for a final reduction of Israel and were led by Sisera. This chief was
victorious and seemed about to overcome the Hebrew tribes. The very
existence of Israel was in gravest danger. The highways were unsafe, for
these were held by the Canaanites who were preparing for a final stand.
At this juncture Deborah, an inspired prophetess, called upon Barak, a
chieftain of the north, to deliver the people. Intermarriage between the
Israelites and Canaanites had become so common that it was useless to
attempt to rally the early tribes--early distinctions were no longer
closely drawn. So Deborah called on all who worshipped Jahweh to rally
in His cause. The old enthusiasm was rekindled, and the Canaanites
suffered a great defeat. Their king Sisera escaped and took refuge in
the tent of a peasant woman. Trusting to her hospitality, he partook of
refreshment she offered him. Asking simply for water, she gave him milk.
When he fell asleep for a brief rest, she drove a tent-pin through his
head, thus killing him. It has been fully observed that "only in an age
of tents could such a deed have been thus extolled." The Canaanites
never recovered the loss of that day's defeat, and their strength was
permanently broken. The Song of Deborah, recorded in the Book of
Judges, is one of the earliest writings in the Old Testament. It has
recently been thrown again into its original verse form, and rings clear
of an early age, echoing the spirit of a crude but vigorous race.
DEBORAH'S SONG.
_Men._ For that the leaders took the lead in Israel--
_Women._ For that the people offered themselves willingly--
_All._ Bless ye the Lord!
PRELUDE.
_Men._ Hear, O ye kings--
_Women._ Give ear, O ye princes--
_Men._ I, even I, will sing unto the Lord--
_Women._ I will sing praises to the Lord, the God of Israel.
_All._ Lord, when thou wentest forth out of Seir,
When thou marchedst out of the field of Edom,
The earth trembled, the heavens also dropped,
Yea, the clouds dropped water.
The mountain flowed down at the presence of the Lord.
Even yon Sinai at the presence of the Lord, the God of Israel.
I. THE DESOLATION.
_Men._ In the days of Shamgar, the son of Anath,
In the days of Jael,
The highways were unoccupied,
And the travellers walked through byways;
The rulers ceased in Israel,
They ceased--
_Women._ Until that I, Deborah, arose,
That I arose a mother in Israel.
They chose new gods;
Then was war in the gates:
Was there a shield or spear seen
Among forty thousand in Israel?
_Men._ My heart is toward the governors of Israel--
_Women._ Ye that offered yourselves willingly among the people--
_All._ Bless ye the Lord!
_Men._ Tell of it, ye that ride on white asses,
Ye that sit on rich carpets,
And ye that walk by the way:--
_Women._ Far from the noise of archers,
In the places of drawing water:--
_All._ There shall they rehearse the righteous acts of the Lord,
Even the righteous acts of his rule in Israel.
II. THE MUSTER.
_All._ The people of the Lord went down to the gates--
_Men._ Awake, awake, Deborah,
Awake, awake, utter a song:--
_Women._ Arise, Barak,
And lead thy captivity captive, thou son of Abinoan.
_All._ Then came down a remnant of the nobles,
The people of the Lord came down for me against the Mighty.
_Women._ Out of Ephraim came down they whose root is in Amalek--
_Men._ After thee, Benjamin, among thy peoples--
_Women._ Out of Machir came down the governors--
_Men._ And out of Zubulum they that handle the marshal's staff--
_Women._ And the princes of Issachar were with Deborah--
_Men._ So was Issachar, so was Barak:
_All._ Into the valley they rushed forth at his feet.
_Men._ By the water courses of Reuben
There were great resolves of heart.
_Women._ Why satest thou among the sheepfolds,
To hear the pipings for the flocks?
_Men._ At the watercourses of Reuben
There were great searchings of heart!
_Women._ Gilead abode beyond Jordan--
_Men._ And Dan, why did he remain in ships?
_Women._ Ashur sat still at the haven of the sea,
And abode by his creeks.
_Men._ Zubulum was a people that jeoparded their lives unto the death,
And Naphtali upon the high places of the field.
III. THE BATTLE AND THE ROUT.
_Men._ The kings came and fought;
Then fought the kings of Canaan,
In Taanach by the waters of Megiddo:--
They took no gain of money.
_Women._ They fought from heaven,
The stars in their courses fought against Sisera.
The river Kishon swept them away,--
That ancient river, the river Kishon!
_Men._ O my soul, march on with strength!
Then did the horsehoofs stamp
By reason of the prancings,
The prancings of their strong ones.
_Women._ Curse ye, Meroz, said the angel of the Lord,
Curse ye bitterly the inhabitants thereof;
Because they came not to the help of the Lord,
To the help of the Lord against the mighty!
IV. THE RETRIBUTION.
_Men._ Blessed above women shall Jael be the wife of Heber the
Kenite,
Blessed shall she be above women in the tent!
He asked water, and she gave him milk;
She brought him butter in a lordly dish.
She put her hand to the nail,
And her right hand to the workman's hammer;
And with the hammer she smote Sisera.
She smote through his head,
Yea, she pierced and struck through his temples.
At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay:
At her feet he bowed, he fell:
When he bowed, there he fell down dead!
_Women._ Through the window she looked forth, and cried,
The mother of Sisera, through the lattice,
"Why is his chariot so long coming?
Why tarry the wheels of his chariots?"
Her wise ladies answered her,
Yea, she returned answer to herself,
"Have they not found,
Have they not divided the spoils?
A damsel, two damsels to every man;
To Sisera a spoil of divers colors,
A spoil of divers colors of embroidery,
Of divers colors of embroidery on both sides, on the necks
of the spoil!"
_All._ So let all thine enemies perish, O Lord:
But let them that love him be as the sun when he goeth
forth in his might!
Having overcome the Canaanites, the Israelites were not destined to long
enjoy peace. Their own kinsmen, the Ammonites and Moabites looked with
envy upon their good fortune in winning such desirable land and tried
now to rob them of it. Notwithstanding the fact that the Israelites,
Moabites and Ammonites had all a common ancestry, they were never on
that account restrained from plundering one another's territories.
Forced to take a definite stand against them, the Hebrews cast about for
a leader. Jephthah was named. He was an outlaw, a bold border man, who
belonged to the Hebrew race, and his bravery was unquestioned. When
besought, he agreed to drive out the Ammonites on one condition only:
that he be acknowledged chieftain after the battle. This being conceded,
he led the Hebrew forces. It was in keeping with his rough, reckless
nature that he should vow to sacrifice the first living thing he met
upon his return were he victorious. The Ammonites were defeated and to
Jephthah's utter consternation, his daughter, his only child, rushed
forth to meet him. We are told that his vow was kept, and thus we know
that human sacrifices were sometimes offered to Jahweh.
During the era of the Judges, the Philistines on the southwest began to
expand, upon land already settled by the Israelites. They overran the
Plain of Sharon, and the Hebrews who had peopled the plain were driven
into the hills. This crisis brought forth Samson, one of the chiefs who
essayed to stay the power of these new enemies. He was a simple child of
nature--a giant in strength, a weakling in steadfast purpose. He lacked
the capacity to plan a campaign and execute it. The stories of his
prodigious power, his feats pf physical endurance, are too well known to
require repetition. They were lauded by his admirers and delighted in
by the Israelites when directed against their enemies, but his blows
were invariably given to avenge personal wrongs, and he left his people
no farther on their way against the Philistines than he found them.
The great difficulty during this period was that there was no tendency
to hold long together. "Israel had within itself the worst of enemies
and a germ of destruction. This was the proud sense of independence and
the strongly-developed family feeling of the nomad, which did not
immediately vanish from the national character with the surrender of the
nomadic fashion of life. After the united effort under Joshua had but
barely laid the foundation, the people again broke up into tribes and
clans, which now aimlessly sought new places of settlement, each on its
own account and unmindful of its neighbors."[1]
This tendency to fall apart was the most dangerous sign of Israel's
progress, and we shall see how it lasted through her history.
Nevertheless, for the time being the lesson was learned that only by
uniting against the enemy could victory be won. The era of the Judges so
far impressed this truth upon the minds of the Hebrews that we note the
beginnings of Hebrew unity.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Hist. of People of Israel, 47.
CHAPTER X.
THE MORALITY OF THE HEBREWS PRIOR TO THE KINGDOM.
It is a mistake to suppose that the lofty conceptions of Israel's later
seers and prophets were manifest among the people from the earliest
times. Quite the reverse was true. Like all primitive people, the
Hebrews passed through the usual stages of development, religiously and
morally. Sufficient evidence goes to show that they worshipped many gods
in the beginning, as did other Semitics. Joshua once reminded them of
their earlier faith:
"Your fathers dwelt on the other side of the flood in old time, even
Terah, the father of Abraham, and the father of Nachor: and they served
other gods."[1]
"In many respects doubtless their religion was closely akin to that of
neighboring Semitic people. They had their sacred pillars, trees, and
other emblems of the divine power and presence; they carried with them
_teraphim_, which were apparently images venerated as household gods. In
many of their beliefs and practices they did not rise above the general
level of their age."[2]
During their long sojourn in Egypt, as might have been expected, they
grew to worship Egyptian gods. "Cast ye away every man the abominations
of his eyes, and defile not yourselves with the idols of Egypt."[3]
The explanation which has seemed to make clear the unique development of
the Hebrew above other Semitics, is this one--only recently offered. It
is well-known that the Israelites were originally henotheists--that is,
they believed in many gods--believed that many divinities were powerful,
but they gave allegiance to one, the god of their tribe. This god
belonged to their tribe, and shared its successes and failures. Now when
Moses accepted Jahweh, God of the Midianites, he persuaded the
Israelites to forsake the gods they were worshipping and give their
homage to Jahweh. At the foot of Sinai he caused them to make a
covenant with Jahweh: the God was to give them protection, and they were
to worship him alone. Because he was an adopted God and not a member of
their tribe, he was bound to protect them only when they served him
faithfully. The adopted God could cast off his adopted people if they
failed to fulfill their part of the contract. The Hebrews always said
that they were a peculiar people. They repeatedly referred to the fact
that God could cast them off if they were unloyal to him. Such a thing
is unknown among other nations. No other God could cast off his people;
he was one of them. This explains also why the Hebrews were always so
ready to abandon their God and take on the gods of their neighbors.
"In any case it is clear that Jahweh was not originally the god of
Israel, but only became such in consequence of the work of Moses and of
the events of the exodus....
"Israel's relation to Jahweh was unique.... He was not an ancestral god
who stood in a natural and necessary relation to his people, like the
gods of other Semitic tribes; but he was the god of Sinai and of Midian,
who had come into connection with Israel only through his own free,
moral choice. Israel belonged to him, not by birth, but by election. Its
existence and its continuance were dependent upon his sovereign good
pleasure, and he might cast it off as easily as he had adopted it. Under
these circumstances he had the right to make conditions upon which his
favour should depend such as other gods could not make. This fact does
not explain the ethical character of the Mosaic religion; it explains
only why an ethical religion was promulgated at this particular
time."[4]
It is the custom of all primitive people to ascribe their early laws and
government to divine origin. This rule is seldom varied, and was adhered
to by the ancient Hebrews. Instead of conceiving the God-Spirit as
having endowed Moses with true insight, wise judgments, and high ideals,
the Israelites believed that their Covenant had been dictated, word by
word, by Jahweh, while it was further claimed that tablets with words
inscribed upon them were given Moses by God himself. As a matter of
fact, the earliest decalogue differed widely from the one best known.
The commandments first given the people after they were led forth from
Egypt were probably the ones recorded in the twenty-fourth chapter of
Exodus, and were something like these:
1. Thou shalt worship no other god.
2. Thou shalt make thee no molten gods.
3. The feast of unleaven bread shalt thou keep.
4. Every firstling is mine.
5. Thou shalt keep the feast of the weeks.
6. Thou shalt keep the feast of the ingathering at the end of
the year.
7. Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven.
8. The fat of my feast shall not be left over until the morning.
9. Thou shalt bring the best of the first fruits of thy land to
the house of Jehovah thy God.
10. Thou shalt not seethe a kid in his mother's milk.
Because Moses was known to the Israelites as a law-giver, laws passed
long after his death were attributed to him, quite as laws which came
into being years after the death of Hammurabit in Babylon were probably
attributed to this great national law-giver.
A company of slaves, escaping from servitude after serving for two or
three generations, and having possessed but a crude civilization
previous to that experience, would require only the simplest laws, and
any one reading the various rules and regulations attributed to this
period will easily see how crude was the stage of development which made
such instruction necessary. As time went on, and the people advanced and
became more enlightened, new laws were possible. These continued to be
known as the "Laws of Moses," as laws in all early countries have been
attributed to some renowned personage, to give them added force.
In these early periods which we have been studying, the religion of the
Hebrews possessed many features in common with those of surrounding
nations. We read that the "Children of Israel walked through the fire,"
which means that they sacrificed their first-born in flames as offerings
to their God. Jahweh was believed to be a jealous God, vindictive,
demanding cruel treatment of captives, and fierce and relentless in
battle. A man cannot get a higher ideal of God than that of a perfect
human being, and this was an age when all ideas and ideals were crude.
When the Hebrews settled Canaan, they learned much from the earlier
inhabitants of the land. Becoming farmers, they quite naturally fell
into the way of worshipping the god of harvests, and other agricultural
deities of the Canaanites. The "high places" are repeatedly spoken of,
these being places where other gods were worshipped. When roused by
danger, they renewed their covenant with Jahweh and returned to more
careful performance of their part of the early agreement.
The system of polygamy was well established. Several of the patriarchs
took two or more wives. If a man died childless, it was not only
customary but a duty that the next in line should marry the widow and
raise up seed to his memory. This is expressly shown by the story of
Ruth, most attractive in its early simplicity. We learn more of the
every day life of the Israelites in the period following Hebrew
occupancy of Canaan from this little idyl than from any other source, or
from all other sources combined.
So far as germs of government and judicial administration of the people
thus far discernible are concerned, they had seemingly not progressed
farther than the instruction of Moses led them. The years spent in the
wilderness after the exodus were very essential to the future welfare of
the Hebrew nation. Their government--to whatever extent they possessed
one--was closely allied to their religion. There were many experiences
met with in these forty years which seemed to prove Jahweh's care and
protection over them, and Moses was regarded as his representative on
earth, who received his instructions from Jahweh and delivered them to
his people.
"His words were Jehovah's message to them. As he led them in their
wilderness wandering, they felt themselves under the direct guidance of
their God; he attended to the simple ritual of the desert sanctuary at
Kadesh; to him, as the representative of Jehovah, were referred the more
difficult cases of dispute which arose; his decisions had all the weight
of Jehovah's authority. _In this way he laid down by practical
illustration the principles of that civil and religious law which bears
his name._ As these cases multiplied, he was led to constitute a rude
patriarchal tribunal composed of the elders of the tribes. In this
simple organization is found the germ of the Hebrew judicial and
executive system.
"Thus Moses was the man who under divine direction 'hewed Israel from
the rock.' Subsequent prophets and circumstances chiselled the rough
boulder into symmetrical form, but the glory of the creative act is
rightly attributed to the first great Hebrew prophet. As a leader, he
not only created a nation, but guided them through infinite vicissitudes
to a land where they might have a settled abode and develop into a
stable power; in so doing, he left upon his race the imprint of his own
personality. As a judge, he set in motion forces which ultimately led to
the incorporation of the principles of right in objective laws. As a
priest, he first gave form to the worship of Jehovah. As a prophet, _he
gathered together all that was best in the faith of his age and race_,
and, fusing them, gave to his people a living religion."[5]
Before the time of the monarchy, their darkest years were those wherein
the Israelites departed from this Mosaic teaching; their best periods,
those in which they assimilated it and attempted to carry it out. To
whatever extent they developed strength and stability for their future
nation before the birth of their kingdom, such strength came as a result
of the Mosaic religious and moral teaching.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Joshua, 24, 2.
[2] Short Hist. of the Hebrews: Ottley, 26.
[3] Ezekiel, 20, 7.
[4] Early Hist. of Syria and Palestine: Paton, 139, 141.
[5] Hist. of the Hebrew People: Kent Vol. I 44.
CHAPTER XI.
CAUSES LEADING TO THE KINGDOM.
1250 B.C. has been taken as an approximate date for the exodus of the
Israelites from Egypt, some placing the event still earlier. After the
wandering in the desert, considerable time was spent winning Canaan from
its earlier possessors before any settlement was possible. The twelfth
century and first part of the eleventh before Christ were years of
re-adjustment, the Israelites losing the habits of desert nomads and
becoming tillers of the soil.
In rocky districts they still raised sheep and cattle but acquired fixed
homes. Warfare had been constant, but in later years had been carried on
wholly by individual tribes, there being no concerted action. The
tendency to divide and seek each its own peculiar interests had been
apparent from the first, and the beginning of the eleventh century B.C.
found the tribes prostrated as a result. The Canaanites no longer
threatened them but the Philistines constantly grew bolder. When they
pressed into the plain of Jezreel, the Israelites were forced to fight
them, but lacking an able leader and sufficient numbers, they lost the
day. Surviving instincts of earlier superstitious practices led them to
bring the ark containing their covenant with Jehovah from its sanctuary
at Shiloh, thinking this might aid them in a second struggle. "Let us
fetch the ark of the covenant of Jehovah out of Shiloh unto us, that it
may come among us, and save us out of the hand of our enemies." But
instead of leading to victory, 30,000 Israelites fell upon the battle
field and the sacred ark itself fell into the hands of the Philistines.
"The Philistines burned and destroyed the temple at Shiloh, carried the
captured sacred ark to the temple of their chief god, Dagon, and
subjected the land, even to the Jordan; the people were disarmed and
held in check by Philistine prefects and strongholds. And from all
evidence this Philistine domination must have lasted a considerable
time. Israel seemed paralyzed and submitted, though with gnashing of
teeth."[1]
When Israel lay stricken and at the mercy of her enemies on the west,
the Ammonites thought the time favorable to lead a new attack for the
purpose of recovering their earlier territories on the east. The town of
Jabesh was first afflicted, and when its inhabitants offered to
surrender, feeling helpless to overpower their ancient foes, the king of
the Ammonites insolently replied that he would cause the right eye of
each citizen of the town to be cast out, as a reproach to Israel. In the
quaint expression of Josephus: "The king of the Ammonites sent
ambassadors to them, commanding them either to deliver themselves up, on
condition to have their right eyes plucked out, or to undergo a siege,
and have their cities overthrown. He gave them their choice, whether
they would cut off a small number of their body, or universally perish."
Implored to grant them a few days respite, the king of the Ammonites
scornfully conceded it, sure of his ultimate triumph.
In Ephraim dwelt a seer, Samuel by name. He was a godly man, having rare
purity of character and intense religious fervor. Dedicated when a child
to the service of Jehovah, the course of his life had led him to catch
the spirit of the great founder of the Hebrew nation and beyond him, to
gain a broader conception of the great God-Spirit. He understood why his
people were a prey to every neighbor, and knew better than most how much
a firm leadership was needed by them. With eyes that saw far into the
future, Samuel realized that the crying need was unity and concerted
action. Now in these ancient days, unity meant kingship. Under strong
kings, contemporary nations flourished, and a king was apparently
necessary in Canaan.
Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, seeking his father's asses, approached
the seer, whose prophetic powers were well known in his vicinity. The
youth thought simply to invoke his aid in his private interests, but
Samuel recognized in the broad-shouldered, well-proportioned Benjaminite
one who might come to the rescue of stricken Israel. With prophetic
vision, Samuel foretold coming events and anointed Saul as one chosen of
Jehovah to rule the nation of His special care. Since he was not called
immediately to action, Saul returned to his father's house, where he
went about his ordinary duties. But the words of the seer had sunk deep
into his heart. Indications of Israel's stricken condition were not
wanting on every hand, and Saul brooded over her helplessness and his
call to save his people. At length, when the citizens from mourning
Jabesh visited his vicinity, vainly trying to rouse their kinsmen to
action, Saul saw that his opportunity had come. Sympathy had been
everywhere expressed by the Israelites, but they had suffered too many
recent defeats to feel confidence in their ability to win.
Saul hastily cut up a yoke of oxen, and sending these bloody tokens to
the various tribes, he notified them that such treatment would be meted
out to their flocks and herds unless they came to the relief of the
trans-Jordan cities. Recognizing a leader at last, men quickly gathered.
The desert tribe was surprised, defeated and pursued into its desert
strongholds. Thereupon Saul was popularly proclaimed king, as it was now
believed that he alone could save the Hebrews from the Philistines, who
were heavily oppressing them.
A king is ordinarily one who rules a kingdom, but in the case of Saul, a
kingdom had first to be won. His encounters with the Philistines were
successful, but his reign proved to be a continual campaign against
them. Gradually Saul became estranged from Samuel, who represented the
best element in Israel. Priests of a later period assigned the
difference between them as having arisen over Saul's leniency toward his
captives, but it is believed that instead it came naturally between two
men whose ideals were wide apart. Saul was incapable of taking an
exalted view of his people's mission, as did his priest and prophet.
Beset on all sides by the enemy, estranged from Samuel and in general
from the priesthood, Saul became moody and subject to fits of
melancholia. To dispel these, David, son of Jesse, was brought from his
father's flocks on the mountainside, to gladden the king's idle hours.
David was accomplished upon the harp, and his music had power to quiet
the restless king, who heaped favors and honors upon him--after the
nature of his impulsive disposition. As armour-bearer to the king, David
had frequent opportunities to distinguish himself, while he and the
king's son Jonathan became fast friends. However, as David grew in favor
with the people, Saul became intensely jealous of him. Where the
kingship was but an experiment, popularity was important to a ruler. In
his disordered brain, Saul conceived that a plot was being laid by his
son and David, and as a result, David was obliged to flee for his life.
He raised his standard as an outlaw chief, and all the dissatisfied
element of the land flocked to his side. Yet even here David favored the
people of Israel whenever he could; for protection he went into the
service of the Philistine king of Gath, but we are told that when he was
supposed to be fighting against the Hebrews, he was in reality fighting
off their desert enemies.
The division within the ranks of Israel once more gave opportunity to
the watchful Philistines. They made ready for a final assault, and the
moody and disheartened Saul prepared to fight them back. He was no
longer able to rouse his kinsmen as at first. Many were discontented
with his rule, and many favored David. Before the battle, Saul, grown
more superstitious with the pressure of circumstance, visited the witch
of Endor to learn by her art the issue of the battle. Never does the
king, tall in stature and once confident, but now broken in spirit,
appear more tragic. When she predicted defeat--and small art was needed
to foretell such an apparent outcome--Saul felt that all was lost. One
feels as when the voice of Cæsar spake unto Brutus in the great play:
"Thou shalt see me at Philippi"--the battle is lost before it is begun.
When all was lost, Saul gave his sword to his armour-bearer to stab him
lest he fall into the hands of the enemy. When he lacked courage, he
plunged it into his own breast. Both he and his noble son Jonathan went
down on that fateful field, and so ended the first reign in Israel.
David is believed to have composed his beautiful elegy "How are the
Mighty Fallen" upon this occasion.
DAVID'S LAMENT.
Thy glory, O Israel,
Is slain upon thy high places!
How are the mighty--
Fallen!
Tell it not in Gath,
Publish it not in the streets of Ashkelon;
Lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice,
Lest the daughters of the uncircumcised triumph.
Ye mountains of Gilboa, let there be no dew nor rain upon you,
Neither fields of offerings:
For the shield of the mighty was vilely cast away,
The shield of Saul, as of one not anointed with oil.
From the blood of the slain,
From the fat of the mighty,
The bow of Jonathan turned not back,
And the sword of Saul returned not empty.
Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives,
And in their death they were not divided;
They were swifter than eagles,
They were stronger than lions.
Ye daughters of Israel,
Weep over Saul,
Who clothed you in scarlet,
Who put ornaments of gold upon your apparel.
How are the mighty--
Fallen in the midst of the battle!
O Jonathan,
Slain upon thy high places.
I am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan:
Very pleasant hast thou been unto me:
Thy love to me was wonderful,
Passing the love of women.
How are the mighty--
Fallen!
And the weapons of war--
Perished!
--_Modern Reader's Bible._
In the Old Testament itself are two contradictory estimates of the
character of Saul. One was written by those who favored and cared for
him; the other, by the faction which favored David. Later compilers have
thrown the two together, and the result is that we must once more
disentangle the two narratives and then judge between them. The
following characterizations of him differ considerably, and yet have
certain ideas in common:
"Saul is one of the most tragic figures in history. A great and nobly
endowed nature, heroic and chivalrous, inspired with fiery zeal, he
finally accomplished nothing.... He lacked appreciation of the true
character of Israel; in this regard tradition has given a wholly correct
picture of him. He was exclusively a soldier, and was in a fair way to
exchange Israel into a secular military state and thus divert it from
its religious function in universal history. Saul may claim our deepest
compassion and our heartiest sympathy, but the fall of his power was a
blessing for Israel."[2]
The second criticism upon the fallen king seems more fair and
sympathetic:
"Saul was a simple-minded, impulsive, courageous warrior; he was a loyal
patriot who loved his people and was ready to give his life for them;
his physical pre-eminence, combined with energy and enthusiasm, fitted
him to lead a sudden attack and to awaken loyal support, while his
intrepid courage kindled the same in others. But Saul was a son of that
rude age whose roots were found in the period of the Judges. In a sense
he was a child grown big. The position which he occupied demanded
executive ability, tact, the power of organization, and, above all,
patience and persistency. In these maturer qualities he was deficient;
they are rarely the possession of fiery, impetuous natures. In addition,
Saul was unable to understand and appreciate the higher religious
experiences and ideals which were already becoming the possession of
the more enlightened souls of seers like Samuel. As is frequently true
with such a nature, Saul was superstitious. Circumstances tended to
develop the darker rather than the brighter side of his character. The
constant trials and cares of the court and battle-field daunted his
enthusiasm, and induced those attacks of melancholia which obscured the
nobler Saul and led him to commit acts which constantly increased the
density of the clouds that gathered about his latter days.
"When he fell at Gilboa, and the Philistines again became masters of
northern and central Canaan, Saul's work seemed to be completely undone;
_but its foundations were laid too deeply to be undermined by political
changes_. Saul found the Hebrews ground down under Philistine dominance,
broken in spirit, undisciplined, and little more than cowards. He united
and aroused them to strike for independence. By his successes he
inspired in them confidence and courage. In the severe training-school
of Philistine warfare, he developed out of the cowards who had fled
before the Philistine army to hide themselves in caves and cisterns, the
hardy, brave warriors with whom David made his conquests. Above all, he
taught the Hebrews by practical illustration, more clearly than ever
before, that by union and union alone they could be free, and enjoy
peace and prosperity. As is often the case, _the pioneer perished amidst
seeming failure before he saw the ripe fruits of his labors; but his
work was absolutely necessary_. David reaped the fruits of Saul's
sowing, but the harvest would never have been so glorious without the
pioneer's toils."[3]
REIGN OF DAVID.
Saul is supposed to have ruled not longer than eight or ten years. His
youngest son, Eshbaal, was recognized as his natural successor. Abner,
Saul's commander-in-chief, gave Eshbaal the support of whatever army
survived, and he was established on the east side of the Jordan, while
all the territory west of the river receded to the Philistines.
David realized that he was in no position to assume control of the
Hebrews at this juncture, for he had but a few hundred followers and he
was sure to be welcomed by all the tribes only when his services were
required for the common safety. Judah was deeply attached to him at this
time, and he allowed himself to be made king of the tribe of Judah, and
established himself at Hebron.
As soon as Eshbaal felt sufficiently secure on the east of Jordan Abner
was sent to overcome David and his followers, who had thus failed to
recognize the kingship of Eshbaal. They suffered defeat and had to
retreat across the river. The times were troublous and before eight
years had passed, both Eshbaal and Abner were murdered. This left the
way open for David, to whom the subjects of Eshbaal sent homage.
The Philistines had considered the little kingdom of Saul's son unworthy
of attention, but a kingdom on the west side of the river might prove a
menace to their power, so they hastened to attack the newly crowned
king. David marched against them and broke forever their strength. They
retired into their earlier possessions and harassed Israel no more.
One by one the old enemies of the Hebrews had to be reckoned with. The
Moabites attacked the territory of David and were overcome and made
vassals. On the north the Ammonites made a raid and were so completely
defeated that we hear of them no more. On the south the Edomites made
war, and their lands also became a Hebrew province. In all these wars,
David was the defender of his people--never the aggressor, yet he left
each tribe with no further desire to make war upon Israel.
David was a statesman, and he saw at once that as king of the Hebrews,
he must no longer remain isolated with his native tribe, in the vicinity
to him most familiar. He saw that the site of Jerusalem was capable of
excellent defense, and this he made his capital.
"Jerusalem is situated pretty near the central part of the entire
country, and belonging to none of the tribes it stood on neutral ground
above them and their rivalries. When it is called the City of David this
is no mere phrase, for Jerusalem is altogether the creation of David;
and when we consider what Jerusalem was to the people of Israel, and
through the people of Israel to all mankind, we shall recognize in the
foundation of this City of David an event of world-wide importance."
Israel had reached the highest pinnacle of its political power. David's
kingdom was the most powerful one between the valley of the Euphrates
and the Nile. While disturbances extended throughout the reign until
within the last ten of David's forty years, yet the nation was saved
from impending danger and was placed on a sure basis. Now it was that
David allowed his personal desires to lead him into difficulties which
followed him many years and which darkened the reign which had promised
so much. An infatuation for Bath-sheba, wife of one of his officers,
took possession of him, and caused him to make way with her husband who
stood in his way. Like other Semitic and Oriental nations, the Hebrews
were accustomed to take more than one wife, but the religion of Jehovah
had been from the beginning a moral religion, and the more earnest among
Israel's people could but be shocked by this action on the part of the
king. Much has been made of David's remorse, but it was not so great but
that he allowed the unscrupulous woman who had aided him in his
wrongdoing to exercise a strong influence over him throughout his life.
His sons seemed to feel no restraint upon them and added crimes to their
house. Absalom, David's favorite son, took advantage of his father's
loss of popularity to raise a revolt against him. This was easily put
down, but the death of Absalom quite unnerved the king. Bath-sheba
rested not until she had settled the succession upon her son, Solomon.
Shortly after this decision was made known, David died, having reigned
forty years. In realizing what all these years meant for Israel, we can
never lose sight of the pioneer work of Saul which alone made possible
the more brilliant one of his successor.
"It is not possible to overestimate what David did for Israel: Israel as
a people, as a representative of political life, as a concrete quantity
in the development of universal history, as a nation in the fullest
sense of the word, is exclusively his work. With this he completed what
Moses had begun in quiet and inconspicuous labors on Sinai and at
Kadesh. And all of this David created as it were out of nothing, under
the most difficult conditions conceivable, with no other means than his
own all-inspiring and all-compelling personality....
"David created Israel and at the same time raised it to its highest
eminence; what Israel was under and through David it never again became.
And so we can easily understand how the eyes of Israel rested in
grateful reverence upon this figure, and how a second David became the
dream of Israel's future.
"True, the picture of David does not lack the traits of human frailty,
which Israelitish tradition, with a truly admirable sincerity has
neither suppressed nor palliated; but the charm which this personality
exercised over all contemporaries without exception has not yet faded
for us of later day; whoever devoted himself without prejudice to the
contemplation of David's history and character cannot fail to like him.
A saint and psalm-singer, as later tradition has represented him, he
certainly was not; but we find in him, a truly noble human figure, which,
in spite of all, preserved the tenderest and most fragrant bloom of its
nature, perfect directness and simplicity; nowhere any posing, nothing
theatrical, such as is always found in sham greatness; he always acts
out what he is, but his unspoiled nature, noble at heart, generally
comes very near to the right and good. At the same time the whole
personality is touched with a breath of genuine piety and childlike
trust in God, so that we can wholly comprehend how he appears to
tradition as the ideal ruler, the king after God's own heart.
"This king, who did more for the worldly greatness and earthly power of
Israel than any one else, was a genuine Israelite in that he appreciated
also Israel's religious destiny: he was no soldier-king, no conqueror
and warrior of common stamp, no ruler like any one of a hundred others,
but he is the truest incorporation of the unique character of Israel, a
unique personality in the history of the world, and we understand how he
could become the impersonation of an idea--how the highest and holiest
that Israel hoped for and longed for appears at the Son of David."[4]
We are shocked as we read of David's cruelty to captives, but in his
ferocious treatment he was but following an instinct common to the
Semitic race. It is to be remembered that he was but a brief time
removed from the era of the Judges, when even Samuel, the far-seeing
seer, and God-fearing man, hacked an enemy to pieces before the altar of
Jehovah, to the supposed gratification of his God. David's faults were
common to his age, and they were not looked upon by his contemporaries
as we look upon them today, but his virtues and redeeming
characteristics raised him far above the majority of Israel's people,
and his reign was harked back to as most worthy in Hebrew annals.
SOLOMON.
Solomon was the son of David's fourth wife--Bathsheba. Selfish, devoid
of principle and fond of intrigue, she influenced David to recognize her
son as his successor, setting aside the right of an older son. It is not
unlikely that David believed Solomon the more capable of serving Israel.
Solomon had inherited his mother's selfishness and love of display. He
soon caused the death of his brother, in order to make his crown secure.
Having neither aptitude nor ability for war, fortifications took the
place of active armies. The vassal-kingdoms which David had won were
soon lost. Forts were erected at important border places, and the city
of Jerusalem was strongly fortified.
Oriental display and absolutism were emulated by the young king. He
desired to set his kingdom on a footing with other kingdoms of his time,
and, ignoring the early aims and mission of the Israelites, he made
everything else subordinate to the exaltation of the court and king.
Commercial alliances were made with neighboring peoples; wives were
taken from many states--petty and great. Most flattering was thought to
be the marriage alliance between the Hebrew king and a daughter of the
pharaoh of Egypt, and elaborate apartments were provided her. In early
times a king added materially to his property and prestige by making
numerous alliances of this sort. David had deemed it best to do so and
Solomon followed the principle on a much wider scale.
Naturally ample funds were now required to meet the expenses of the
court, and various means were provided to secure the necessary income.
The whole kingdom was divided into twelve districts and each was
required to defray the court's expenses for one month. Moreover,
commercial enterprises were entered upon; toll was collected from the
overland trade, and the king himself dealt heavily in horses, which he
imported from Egypt and sold to the neighboring peoples at a good
profit. Suddenly the little nation of Israelites, so long isolated and
remote from the influences of wealth, was thrown open to outside contact
on every hand.
"Hitherto struggles within and hostility without had rendered the Hebrew
peasants almost impervious to foreign influences; now, all at once, the
bars were thrown down, and these came rushing in like a tidal wave. The
horse took the place of the ass; metal weapons and tools supplanted the
rude ones of flint and wood; walled cities arose on the sites of the
primitive towns with their mud and stone hovels; the rude barracks of
David grew into a palace; the simple gathering of followers about Saul,
as he sat under his tamarisk-tree in Ramah, developed into a great
Oriental court; luxuries undreamed of before came to be regarded as
necessities; foreign spices, apes, peacocks, ivory, precious stones and
woods aroused the curiosity and delighted the senses of the inhabitants
of the gay capital."[5]
Nations entering into commercial relations with Solomon expected as a
matter of course that their gods would be welcomed in the land of the
Hebrews. Many of the commercial treaties were cemented by marriage
alliances, and the princesses who came into the king's harem brought
their own forms of worship with them. Places of worship had to be
provided for them, and the idolatry of later years may be traced back in
a large measure to the laxity of this period.
The adornment of Jerusalem demanded much of the king's attention. In
place of the simple quarters which had sufficed for David, a noble
palace arose. Apartments for the queens were needed. It has recently
been insisted that instead of the three hundred and sixty wives credited
to Solomon, he had but seventy, but a few more or less seem of little
moment. The harem rivaled that of Persia, and the cost of maintaining so
elaborate a court was out of all proportion to the resources of the
kingdom. The people were taxed to the utmost. The Canaanites, who had
long been permitted to live in peace by the side of the Hebrews, were
now reduced to slavery and put at forced labor, quite as the Hebrews had
been in Egypt.
[Illustration: ROSES OF SHARON. Copyright by Underwood & Underwood,
N. Y.]
Notwithstanding, many ties bound the people to their king. They took
great pride in the splendor of their capital, and especially were
they gratified by the erection of the temple in Jerusalem. Hither David
had brought the ark of the covenant, which had been recovered from the
Philistines, and here with due ceremony the center of the kingdom had
already been made the religious center as well. It seems probable that
to Solomon the temple was but a necessary adjunct to his court
buildings. Among most ancient peoples temples were erected in connection
with the king's palace. It gave added dignity and inspired wonder. To
the masses it probably meant much more. Certainly it grew later to be
the center for their religious enthusiasm and spirit.
Nor was Solomon's popularity based alone upon his achievements. He had a
way of awakening personal popularity. He attained a wide reputation for
his so-called "wisdom." As we follow his reckless policy of plunging his
country on to ruin, this far-famed wisdom is not at once apparent. It
consisted in subtlety, quick wit, ready answers and apt sayings, so much
in favor among all oriental peoples. His wisdom is well exemplified by
the stories told of the visit of the Queen of Sheba to his court, and
her tests as to the truth of his famed gift. It is probable that this
Arabian queen came to negotiate commercial advantages-for her subjects,
but we are told only the ostensible reason for her coming: to test the
wisdom of Solomon, whose fame had reached her kingdom. The dusky queen
of renowned beauty brought costly presents to the Hebrew king, and
received high honor and attention at his court. Stories have survived of
questions put to his majesty by this queen. Two bouquets were held out
before him, apparently alike, yet one was just gathered from his garden,
and the other had been fashioned by the maidens of the queen. The simple
tale is told in a little poem entitled "King Solomon and the Bees," and
we leave the verses to complete it.
KING SOLOMON AND THE BEES.
A TALE OF THE TALMUD.
When Solomon was reigning in his glory,
Unto his throne the Queen of Sheba came,
(So in the Talmud you may read the story)
Drawn by the magic of the monarch's fame,
To see the splendors of his court, and bring
Some fitting tribute to the mighty king.
Nor this alone; much had her Highness heard
What flowers of learning graced the royal speech;
What gems of wisdom dropped with every word;
What wholesome lessons he was wont to teach
In pleasing proverbs, and she wished, in sooth,
To know if Rumor spoke the simple truth.
Besides, the queen had heard (which piqued her most)
How through the deepest riddles he could spy;
How all the curious arts that women boast
Were quite transparent to his piercing eye;
And so the queen had come--a royal guest--
To put the sage's cunning to the test.
And straight she held before the monarch's view,
In either hand, a radiant wreath of flowers;
The one, bedecked with every charming hue,
Was newly culled from Nature's choicest bowers;
The other, no less fair in every part,
Was the rare product of divinest art.
"Which is the true, and which the false?" she said.
Great Solomon was silent. All-amazed,
Each wondering courtier shook his puzzled head,
While at the garlands long the monarch gazed,
As one who sees a miracle, and fain,
For very rapture, ne'er would speak again.
"Which is the true?" once more the woman asked,
Pleased at the fond amazement of the king,
"So wise a head should not be hardly tasked,
Most learned liege, with such a trivial thing!"
But still the sage was silent; it was plain
A deepening doubt perplexed the royal brain.
While thus he pondered, presently he sees,
Hard by the casement,--so the story goes,--
A little band of busy, bustling bees,
Hunting for honey in a withered rose.
The monarch smiled, and raised his royal head;
"Open the window!"--that was all he said.
The window opened, at the king's command;
Within the room the eager insects flew,
And sought the flowers in Sheba's dexter hand!
And so the king and all the courtiers knew
_That_ wreath was Nature's; and the baffled queen
Returned to tell the wonders she had seen.
My story teaches (every tale should bear
A fitting moral) that the wise may find
In trifles light as atoms in the air,
Some useful lesson to enrich the mind,
Some truth designed to profit or to please,--
As Israel's king learned wisdom from the bees!
--_Saxe._
Six little boys and six little girls, all dressed alike, with cropped
heads, were led into the king's presence, and he was asked to tell which
were girls and which boys. "Bring in basins of water," he commanded,
"and bid them wash their hands." Now in that land the girls wore short
sleeves and the boys long ones. Unthinking, the girls washed their arms
as well, but the boys washed their hands alone. So were the spectators
silently told which were which.
Such ingenious answers as these established for Solomon his reputation
for wisdom, and many of the wise sayings imputed to him are known now to
have been the sayings of others.
Before the king's death, murmurings were not uncommon because of the
oppressive administration, and the high-minded of the religious body
looked with grave misgivings upon the influx of foreign gods. Even to
them the whole danger was not apparent. That was left for a period more
remote to understand.
When Solomon died, his son came forward as his successor. The usual
custom among Semitics was for the crown to descend to the eldest son,
but the kingship was a new institution in Israel and the people had held
to the right of electing their king. They now gathered around Rehoboam,
clamoring for promises. They recalled that his father had taxed them
heavily and asked that he deal with them more leniently. Instead of
answering such reasonable demands at once, the king told them he would
make reply three days later. Meanwhile he counselled with his
ministers--how should he meet the popular demand. The older men
immediately pointed out the safer policy, but the younger ones held that
he should resent the liberty the people had taken in making any demands
whatever, and should assure them that his demands would be even greater
than those of his father. Their folly prevailed. When the people heard
his reply, they were momentarily grieved. Then all the tribes save
two--Judah and Benjamin--withdrew and vowed they would no longer support
the house of David. Solomon's son received the support of two tribes,
and his kingdom was henceforth known by the name of Judaea, while the
northern kingdom was called by the name of Israel.
Having seen the dangers assailing the united kingdom, we realize at once
the recklessness of the policy that divided it and set two kingdoms with
lessened strength to hold their own among their neighbors.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Hist. of the People of Israel: Cornill, 75.
[2] Hist. of the People of Israel: Cornill, 83.
[3] Hist. of the Hebrew People: Kent, Vol. I, 180.
[4] Cornill: Hist. of People of Israel, 83.
[5] Kent: Hist. of Hebrew People, 180.
CHAPTER XII.
AFTER THE DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM.
While the arrogance of Rehoboam and the extravagances of Solomon were
the direct causes of the disunion, yet other agencies had long been at
work to bring it about. In the first place, natural land features
divided the ridge on the west side of the Jordan into two distinct
parts. Any permanent union was not probable. Again, the northern tribes
inhabited the more prosperous district. Their resources were greater;
and with the jealousies that always manifested themselves among the
tribes, it was hardly to have been expected that they would indefinitely
consent to be ruled by Judean kings. Moreover, during the reign of
Solomon, Judah had been exempt from taxation. Into a Judean city had
poured the wealth of the kingdom, while the hand of oppression, so heavy
elsewhere, was unfelt alone in this province. Indignation had apparently
reached a high pitch before Solomon's death, yet spokesmen for the
northern tribes met with the new king and made a simple and reasonable
demand for reduced taxes in turn for allegiance. A statesman might have
held the kingdom intact, yet it is scarcely probable that union would
have indefinitely endured. The royal messenger sent to reconcile the
northern tribes after their withdrawal was so speedily stoned to death
that the king fled for safety to Jerusalem. Jeroboam, an experienced
general, was elected king of Israel--the northern kingdom, and
hostilities between the two kingdoms were inevitable.
Judah was somewhat protected--on the north by the new-formed state, on
the east by the river and Dead Sea, on the south by the desert. On the
other hand, Israel, with her traversable plains, lay open to approach
from every side, and she it was who had to bear the brunt of outside
attack for the next two centuries.
A comparison of the two states at the outset shows Israel to have been
first in natural resources, size and population; to have been second in
unity and centralized government. Judah, with her limited area, scarcity
of water, absence of fertile soil and scanty population, had marked
advantage in her unity and hereditary kingship. There were ten tribes to
be pacified in the north--only two in the south. In Israel the
jealousies were so strong that it was the work of a moment for an
influential prince to assassinate the reigning king and usurp the crown.
Judah was crippled shortly after the division by an invasion of Egyptian
forces. They penetrated into Israel as well, but treasure was greatest
in Jerusalem. Three hundred golden shields, made by Solomon for his
guards, were taken, together with the rich decoration of the temple.
Rehoboam soon after had the ornaments of gold replaced by others of
bronze, so the splendor of the temple was not greatly changed.
For some time hostilities continued between the Hebrew kingdoms. Then
danger from Syria, a rising state with Damascus at its head, made an
alliance desirable to both kings.
After the disunion, Jeroboam felt that it would be manifestly unsafe to
allow the people of Israel to go to Jerusalem to celebrate their
national festivals, lest they might be led to return to Judah's king.
Consequently he established two sanctuaries, one at Bethel and one at
Dan, instructing people to worship at the one nearest them. He caused a
golden bull to be placed before the altar of each, thus violating the
commandment forbidding graven images. Perhaps in so doing the king was
merely symbolizing the strength of Jehovah. At an earlier period this
would have been less objectionable, but the people had grown somewhat
accustomed to worship without symbols, and this was plainly a
retrogression. The imageless worship of Jehovah was one of its
distinctive features, lifting it above that of surrounding peoples.
While prophets of a later day denounced the act of Jeroboam, the priests
of his own day were too near the change to discern its grave dangers.
The kingdoms which centered at Damascus began to reach out for
territory, and harassed Israel until the imperial growth of Assyria
caused the withdrawal of Syrian troops to protect their own land. Left
alone, the northern kingdom developed her own resources and attained a
prosperity rivaling the time of Solomon. Meanwhile, Judah had been
sheltered from outside wars and less affected by religious orders.
The period intervening between the fall of Damascus and the wars of
Tiglath-Pileser III. has been aptly called "Israel's Indian Summer." The
outlying territories of David came once more under Hebrew rule, divided
between the kingdoms of the north and south. Commerce, long abandoned,
sprang up and rivaled its tide in Solomon's reign. Unfortunately, the
social life of the people lacked its earlier simplicity, and there were
tendencies within the kingdom itself which pointed to the disintegration
of the state as surely as did the forces that were soon to approach its
walled cities.
First, recent wars had fallen most heavily upon the middle class. Small
farmers, returning from campaigns of defense of Hebrew borders, found
their estates run down, sometimes dismantled. Having no means of
building them up again, they frequently sank into the peasantry. In
periods of reaction, when property and commercial activity returned, it
was the wealthy who were benefited, while the poor became poorer yet. In
this way the middle class had practically disappeared. Such a loss would
be serious enough to a state, but this was by no means all. The
simplicity of living which had characterized the early years of the
Hebrew nation had given way to extravagance and reckless waste on the
part of the rich, throwing into powerful contrast the condition of the
poor. The humbler classes were oppressed--not by foreign foes, but by
the wealthy of their own state, and abandonment of any sympathy between
social classes was one of the most alarming tendencies.
The religious life of the country was at a low ebb. By the masses
Jehovah was still regarded as God of the Hebrews--a tribal God, quite as
Baal was god of the Phoenicians, or Asshur of the Assyrians. It was
taught by the priests that Jehovah would cause the Hebrews to win
against their enemies, since only by their triumphs was he honored. He
was worshipped much as were the gods of other nations. Licentious
customs borrowed from neighboring peoples, profaned the very temples,
and undermined earlier religious simplicity.
It was such a state of affairs that called forth the utterances of Amos
and Hosea, from whose addresses we learn of social conditions in their
day. In some hearts the religious mission of the Hebrews still remained
the most sacred of all trusts. When evils of their age threatened to
engulf them, certain clear-sighted ones were moved to rouse the
people--to bring home to them the consequences sure to overtake their
kingdom unless these glaring wrongs were corrected.
Such a spirit was Amos, a simple, clear-minded shepherd, dwelling on the
borderland between Israel and Judah, and closely observant of affairs in
both states. Inspired to voice his protest against the corruption of his
people, he left his flocks and journeyed to Bethel, the religious center
of Israel. Reaching the temple on a feast day, he was confronted by
riotous music and unseemly merriment, desecrating the temple itself. It
was then he created a sensation by his passionate address, fragments of
which are preserved to us in the biblical book which bears his name.
Instead of offending at once by quick reproof, and thus losing a chance
to be heard, he began by predicting misfortunes certain to overtake
neighboring peoples because of their misdoings. In this way he won the
attention and approval of an audience who liked to be told that they
were the Chosen People, and Jehovah was with them, and that--apparently
no matter what they did--he would not permit them to fail. Then Amos
launched into the iniquity of Israel, and prophesied disasters sure to
befall her. He uttered a new truth when he said that since the Hebrews
had received special blessings from Jehovah, even more strictly would
they be held to account for their shortcomings; that as their light had
been greater than that bestowed upon their neighbors, so would the
requirements be greater for them than for others.
"Hear ye this word which I take up against you, even a lamentation, O
house of Israel.
"The virgin of Israel is fallen; she shall no more rise up; she is
forsaken upon her land; there is none to raise her up. For thus saith
the Lord God: The city that went out by a thousand shall leave an
hundred, and that which went forth by an hundred shall leave ten, to the
house of Israel.
"For thus saith the Lord unto the house of Israel: Seek ye me, and ye
shall live; but seek not Bethel nor enter into Gilgal; for Gilgal shall
surely go into captivity, and Bethel shall come to nought.
"Seek the Lord and ye shall live; lest he break out like fire in the
house of Joseph, and devour it, and there be none to quench it. Ye who
turn judgment to wormwood, and leave off righteousness in the earth,
seek him that maketh the seven stars and Orion, and turneth the shadow
of death into morning and maketh the day dark with night; that calleth
for the waters of the sea, and poureth them out upon the face of the
earth: The Lord is his name....
"Forasmuch therefore as your treading is upon the poor, and ye take from
him burdens of wheat: ye have built houses of hewn stone, but ye shall
not dwell in them; ye have planted pleasant vineyards, but ye shall not
drink wine of them.
"For I know your manifold transgressions and your mighty sins; they
afflict the just, they take a bribe, and they turn aside the poor in the
gate from their right....
"Woe to them that are at ease in Zion, and trust in the mountains of
Samaria, which are named chief of the nations, to whom the house of
Israel came!
"Ye that put far away the evil day, and cause the seat of violence to
come near; that lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch themselves upon
their couches, and eat the lambs out of the flock, and the calves out of
the midst of the stall; that chant to the sound of the viol, and invent
to themselves instruments of music like David; that drink wine in bowls,
and anoint themselves with the chief ointments; but they are not grieved
for the affliction of Joseph.
"Therefore now shall they go captive with the first that go captive, and
the banquet of them that stretched themselves shall be removed."--_Amos
5 and 6._
Not long after, Hosea came forward with the startling and altogether
unpleasant message that Jehovah was not the God of the Hebrews alone,
but of the whole world. That he was a God of righteousness, and rewarded
it wherever found, and punished evil doing, regardless of the doer. He
touched a new chord when he taught that God was love, full of compassion
and plenteous in mercy. Heretofore _law_ had been the pivot around which
religion centered, and the ritual was observed and the sacrifice
provided. These attended to, Jehovah was supposed to be appeased. Hosea
taught that the sacrifice of burnt offerings availed nothing--that the
sacrifice demanded was "an humble and a contrite heart."
A new era was dawning for the Hebrew faith, and truth-divining men
grasped at fundamental principles, applicable alike to the whole world.
It is not surprising that long years elapsed before such broad
conceptions sank deep into the hearts of the Hebrew race. One of their
kingdoms was scattered to the winds before these were comprehended,
save, indeed, by a few, far-sighted minds; the other kingdom passed
through the humiliation of captivity and exile and through these
vicissitudes learned the truths from actual experience.
"Hear ye this, O priests; and harken, ye house of Israel; and give ear,
O house of the king; for judgment is toward you, because ye have been a
snare on Mizpah, and a net spread upon Tabor....
"The pride of Israel doth testify to his face: therefore shall Israel
and Ephraim fall in their iniquity; Judah also shall fall with them.
They shall go with their flocks and with their herds to seek the Lord
but they shall not find him; he hath withdrawn himself from them. They
have dealt treacherously against the Lord: for they have begotten
strange children: now shall a mouth devour them with their portions....
"O Ephraim, what shall I do unto thee? O Judah, what shall I do unto
thee? for your goodness is as a morning cloud, and as the early dew it
goeth away....
"For I desired mercy, and not sacrifice; and the knowledge of God more
than burnt offerings. But they like men have transgressed the covenant:
there have they dealt treacherously against me....
"Israel hath cast off the thing that is good: the enemy shall pursue
him. They have set up kings, but not by me: they have made princes, and
I knew it not: of their silver and their gold have they made them idols,
that they may be cut off. For they have sown the wind, and they shall
reap the whirlwind: it hath no stalk: the bud shall yield no meal: if so
be it yield, the strangers shall swallow it up....
"They sacrifice flesh for the sacrifices of mine offerings, and eat it;
but the Lord accepteth them not; now will he remember their iniquity and
visit their sins: they shall return to Egypt. For Israel hath forgotten
his Maker, and buildeth temples; and Judah hath multiplied fenced
cities: but I will send a fire upon his cities, and it shall devour the
palaces thereof....
"Ye have plowed wickedness, ye have reaped iniquity; ye have eaten the
fruit of lies: because thou didst trust in thy way, in the multitude of
thy mighty men....
"When Israel was a child, then I loved him, and called my son out of
Egypt. As they called them, so they went from them: they sacrificed unto
Baalim, and burned incense to graven images. I taught Ephraim also to
go, taking them by the arms; but they knew not that I healed them. I
drew them with cords of a man, with bands of love: and I was to them as
they that take off the yoke on their jaws, and I laid meat unto them....
"O Israel, thou hast destroyed thyself; but in me is thine help.
"O Israel, return unto the Lord thy God, for thou hast fallen by thine
iniquity."--_Hosea, 5-14 chapters._
END OF ISRAEL.
About 745 B.C. Tiglath-Pileser III. began his westward conquest,
incorporating great areas into his already spacious empire. Heavy
tribute was exacted from provinces so annexed. The amount required of
the northern kingdom--now known by the name of its new capital,
Samaria--was so great that the state soon drooped under the load. Egypt,
desiring also a foothold in western Asia, employed agents to stir the
conquered countries against Assyria, promising aid in case they would
revolt, but meaning only to appropriate territory for the Nile kingdom
should confusion make it possible.
Because the tribute was grievous in Samaria, the party opposed to paying
it desired an alliance with Egypt. Statesmen saw that such a movement
was ill-timed, but their voices were drowned in the multitude. In 735
B.C. a coalition was formed by the sea-coast states against Assyria, and
the revolting states refused the yearly tribute. Before the allies could
rally, Tiglath-Pileser III. reached the west by forced marches, and
defeated each state separately. Much land was laid waste, captives were
taken, and Hosea, deemed loyal to the Assyrian government, was made king
of Samaria. For ten years the annual levy was paid, but upon the death
of the great Assyrian conqueror, Hosea yielded to the popular clamor
for a revolt. He himself was soon taken prisoner, but Samaria prepared
for a siege. It lasted nearly three years, during which time intense
suffering afflicted the city. At last the capital fell to Sargon, who
destroyed it, taking 27,290 of its noblest citizens captives, deporting
them to distant points. An Assyrian governor was placed over the
desolate land and Israel ceased to exist longer as a state.
The Hebrew chronicler tells us that those taken into captivity took on
the religions of the people among whom they settled. Generally speaking
this was no doubt true. On the other hand, traditions have come down
from other sources concerning families who continued to worship Jehovah
as before. However, after a few generations, their descendants no doubt
drifted away from the faith of the Hebrews.
Thus ends the story of the ten tribes who broke away from the kingdom of
Solomon's son and organized their own northern kingdom. While enduring
prophecies and messages have been contributed by members of these
tribes, their kingdom presented no such example as did the smaller state
of Judah during the closing years of her national life. More accessible
to outside influences, more ready to compromise, Israel's early
religious fervor gradually abated. Some explanation for her inglorious
end is to be found in the physical geography of her country.
Before the fall of Samaria, Judah enjoyed years of material prosperity,
with varying fortune. Shortly before the siege of the northern capital,
Ahaz, a mere boy, succeeded to the Judah throne. Inexperienced in the
affairs of state, he was nevertheless reluctant to heed the counsels of
older advisers. Assyria was threatening like a huge monster on the
eastern horizon and the only possible way to check her approach lay in
organizing a strong coalition of the sea-coast states. Syria, instead of
taking the initiative, joined with Israel for the purpose of invading
Judea, and dividing the spoils between them. This fatal mistake led
ultimately to the destruction of both aggressive countries. King Ahaz of
Judaea, against the wise and urgent advice of Isaiah, offered allegiance
to the Assyrian emperor in turn for protection against his neighbors,
selling his countrymen into tribute slavery and despoiling the temple
of its treasure for gifts of submission. Thus it happened that while
Damascus and Samaria fell before the armies of Assyria, Jerusalem was
not approached, nor Judaea invaded, although her king became a vassal of
Tiglath-Pileser III.
Under such trying conditions as these Isaiah came into national view and
evinced qualities which have given him rank with the great statesmen of
the world. Denouncing social wrongs, he was soon drawn into the affairs
of the state. Taking no part in the politics of his day, he stood
steadfastly for fidelity to the ideals of his race and faith. He
appreciated the position that his country ought to occupy, knowing well
that as a political power she could not hope to cope with even the
secondary nations around her. Only by holding herself aloof from
material considerations, and clinging tenaciously to the religious
principles earlier evolved, could she come safely through the critical
times encompassing her. Isaiah taught that it was for Judah to purge her
worship of idolatrous practices which had drifted into it and to go
forward with unfaltering faith in the ultimate dominance of right over
wrong, justice over injustice. However he spoke to deaf ears, for the
ideals for which he stood, the moderate measures for which he pleaded,
were unpopular with the people at this time.
For some years Judaea paid her tribute, thankful to be left undisturbed.
Gradually a party sprang up which opposed the tribute payment, and
during the reign of Hezekiah its adherents became numerous enough to
control the policy of their nation. Babylonia was secretly planning a
revolt which she desired to make general; accordingly ambassadors were
dispatched to the court of Hezekiah--ostensibly to congratulate him on
his recent recovery, but really to win him to this revolt, and to
estimate the resources of his kingdom. About 702 B.C. all was ripe for
the planned revolt, and Assyrian officials were refused the tribute.
Sargon was dead and it was not expected that his son would prove so
successful a warrior as he had been. But no sooner had news of the
revolt reached Sennacherib than he pushed west, and reached the coast
before the allies were prepared. Meeting them separately, they quickly
melted away before his disciplined troops. Cities of Phoenicia and the
Philistines surrendered, and armies spread into the valleys of Judaea,
surrounding Jerusalem itself. Hezekiah was terrified into offering heavy
tribute, stripping the temple of its remaining ornaments to provide the
sum exacted by the emperor as the price of peace. Cities around about
were being laid waste and their inhabitants carried into captivity.
In spite of the booty sent him, Sennacherib felt that his victory over
Jerusalem was incomplete, and turning to meet an Egyptian relief force
approaching Judaea from the south, Sennacherib sent word to Hezekiah
that, unless the city gates swung open to him on his return, he would
storm its walls.
It had been a grievous matter to provide the treasure already required
by the Assyrian, and consternation filled Jerusalem, where little hope
of holding out against the veteran troops could longer be entertained.
With characteristic calm, Isaiah declared that deliverance for Zion
would be forth-coming, and he took occasion to bring home to the people
their deep corruption and idolatrous wanderings, while safety for them
lay in devotion to Jehovah. For once the terrified Hebrews were ready to
harken to any counsel that carried with it a promise of hope.
The fate of Sennacherib's army is well known: how encamped in a
fever-breeding swamp, it was stricken in a night. The few who escaped
the plague, set out at once on a homeward march, and Jerusalem was left
unmolested. As was their custom, the Hebrews attributed their escape to
direct intervention of Jehovah in their behalf. The beautiful poem of
Byron touching the incident, expresses well their convictions:
DESTRUCTION OF SENNACHERIB.
The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold,
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold;
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea,
When the blue waves roll nightly on deep Galilee.
Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green,
That host with their banners at sun-set was seen;
Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath blown,
That host on the morrow lay withered and strewn.
For the angel of death spread his wings on the blast,
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed;
And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill,
And their hearts but once heaved--and forever grew still.
And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide,
But through it there rolled not the breath of his pride;
And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf,
And cold as the spray of the rock beating surf.
And there lay the rider, distorted and pale,
With the dew on his brow and the rust on his mail;
And the tents were all silent, the banners alone,
The lances unlifted, the trumpet unblown.
And the widows of Asshur are loud in their wail,
And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal;
And the might of the Gentile, unsmote by the sword,
Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord!
--_Byron._
Hezekiah was so affected by his marvellous deliverance, that he listened
to the voice of Isaiah throughout the remainder of his days, and
instigated both social and religious reforms. These were so radical that
ere long a reaction set in. All religious practices were again tolerated
and Isaiah and his followers were forbidden to preach to the people.
This forced the prophet to give permanency to his messages by writing
them down for future generations. It was now that the book of
Deuteronomy was produced, known later as the Book of Law. Many of the
rules therein laid down had cause for being in the conditions of the
times. For example, every locality had possessed its own peculiar form
of sacrifice and its own priesthood. To insure regularity of worship it
was now provided that religious festivals should be solemnized only at
the temple of Jerusalem, which city should be the religious center of
the land. When in the time of Josiah another period of religious reform
set in, this Book of Law, or Deuteronomy, was discovered in the temple
where it had lain unnoticed. This gave occasion for a complete
overturning of social and religious customs. As in previous periods of
prosperity, the Hebrews had sunk into reckless extravagances and
hopeless poverty; into idolatrous worship and gross immorality. The
reforms instituted by Josiah were designed to recall the masses to paths
outlined for them by their greatest teachers and prophets.
"The full significance of this sweeping innovation can be appreciated
only by a comparison with the practices which it supplanted. Hitherto
sacrifices appear to have been offered anywhere and by any one; in fact,
every animal slain was regarded as shared with the deity. At every town
there was a _high place_ to which the people went, not only on feast
days, but whenever they wished, through the priest, to have a disputed
case settled, or to ascertain the divine will respecting their private
matter. Religion entered into all their life. The enactments of
Deuteronomy swept away the high places, placed a ban upon private
sacrifice, and restricted all offerings to the Temple. A sharp
distinction was thereby drawn between the laity and the priests, between
secular and holy things. Religion henceforth became something formal,
above and apart, rather than in all which concerned the nation or
individual. Conventionality took the place of the old freedom and
joyousness which had so often degenerated into laxness. The end desired
by the reformers was attained. The narrowing of religion saved it from
the shallowness of heathenism. The Jehovah who was worshipped in the
Temple with jealously guarded forms was not in danger of being degraded
to a level with the surrounding deities. That which henceforth
constituted the Jewish church was divorced from the state, and so
survived the downfall of the nation. Unfortunately the narrowing process
did not cease after the crisis was past, so that its later effects were
deplorable; but, measured in the light of existing circumstances, the
reformation of Josiah marks the beginning of that movement which
ultimately resulted in the complete elimination of the practical
heathenism which had long threatened the extinction of the pure worship
of Jehovah."[1]
After the fall of Nineveh, Egyptian forces attempted to cross Palestine
on their way to the east. Their progress was forbidden by the Judean
king. In the battle which ensued Josiah was slain. This has been called
the "most tragic event in Hebrew history." In the crude judgment of his
day, the masses regarded his death as punishment for the destruction of
the high places throughout the land. These were re-established, and for
the moment it seemed that all the results of the late reformation were
swept away.
Egypt held Judah in tribute for three or four years. Then Babylonia
defeated the Egyptian army and appropriated its conquests for the new
Chaldean empire.
About 597 B.C., tribute having been refused Nebuchadnezzar, he marched
against Jerusalem and took the flower of her people into captivity.
Those who were left foolishly planned a second revolt. Jeremiah filled
the place once occupied by Isaiah, and he denounced the folly of the
popular party with great force, vividly picturing the ruin a revolt
would cause. His very life was in danger because of the boldness of his
counsel, and at times he was held prisoner. Shortly again the armies of
Babylonia stood before the walls of Jerusalem. The great king remembered
the history of centuries wherein the resources of Assyria and Babylonia
had been squandered in holding the western states. He resolved to settle
the matter for all time, and the city of Jerusalem was utterly laid
waste, while its inhabitants were for the most part deported to
Babylonia. Jeremiah was left free to go wherever he chose, and he
remained with the poor peasants who were left to till the soil. Shortly
after the stricken band migrated to Egypt where they soon lost their
identity.
After the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C., the perpetuation of the Hebrew
faith was left solely to those thousands of captives who had been sent
to Babylon. Of all who had peopled the fair land of Israel and the hills
of Judah, they alone remained to hold fast the inheritances of their
fathers and to preserve the ancient faith. During the seventy years of
their captivity it was the remembrance of their once proud nation and
beloved Jerusalem, together with the hope of again returning to its
hills, that sustained those stricken hearts and gave them courage.
Living as much as possible to themselves, they held to their peculiar
customs and in some ways were not materially changed by the enforced
exile. However their religious conceptions underwent a marked change,
and the experiences of the exile itself brought them finally into a
fuller realization of the faith they had long followed blindly.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Hist. of the Hebrew People: Vol. II, 180.
* * * * *
DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIONS
IN PART I.
DISTANT VIEW OF THE PYRAMIDS.
This road leading from Cairo to the Pyramids is often spoken of as the
"high road." Were it not built up in this way, communication would be
cut off during the period of the inundation.
Camels, "ships of the desert," are commonly used in Egypt. Arabs
populate the land and are clamorous in their demands for coins from
travelers.
GREAT PYRAMID, SPHINX AND TEMPLE OF ARMACHIS.
The great Pyramids had stood approximately 800 years when Abraham first
came into the Delta; they had existed approximately 1500 years when
Moses led the Israelites out of the land of bondage. The largest of the
three is indeed stupendous, its base covering thirteen acres. In the
foreground of the picture is seen the ruins of the Temple of Armachis.
Like the Pyramids, the Sphinx has stood wrapped in mysterious silence
these thousand years. The form of the Sphinx was very common in ancient
Egypt, it being a symbolic representation of the king. The body of the
lion symbolized his strength, or power; the human face was a portrait of
the monarch. Shifting sands have accumulated to the breast of the
body--said to be 140 feet long. Of the huge proportions one may judge
from the fact that should a man stand upon the ear of the Sphinx his
hand could not reach the top of the head. A little chapel of
comparatively recent date has been placed between the paws of the lion.
TOURISTS SCALING THE GREAT PYRAMID.
The Great Pyramid was originally covered with blocks of the hardest
granite. This casing was removed by the Mohammedans for use in building
the mosque of Cairo. Thus removed, the blocks of building stone of which
the huge pile is for the most part composed, were left exposed. Laid
down in the form of steps, tourists today are able to climb to the very
top. To be sure, some of these steps are shoulder high, but with much
pulling by guides in front and some pushing from those behind, one may
ascend in about half an hour. The splendid view over the valley and
neighboring desert amply repay one for the discomforts of the climb.
DROMOS (COLUMNS) AND SECOND PYLON (GATEWAY) TEMPLE OF KARNAK.
The great temple of Karnak was begun by Seti I., and was enlarged by
many succeeding Pharaohs. An avenue of rams led to the gateway, which
was the last portion to be completed. Crossing a court, one came at
length to the temple itself.
The figures and letters carved on the stone may be plainly seen in this
picture.
BEAUTIFUL ISLAND OF PHILAE AND THE NILE.
This templed island of Philae, known sometimes as "the pearl of Egypt,"
lies uppermost of a group of islands forming the first cataract. Isis
was the local deity and to her a temple was built in remote times.
Recently a great dam has been constructed near Philae to insure a larger
supply of water for the valley. It has been estimated that $13,000,000
will accrue to Egypt annually by this means, but the island of Philae,
with its beautiful temple, is thereby doomed. Indignant protests have
been made from lovers of the beautiful in many lands, but the English
government has shown itself more determined to insure the prompt payment
of interest upon its bonds than to preserve monuments of antiquity.
HAREM WINDOW AND COURT.
As is well known, in all Mohammedan countries, women pass their lives in
closest seclusion. Their quarters are provided in the upper story of the
house, the windows being small indeed. Seldom going out, living their
years in idleness, it is small wonder that these unfortunate creatures
often resort to intrigues to absorb their interest.
WINGED LION.
These symbolic animals in stone were stationed at the portals of the
royal palace and sometimes guarded the palaces of the wealthy in
Assyria. The lion's body symbolized strength, the wings of the eagle,
swiftness; the human head, human intelligence. It was believed that evil
spirits would pause before such emblems of majesty, nor dare to enter.
MUSICIANS AND ATTENDANTS IN THE GARDEN OF ASSHURBANIPAL.
After the war was over, the king, satiated with booty and slaughter,
sought the quieter pleasures of the banquet. This was frequently served
in the royal garden, while musicians dispensed sweet strains of music.
To make more animated the joyous occasion, the head of the defeated king
or general was sometimes suspended from a nearby tree, so that the
Assyrian ruler might exult over his own triumph as he drank his wine.
DAMASCUS SWORD-MAKER.
The swords of Damascus have always been famous. The ancient sword-makers
understood a secret process of tempering steel which rendered it very
pliable and at the same time imparted to it astonishing strength.
THE RIVER JORDAN.
The word _Jordan_ means "the down-comer," and truly a river which drops
3,000 feet in a course of 150 miles is indeed a "descender." In the
spring the stream is brown and muddy, heavily charged as it is with
debris from the mountains. Ships never journey far up or down the river.
Below the level of the sea, the climate is hot and sultry and the region
full of malaria.
HARBOR OF JAPPA.
Jappa is the old Joppa of Bible times. It is almost the only approach to
a seaport that Palestine can claim, yet even here large boats must
remain out in deep waters, and travelers for the Holy Land who enter in
this way must climb down the side of the steamer and be rowed to shore
in small boats. The sea is usually very rough at this point, adding to
the general discomfort of the situation for travelers.
ROSES OF SHARON.
Palestine is beautiful with flowers in the spring. Narcissus, the "roses
of Sharon," and Iris, "the lilies of the valley," grow in profusion over
the foothills.