Dr. Rothrock attended to the expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox
tribes on the Nasse River, in North-Western America. Mr. Washington
Matthews Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also observed
with special care (after having seen my queries, as printed in the
‘Smithsonian Report’) some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts
of the United States, namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and
Assinaboines; and his answers have proved of the highest value.
Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected
some few facts incidentally given in books of travels.——
Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 1-2
Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 3
As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part of
this volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram
(fig. 1) copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell’s work, and two others,
with more accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde’s well-known
‘Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.’ The same letters
refer to the same muscles in all three figures, but the names are given
of only the more important ones to which I shall have to allude. The
facial muscles blend much together, and, as I am informed, hardly
appear on a dissected face so distinct as they are here represented.
Some writers consider that these muscles consist of nineteen pairs,
with one unpaired;[20] but others make the number much larger,
amounting even to fifty-five, according to Moreau. They are, as is
admitted by everyone who has written on the subject, very variable in
structure; and Moreau remarks that they are hardly alike in
half-a-dozen subjects.[21] They are also variable in function. Thus the
power of uncovering the canine tooth on one side differs much in
different persons. The power of raising the wings of the nostrils is
also, according to Dr. Piderit,[22] variable in a remarkable degree;
and other such cases could be given.
Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr.
Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me
various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr
Kindermann, of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of
crying infants; and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling
girl. I have already expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for
generously permitting me to have some of his large photographs copied
and reduced. All these photographs have been printed by the Heliotype
process, and the accuracy of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates
are referred to by Roman numerals.
I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains
which he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various
animals. A distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere, has had the kindness to
give me two drawings of dogs—one in a hostile and the other in a humble
and caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also given me two similar
sketches of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks.
Some of the photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May, and
those by Mr. Wolf of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced by Mr.
Cooper on wood by means of photography, and then engraved: by this
means almost complete fidelity is ensured.
CHAPTER I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
The three chief principles stated—The first principle—Serviceable
actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind,
and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case—The
force of habit—Inheritance—Associated habitual movements in man—Reflex
actions—Passage of habits into reflex actions—Associated habitual
movements in the lower animals—Concluding remarks.
I will begin by giving the three Principles, which appear to me to
account for most of the expressions and gestures involuntarily used by
man and the lower animals, under the influence of various emotions and
sensations.[101] I arrived, however, at these three Principles only at
the close of my observations. They will be discussed in the present and
two following chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both with
man and the lower animals will here be made use of; but the latter
facts are preferable, as less likely to deceive us. In the fourth and
fifth chapters, I will describe the special expressions of some of the
lower animals; and in the succeeding chapters those of man. Everyone
will thus be able to judge for himself, how far my three principles
throw light on the theory of the subject. It appears to me that so many
expressions are thus explained in a fairly satisfactory manner, that
probably all will hereafter be found to come under the same or closely
analogous heads. I need hardly premise that movements or changes in any
part of the body,—as the wagging of a dog’s tail, the drawing back of a
horse’s ears, the shrugging of a man’s shoulders, or the dilatation of
the capillary vessels of the skin,—may all equally well serve for
expression. The three Principles are as follows.
I. _The principle of serviceable associated Habits_.—Certain complex
actions are of direct or indirect service under certain states of the
mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain sensations, desires, &c.;
and whenever the same state of mind is induced, however feebly, there
is a tendency through the force of habit and association for the same
movements to be performed, though they may not then be of the least
use. Some actions ordinarily associated through habit with certain
states of the mind may be partially repressed through the will, and in
such cases the muscles which are least under the separate control of
the will are the most liable still to act, causing movements which we
recognize as expressive. In certain other cases the checking of one
habitual movement requires other slight movements; and these are
likewise expressive.
II. _The principle of Antithesis_.—Certain states of the mind lead to
certain habitual actions, which are of service, as under our first
principle. Now when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there
is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of
a directly opposite nature, though these are of no use; and such
movements are in some cases highly expressive.
III. _The principle of actions due to the constitution of the Nervous
System, independently from the first of the Will, and independently to
a certain extent of Habit_.—When the sensorium is strongly excited,
nerve-force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain
definite directions, depending on the connection of the nerve-cells,
and partly on habit: or the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears,
be interrupted. Effects are thus produced which we recognize as
expressive. This third principle may, for the sake of brevity, be
called that of the direct action of the nervous system.
With respect to our _first Principle_, it is notorious how powerful is
the force of habit. The most complex and difficult movements can in
time be performed without the least effort or consciousness. It is not
positively known how it comes that habit is so efficient in
facilitating complex movements; but physiologists admit[102] “that the
conducting power of the nervous fibres increases with the frequency of
their excitement.” This applies to the nerves of motion and sensation,
as well as to those connected with the act of thinking. That some
physical change is produced in the nerve-cells or nerves which are
habitually used can hardly be doubted, for otherwise it is impossible
to understand how the tendency to certain acquired movements is
inherited. That they are inherited we see with horses in certain
transmitted paces, such as cantering and ambling, which are not natural
to them,—in the pointing of young pointers and the setting of young
setters—in the peculiar manner of flight of certain breeds of the
pigeon, &c. We have analogous cases with mankind in the inheritance of
tricks or unusual gestures, to which we shall presently recur. To those
who admit the gradual evolution of species, a most striking instance of
the perfection with which the most difficult consensual movements can
be transmitted, is afforded by the humming-bird Sphinx-moth
(_Macroglossa_); for this moth, shortly after its emergence from the
cocoon, as shown by the bloom on its unruffled scales, may be seen
poised stationary in the air, with its long hair-like proboscis
uncurled and inserted into the minute orifices of flowers; and no one,
I believe, has ever seen this moth learning to perform its difficult
task, which requires such unerring aim.
When there exists an inherited or instinctive tendency to the
performance of an action, or an inherited taste for certain kinds of
food, some degree of habit in the individual is often or generally
requisite. We find this in the paces of the horse, and to a certain
extent in the pointing of dogs; although some young dogs point
excellently the first time they are taken out, yet they often associate
the proper inherited attitude with a wrong odour, and even with
eyesight. I have heard it asserted that if a calf be allowed to suck
its mother only once, it is much more difficult afterwards to rear it
by hand.[103] Caterpillars which have been fed on the leaves of one
kind of tree, have been known to perish from hunger rather than to eat
the leaves of another tree, although this afforded them their proper
food, under a state of nature;[104] and so it is in many other cases.
The power of Association is admitted by everyone. Mr. Bain remarks,
that “actions, sensations and states of feeling, occurring together or
in close succession, tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way
that when any one of them is afterwards presented to the mind, the
others are apt to be brought up in idea.”[105] It is so important for
our purpose fully to recognize that actions readily become associated
with other actions and with various states of the mind, that I will
give a good many instances, in the first place relating to man, and
afterwards to the lower animals. Some of the instances are of a very
trifling nature, but they are as good for our purpose as more important
habits. It is known to everyone how difficult, or even impossible it
is, without repeated trials, to move the limbs in certain opposed
directions which have never been practised. Analogous cases occur with
sensations, as in the common experiment of rolling a marble beneath the
tips of two crossed fingers, when it feels exactly like two marbles.
Everyone protects himself when falling to the ground by extending his
arms, and as Professor Alison has remarked, few can resist acting thus,
when voluntarily falling on a soft bed. A man when going out of doors
puts on his gloves quite unconsciously; and this may seem an extremely
simple operation, but he who has taught a child to put on gloves, knows
that this is by no means the case.
When our minds are much affected, so are the movements of our bodies;
but here another principle besides habit, namely the undirected
overflow of nerve-force, partially comes into play. Norfolk, in
speaking of Cardinal Wolsey, says—
“Some strange commotion
Is in his brain; he bites his lip and starts;
Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,
Then, lays his finger on his temple: straight,
Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,
Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts
His eye against the moon: in most strange postures
We have seen him set himself.”—_Hen. VIII_., act iii, sc. 2.
A vulgar man often scratches his head when perplexed in mind; and I
believe that he acts thus from habit, as if he experienced a slightly
uncomfortable bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his head, to
which he is particularly liable, and which he thus relieves. Another
man rubs his eyes when perplexed, or gives a little cough when
embarrassed, acting in either case as if he felt a slightly
uncomfortable sensation in his eyes or windpipe.[106]
From the continued use of the eyes, these organs are especially liable
to be acted on through association under various states of the mind,
although there is manifestly nothing to be seen. A man, as Gratiolet
remarks, who vehemently rejects a proposition, will almost certainly
shut his eyes or turn away his face; but if he accepts the proposition,
he will nod his head in affirmation and open his eyes widely. The man
acts in this latter case as if he clearly saw the thing, and in the
former case as if he did not or would not see it. I have noticed that
persons in describing a horrid sight often shut their eyes momentarily
and firmly, or shake their heads, as if not to see or to drive away
something disagreeable; and I have caught myself, when thinking in the
dark of a horrid spectacle, closing my eyes firmly. In looking suddenly
at any object, or in looking all around, everyone raises his eyebrows,
so that the eyes may be quickly and widely opened; and Duchenne remarks
that[107] a person in trying to remember something often raises his
eyebrows, as if to see it. A Hindoo gentleman made exactly the same
remark to Mr. Erskine in regard to his countrymen. I noticed a young
lady earnestly trying to recollect a painter’s name, and she first
looked to one corner of the ceiling and then to the opposite corner,
arching the one eyebrow on that side; although, of course, there was
nothing to be seen there.
In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand how the associated
movements were acquired through habit; but with some individuals,
certain strange gestures or tricks have arisen in association with
certain states of the mind, owing to wholly inexplicable causes, and
are undoubtedly inherited. I have elsewhere given one instance from my
own observation of an extraordinary and complex gesture, associated
with pleasurable feelings, which was transmitted from a father to his
daughter, as well as some other analogous facts.[108] Another curious
instance of an odd inherited movement, associated with the wish to
obtain an object, will be given in the course of this volume.
There are other actions which are commonly performed under certain
circumstances, independently of habit, and which seem to be due to
imitation or some sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting anything with
a pair of scissors may be seen to move their jaws simultaneously with
the blades of the scissors. Children learning to write often twist
about their tongues as their fingers move, in a ridiculous fashion.
When a public singer suddenly becomes a little hoarse, many of those
present may be heard, as I have been assured by a gentleman on whom I
can rely, to clear their throats; but here habit probably comes into
play, as we clear our own throats under similar circumstances. I have
also been told that at leaping matches, as the performer makes his
spring, many of the spectators, generally men and boys, move their
feet; but here again habit probably comes into play, for it is very
doubtful whether women would thus act.
_Reflex actions_—Reflex actions, in the strict sense of the term, are
due to the excitement of a peripheral nerve, which transmits its
influence to certain nerve-cells, and these in their turn excite
certain muscles or glands into action; and all this may take place
without any sensation or consciousness on our part, though often thus
accompanied. As many reflex actions are highly expressive, the subject
must here be noticed at some little length. We shall also see that some
of them graduate into, and can hardly be distinguished from actions
which have arisen through habit?[109] Coughing and sneezing are
familiar instances of reflex actions. With infants the first act of
respiration is often a sneeze, although this requires the co-ordinated
movement of numerous muscles. Respiration is partly voluntary, but
mainly reflex, and is performed in the most natural and best manner
without the interference of the will. A vast number of complex
movements are reflex. As good an instance as can be given is the
often-quoted one of a decapitated frog, which cannot of course feel,
and cannot consciously perform, any movement. Yet if a drop of acid be
placed on the lower surface of the thigh of a frog in this state, it
will rub off the drop with the upper surface of the foot of the same
leg. If this foot be cut off, it cannot thus act. “After some fruitless
efforts, therefore, it gives up trying in that way, seems restless, as
though, says Pflüger, it was seeking some other way, and at last it
makes use of the foot of the other leg and succeeds in rubbing off the
acid. Notably we have here not merely contractions of muscles, but
combined and harmonized contractions in due sequence for a special
purpose. These are actions that have all the appearance of being guided
by intelligence and instigated by will in an animal, the recognized
organ of whose intelligence and will has been removed.”[110]
We see the difference between reflex and voluntary movements in very
young children not being able to perform, as I am informed by Sir Henry
Holland, certain acts somewhat analogous to those of sneezing and
coughing, namely, in their not being able to blow their noses (_i.e._
to compress the nose and blow violently through the passage), and in
their not being able to clear their throats of phlegm. They have to
learn to perform these acts, yet they are performed by us, when a
little older, almost as easily as reflex actions. Sneezing and
coughing, however, can be controlled by the will only partially or not
at all; whilst the clearing the throat and blowing the nose are
completely under our command.
When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating particle in our
nostrils or windpipe—that is, when the same sensory nerve-cells are
excited, as in the case of sneezing and coughing—we can voluntarily
expel the particle by forcibly driving air through these passages; but
we cannot do this with nearly the same force, rapidity, and precision,
as by a reflex action. In this latter case the sensory nerve-cells
apparently excite the motor nerve-cells without any waste of power by
first communicating with the cerebral hemispheres—the seat of our
consciousness and volition. In all cases there seems to exist a
profound antagonism between the same movements, as directed by the will
and by a reflex stimulant, in the force with which they are performed
and in the facility with which they are excited. As Claude Bernard
asserts, “L’influence du cerveau tend donc à entraver les mouvements
réflexes, à limiter leur force et leur étendue.”[111]
The conscious wish to perform a reflex action sometimes stops or
interrupts its performance, though the proper sensory nerves may be
stimulated. For instance, many years ago I laid a small wager with a
dozen young men that they would not sneeze if they took snuff, although
they all declared that they invariably did so; accordingly they all
took a pinch, but from wishing much to succeed, not one sneezed, though
their eyes watered, and all, without exception, had to pay me the
wager. Sir H. Holland remarks[112] that attention paid to the act of
swallowing interferes with the proper movements; from which it probably
follows, at least in part, that some persons find it so difficult to
swallow a pill.
Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the involuntary closing
of the eyelids when the surface of the eye is touched. A similar
winking movement is caused when a blow is directed towards the face;
but this is an habitual and not a strictly reflex action, as the
stimulus is conveyed through the mind and not by the excitement of a
peripheral nerve. The whole body and head are generally at the same
time drawn suddenly backwards. These latter movements, however, can be
prevented, if the danger does not appear to the imagination imminent;
but our reason telling us that there is no danger does not suffice. I
may mention a trifling fact, illustrating this point, and which at the
time amused me. I put my face close to the thick glass-plate in front
of a puff-adder in the Zoological Gardens, with the firm determination
of not starting back if the snake struck at me; but, as soon as the
blow was struck, my resolution went for nothing, and I jumped a yard or
two backwards with astonishing rapidity. My will and reason were
powerless against the imagination of a danger which had never been
experienced.
The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the vividness of the
imagination, and partly on the condition, either habitual or temporary,
of the nervous system. He who will attend to the starting of his horse,
when tired and fresh, will perceive how perfect is the gradation from a
mere glance at some unexpected object, with a momentary doubt whether
it is dangerous, to a jump so rapid and violent, that the animal
probably could not voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a manner. The
nervous system of a fresh and highly-fed horse sends its order to the
motory system so quickly, that no time is allowed for him to consider
whether or not the danger is real. After one violent start, when he is
excited and the blood flows freely through his brain, he is very apt to
start again; and so it is, as I have noticed, with young infants.
A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is conveyed through the
auditory nerves, is always accompanied in grown-up persons by the
winking of the eyelids.[113] I observed, however, that though my
infants started at sudden sounds, when under a fortnight old, they
certainly did not always wink their eyes, and I believe never did so.
The start of an older infant apparently represents a vague catching
hold of something to prevent falling. I shook a pasteboard box close
before the eyes of one of my infants, when 114 days old, and it did not
in the least wink; but when I put a few comfits into the box, holding
it in the same position as before, and rattled them, the child blinked
its eyes violently every time, and started a little. It was obviously
impossible that a carefully-guarded infant could have learnt by
experience that a rattling sound near its eyes indicated danger to
them. But such experience will have been slowly gained at a later age
during a long series of generations; and from what we know of
inheritance, there is nothing improbable in the transmission of a habit
to the offspring at an earlier age than that at which it was first
acquired by the parents.
From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that some actions, which
were at first performed consciously, have become through habit and
association converted into reflex actions, and are now so firmly fixed
and inherited, that they are performed, even when not of the least
use,[114] as often as the same causes arise, which originally excited
them in us through the volition. In such cases the sensory nerve-cells
excite the motor cells, without first communicating with those cells on
which our consciousness and volition depend. It is probable that
sneezing and coughing were originally acquired by the habit of
expelling, as violently as possible, any irritating particle from the
sensitive air-passages. As far as time is concerned, there has been
more than enough for these habits to have become innate or converted
into reflex actions; for they are common to most or all of the higher
quadrupeds, and must therefore have been first acquired at a very
remote period. Why the act of clearing the throat is not a reflex
action, and has to be learnt by our children, I cannot pretend to say;
but we can see why blowing the nose on a handkerchief has to be learnt.
It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless frog, when it
wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its thigh, and which
movements are so well coordinated for a special purpose, were not at
first performed voluntarily, being afterwards rendered easy through
long-continued habit so as at last to be performed unconsciously, or
independently of the cerebral hemispheres.
So again it appears probable that starting was originally acquired by
the habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from danger, whenever
any of our senses gave us warning. Starting, as we have seen, is
accompanied by the blinking of the eyelids so as to protect the eyes,
the most tender and sensitive organs of the body; and it is, I believe,
always accompanied by a sudden and forcible inspiration, which is the
natural preparation for any violent effort. But when a man or horse
starts, his heart beats wildly against his ribs, and here it may be
truly said we have an organ which has never been under the control of
the will, partaking in the general reflex movements of the body. To
this point, however, I shall return in a future chapter.
The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimulated by a bright
light, is another instance of a movement, which it appears cannot
possibly have been at first voluntarily performed and then fixed by
habit; for the iris is not known to be under the conscious control of
the will in any animal. In such cases some explanation, quite distinct
from habit, will have to be discovered. The radiation of nerve-force
from strongly-excited nerve-cells to other connected cells, as in the
case of a bright light on the retina causing a sneeze, may perhaps aid
us in understanding how some reflex actions originated. A radiation of
nerve-force of this kind, if it caused a movement tending to lessen the
primary irritation, as in the case of the contraction of the iris
preventing too much light from falling on the retina, might afterwards
have been taken advantage of and modified for this special purpose.
It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all probability
liable to slight variations, as are all corporeal structures and
instincts; and any variations which were beneficial and of sufficient
importance, would tend to be preserved and inherited. Thus reflex
actions, when once gained for one purpose, might afterwards be modified
independently of the will or habit, so as to serve for some distinct
purpose. Such cases would be parallel with those which, as we have
every reason to believe, have occurred with many instincts; for
although some instincts have been developed simply through
long-continued and inherited habit, other highly complex ones have been
developed through the preservation of variations of pre-existing
instincts—that is, through natural selection.
I have discussed at some little length, though as I am well aware, in a
very imperfect manner, the acquirement of reflex actions, because they
are often brought into play in connection with movements expressive of
our emotions; and it was necessary to show that at least some of them
might have been first acquired through the will in order to satisfy a
desire, or to relieve a disagreeable sensation.
_Associated habitual movements in the lower animals_.—I have already
given in the case of Man several instances of movements associated with
various states of the mind or body, which are now purposeless, but
which were originally of use, and are still of use under certain
circumstances. As this subject is very important for us, I will here
give a considerable number of analogous facts, with reference to
animals; although many of them are of a very trifling nature. My object
is to show that certain movements were originally performed for a
definite end, and that, under nearly the same circumstances, they are
still pertinaciously performed through habit when not of the least use.
That the tendency in most of the following cases is inherited, we may
infer from such actions being performed in the same manner by all the
individuals, young and old, of the same species. We shall also see that
they are excited by the most diversified, often circuitous, and
sometimes mistaken associations.
Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or other hard surface,
generally turn round and round and scratch the ground with their
fore-paws in a senseless manner, as if they intended to trample down
the grass and scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their wild parents did,
when they lived on open grassy plains or in the woods. Jackals,
fennecs, and other allied animals in the Zoological Gardens, treat
their straw in this manner; but it is a rather odd circumstance that
the keepers, after observing for some months, have never seen the
wolves thus behave. A semi-idiotic dog—and an animal in this condition
would be particularly liable to follow a senseless habit—was observed
by a friend to turn completely round on a carpet thirteen times before
going to sleep.
Many carnivorous animals, as they crawl towards their prey and prepare
to rush or spring on it, lower their heads and crouch, partly, as it
would appear, to hide themselves, and partly to get ready for their
rush; and this habit in an exaggerated form has become hereditary in
our pointers and setters. Now I have noticed scores of times that when
two strange dogs meet on an open road, the one which first sees the
other, though at the distance of one or two hundred yards, after the
first glance always lowers its bead, generally crouches a little, or
even lies down; that is, he takes the proper attitude for concealing
himself and for making a rush or spring although the road is quite open
and the distance great. Again, dogs of all kinds when intently watching
and slowly approaching their prey, frequently keep one of their
fore-legs doubled up for a long time, ready for the next cautious step;
and this is eminently characteristic of the pointer. But from habit
they behave in exactly the same manner whenever their attention is
aroused (fig. 4). I have seen a dog at the foot of a high wall,
listening attentively to a sound on the opposite side, with one leg
doubled up; and in this case there could have been no intention of
making a cautious approach.
Small Dog Watching a Cat on A Table. Figure 4
{illust. caption = for making a rush or FIG. 4.—Small dog watching a
cat on a table. From a photograph taken by Mr. Rejlander.}
Dogs after voiding their excrement often make with all four feet a few
scratches backwards, even on a bare stone pavement, as if for the
purpose of covering up their excrement with earth, in nearly the same
manner as do cats. Wolves and jackals behave in the Zoological Gardens
in exactly the same manner, yet, as I am assured by the keepers,
neither wolves, jackals, nor foxes, when they have the means of doing
so, ever cover up their excrement, any more than do dogs. All these
animals, however, bury superfluous food. Hence, if we rightly
understand the meaning of the above cat-like habit, of which there can
be little doubt, we have a purposeless remnant of an habitual movement,
which was originally followed by some remote progenitor of the
dog-genus for a definite purpose, and which has been retained for a
prodigious length of time.
Dogs and jackals[115] take much pleasure in rolling and rubbing their
necks and backs on carrion. The odour seems delightful to them, though
dogs at least do not eat carrion. Mr. Bartlett has observed wolves for
me, and has given them carrion, but has never seen them roll on it. I
have heard it remarked, and I believe it to be true, that the larger
dogs, which are probably descended from wolves, do not so often roll in
carrion as do smaller dogs, which are probably descended from jackals.
When a piece of brown biscuit is offered to a terrier of mine and she
is not hungry (and I have heard of similar instances), she first tosses
it about and worries it, as if it were a rat or other prey; she then
repeatedly rolls on it precisely as if it were a piece of carrion, and
at last eats it. It would appear that an imaginary relish has to be
given to the distasteful morsel; and to effect this the dog acts in his
habitual manner, as if the biscuit was a live animal or smelt like
carrion, though he knows better than we do that this is not the case. I
have seen this same terrier act in the same manner after killing a
little bird or mouse.
Dogs scratch themselves by a rapid movement of one of their hind-feet;
and when their backs are rubbed with a stick, so strong is the habit,
that they cannot help rapidly scratching the air or the ground in a
useless and ludicrous manner. The terrier just alluded to, when thus
scratched with a stick, will sometimes show her delight by another
habitual movement, namely, by licking the air as if it were my hand.
Horses scratch themselves by nibbling those parts of their bodies which
they can reach with their teeth; but more commonly one horse shows
another where he wants to be scratched, and they then nibble each
other. A friend whose attention I had called to the subject, observed
that when he rubbed his horse’s neck, the animal protruded his head,
uncovered his teeth, and moved his jaws, exactly as if nibbling another
horse’s neck, for he could never have nibbled his own neck. If a horse
is much tickled, as when curry-combed, his wish to bite something
becomes so intolerably strong, that he will clatter his teeth together,
and though not vicious, bite his groom. At the same time from habit he
closely depresses his ears, so as to protect them from being bitten, as
if he were fighting with another horse.
A horse when eager to start on a journey makes the nearest approach
which he can to the habitual movement of progression by pawing the
ground. Now when horses in their stalls are about to be fed and are
eager for their corn, they paw the pavement or the straw. Two of my
horses thus behave when they see or hear the corn given to their
neighbours. But here we have what may almost be called a true
expression, as pawing the ground is universally recognized as a sign of
eagerness.
Cats cover up their excrements of both kinds with earth; and my
grandfather[116] saw a kitten scraping ashes over a spoonful of pure
water spilt on the hearth; so that here an habitual or instinctive
action was falsely excited, not by a previous act or by odour, but by
eyesight. It is well known that cats dislike wetting their feet, owing,
it is probable, to their having aboriginally inhabited the dry country
of Egypt; and when they wet their feet they shake them violently. My
daughter poured some water into a glass close to the head of a kitten;
and it immediately shook its feet in the usual manner; so that here we
have an habitual movement falsely excited by an associated sound
instead of by the sense of touch.
Kittens, puppies, young pigs and probably many other young animals,
alternately push with their forefeet against the mammary glands of
their mothers, to excite a freer secretion of milk, or to make it flow.
Now it is very common with young cats, and not at all rare with old
cats of the common and Persian breeds (believed by some naturalists to
be specifically extinct), when comfortably lying on a warm shawl or
other soft substance, to pound it quietly and alternately with their
fore-feet; their toes being spread out and claws slightly protruded,
precisely as when sucking their mother. That it is the same movement is
clearly shown by their often at the same time taking a bit of the shawl
into their mouths and sucking it; generally closing their eyes and
purring from delight. This curious movement is commonly excited only in
association with the sensation of a warm soft surface; but I have seen
an old cat, when pleased by having its back scratched, pounding the air
with its feet in the same manner; so that this action has almost become
the expression of a pleasurable sensation.
Having referred to the act of sucking, I may add that this complex
movement, as well as the alternate protrusion of the fore-feet, are
reflex actions; for they are performed if a finger moistened with milk
is placed in the mouth of a puppy, the front part of whose brain has
been removed.[117] It has recently been stated in France, that the
action of sucking is excited solely through the sense of smell, so that
if the olfactory nerves of a puppy are destroyed, it never sucks. In
like manner the wonderful power which a chicken possesses only a few
hours after being hatched, of picking up small particles of food, seems
to be started into action through the sense of hearing; for with
chickens hatched by artificial heat, a good observer found that “making
a noise with the finger-nail against a board, in imitation of the
hen-mother, first taught them to peck at their meat.”[118]
I will give only one other instance of an habitual and purposeless
movement. The Sheldrake (_Tadorna_) feeds on the sands left uncovered
by the tide, and when a worm-cast is discovered, “it begins patting the
ground with its feet, dancing as it were, over the hole;” and this
makes the worm come to the surface. Now Mr. St. John says, that when
his tame Sheldrakes “came to ask for food, they patted the ground in an
impatient and rapid manner.”[119] This therefore may almost be
considered as their expression of hunger. Mr. Bartlett informs me that
the Flamingo and the Kagu (_Rhinochetus jubatus_) when anxious to be
fed, beat the ground with their feet in the same odd manner. So again
Kingfishers, when they catch a fish, always beat it until it is killed;
and in the Zoological Gardens they always beat the raw meat, with which
they are sometimes fed, before devouring it.
We have now, I think, sufficiently shown the truth of our first
Principle, namely, that when any sensation, desire, dislike, &c., has
led during a long series of generations to some voluntary movement,
then a tendency to the performance of a similar movement will almost
certainly be excited, whenever the same, or any analogous or associated
sensation &c., although very weak, is experienced; notwithstanding that
the movement in this case may not be of the least use. Such habitual
movements are often, or generally inherited; and they then differ but
little from reflex actions. When we treat of the special expressions of
man, the latter part of our first Principle, as given at the
commencement of this chapter, will be seen to hold good; namely, that
when movements, associated through habit with certain states of the
mind, are partially repressed by the will, the strictly involuntary
muscles, as well as those which are least under the separate control of
the will, are liable still to act; and their action is often highly
expressive. Conversely, when the will is temporarily or permanently
weakened, the voluntary muscles fail before the involuntary. It is a
fact familiar to pathologists, as Sir C. Bell remarks,[120] “that when
debility arises from affection of the brain, the influence is greatest
on those muscles which are, in their natural condition, most under the
command of the will.” We shall, also, in our future chapters, consider
another proposition included in our first Principle; namely, that the
checking of one habitual movement sometimes requires other slight
movements; these latter serving as a means of expression.