LITERATURE AND LEARNING.
The Babylonians produced quite an extensive literature. Their writings
treated of religion, mathematics, astronomy, astrology and geography,
while some attempt was made to explain animal and plant life. History in
Babylonia was limited almost wholly to royal inscriptions and lists of
kings. In Assyria, on the other hand, the greater portion of the
literature related to history, and the kings set forth the happenings of
their reigns with directness and considerable detail. Diplomatic
affairs, correspondence with Babylonia and foreign provinces, official
letters, tribute lists and royal decrees, make up a large part of the
surviving tablets.
We have already spoken of the library of Asshurbanipal, or the Ninevan
library, and have seen what a world of light was thrown upon Assyrian
civilization when its surviving tablets were at last deciphered.
Babylonia maintained libraries, however, before Nineveh was founded.
These clustered, for reasons which we shall soon see, around the
temples. At Erech were early collected writings which were concerned
with the religion of the ancient Chaldeans, together with the myths and
legends of the country. So many tablets were preserved in this temple
that Erech was called the "city of books." A library, rich in
mathematical lore, grew up at Larsa, another at Nippur, and still
another at Cathah. Smaller libraries were attached to all the great
temples.
When we speak of "libraries" in Mesopotamia, collections of clay tablets
are meant. Rooms were frequently provided within the temples for the
storing of these clay books. The size of the tablet varied greatly. The
largest were flat and about 9 by 6-1/2 inches; smaller ones were
slightly convex, while tiny ones, not more than one inch long,
containing but a line or two, have been found. Sometimes the lettering
is so fine that it could have been done only with the aid of a lens, and
it cannot be read without one.
In these valleys, the cheapest, most available writing material was the
soft clay, ever in evidence. When bricks had been partially dried in the
sun, a substance was formed which readily received impressions, and
these became firm as the tablet hardened. Both sides and sometimes the
edges as well, were written upon, and little pegs of wood provided legs
for the brick to rest upon when reversed, that the soft impressions
might not be injured. To make the whole proof against fire and water, it
was finally baked in an oven. When so treated, a material was made which
proved more enduring against action of the elements than either
parchment or papyrus.
It is quite certain that papyrus and possibly parchment as well were
used for writing purposes, especially in the later period, but no
fragment of either has survived.
Certain disadvantages attached to the cheap tablets. They were heavy and
unwieldy to hold or carry, but more especially, they allowed no
embellishments or lengthy descriptions. Owing to the laborious method of
transcribing records, everything was of necessity abbreviated and
simplified. Thus we see how one thing acts upon another--the country
afforded only clay tablets for writing material; these, limited because
of size and weight, curtailed speech and so influenced the style of
expression.
Occasionally one tablet constituted a book, but more often several
tablets were needed to contain the entire writing. Thus the Deluge Story
is the eleventh tablet, or chapter, of a series numbering twelve in all.
Seventy tablets composed a single work on astronomy, while the three
books comprising the earliest religious texts covered 200 tablets. Each
tablet was carefully numbered and known by the first line of the book;
as, for example, one work treated on the creation and began: "Formerly
that which is above was not yet called the heaven;" so the first tablet
of the series was entitled: "Formerly that which is above, No. 1;" the
second, "Formerly that which is above, No. 2," and so on through the
entire series.
[Illustration: MUSICIANS AND ATTENDANTS IN THE GARDEN OF ASSHURBANIPAL.]
The ancient Chaldeans believed that literature and the art of writing
were gifts from the gods, and in the myth which to them explained how
knowledge came into the world, it was numbered among the things taught
them by the Man-Fish, Oannes. This is the myth as Berosus told it:
"There was originally at Babylonia a multitude of men of foreign race
who had colonized Chaldea, and they lived without order, like animals.
But in the first year (of the new order of things) there appeared from
out the Persian Gulf where it borders upon Babylonia, an animal endowed
with reason, who was called Oannes. The whole body of the animal was
that of a fish, but under the fish's head he had another head, and also
feet below, growing out of his fish's tail, similar to those of a man;
also human speech, and his image is preserved to this day. This being
used to spend the whole day amidst men, without taking any food, and he
gave them an insight into letters, and sciences, and every kind of art;
he taught them how to found cities, to construct temples, to introduce
laws and to measure land; he showed them how to sow seeds and gather in
crops; in short, he instructed them in everything that softens manners
and makes up civilization, so that from that time no one has invented
anything new. Then, when the sun went down, this monstrous Oannes used
to plunge back into the sea and spend the night in the midst of the
boundless waves, for he was amphibious."
It was believed that learning and letters were under the special
protection of the gods, and for this reason it was fitting to preserve
books in the temples. The libraries thus established were cared for by
scribes and were open to the public. Many were engaged constantly in
copying, repairing and taking care of the tablets. An order of celibate
priests, not unlike the monks of the Middle Ages, devoted itself to the
task of book-making, regarding the work as a pious undertaking.
Among the most ancient books recovered is one containing bits of
folk-lore, popular songs and maxims. One of the maxims runs:
"Like an oven that is old
Against thy foes be hard and strong."
A fragment of a ploughman's song says:
"My knees are marching--my feet are not resting;
With no wealth of thy own--grain thou makest for me."
The Creation legends were among the most ancient writings.
"A plant had not been brought forth, a tree had not been created.
A brick had not been made, a beam had not been formed.
A house had not been built, a city had not been constructed.
A city had not been made, earthly things had not been made glorious.
Nipur had not been built, (its temple) E-kura had not been constructed.
Erech had not been built, (its temple) E-Ana had not been constructed.
The deep had not been made, Eridu had not been constructed.
As for the glorious temple (of Eridu), the house of the gods, its seat
had not been made.
The whole of the lands, the sea also, (had not been formed).
When within the sea the current was
In that day Eridu was made. E-Sagila was constructed,
E-Sagila which the god Lugal-du-azagga founded within the deep;
Babylon (also) was built, E-Sagila was completed.
The gods and the spirits of the earth were made altogether.
The glorious city, the seat of the joy of their hearts, supremely they
proclaimed.
Merodack (Marduk) bound together the slime before the water.
Dust he made and he poured it out with the flood.
The gods were made to dwell in a seat of joy of heart.
He created mankind.
The god Aruru, the seed of mankind, they made with him.
He made the beasts of the field and the living creatures of the desert.
He made the Tigris and Euphrates, and set (them) in (their) places
Well proclaimed he their name.
The ussu-plant, the dittu-plant of the marshland, the reed and the
forest he made.
He made the verdure of the plain;
The lands, the marshes, and the greensward also;
Oxen, the young of the horse, the stallion, the mare, the sheep,
the locust;
Meadows and forests also.
The he-goat and the gazelle brought forth to him."[1]
Babylonian myths often took the form of epics. The epic of Gilgamesh was
popular. Twelve tablets composed it, each corresponding to a zodiacal
sign. The Deluge Story made up the eleventh chapter. Another epic, the
Descent of Ishtar into Arallu, or Hades, was well known. Ishtar, herself
a goddess, mourned a departed god, her consort, so greatly that she
braved the terrors of the underworld to find him and to carry him water
from the fountain of life, that he might rejoin her. This was the
earliest form of a myth which later appeared in many lands.
Astronomy had its birth in astrology--the so-called science which sought
to discover the influences of the planets upon the destinies of mankind.
This science was firmly believed in and strongly supported for centuries
after the Christian era, and has its followers even today.
Mathematics had a similar beginning. Geometrical figures were used for
augury. In arithmetic, 60 was a favorite number for computation, and the
division of a circle into seconds, minutes and degrees, dates from this
time.
Geography consisted merely of lists of seas, mountains, rivers, waters,
nations, and cities then known. Grammars and dictionaries were plentiful
because they were needed even at that time for an understanding of a
language, already "dead," but still the language of literature.
In the realm of history, royal inscriptions may be included. With the
rise of Assyria these came to be more complete. Fewer set phrases,
copied by each king from most ancient times, were used and more
information was included concerning the subject at hand. For example, an
inscription of Tiglathpileser I. (about 1100 B.C.) filled eight sides of
a clay cylinder, and contained 809 lines. It consisted of (1) an
invocation to the gods who had given him power; (2) set forth his titles
and summed up the deeds of his reign; (3) 500 lines recounted the
campaigns of his first year; (4) 200 lines described his royal hunts and
his temples built and restored; (5) finally a blessing was pronounced
upon those who shall honor his deeds and a curse is given those who
ignore them.
Both nations loved justice and delighted in formality. All kinds of
agreements were put into writing and were duly witnessed. To the
original code of laws in Babylonia, court decisions were added and
together comprised the later law of the land. All important cases were
abstracted and the decision of the judges given at length on tablets
which have been preserved in many cases with the signature of the judge.
The judges were appointed by the king. Priests were eligible, but others
often served. There was probably a court in the vicinity of every
important temple, which has given a general impression that the priests
took entire charge of court proceedings.
Education was much more widely diffused in Babylonia than in Assyria. In
the former country both girls and boys seem to have received some
elementary training in the art of reading and writing. Schools for the
training of scribes were maintained in connection with each of the great
temples. Tutors were doubtless employed in families of the nobility, but
little is known of the training of the young. The art of writing was a
difficult one to master and required the memorizing of a large number of
symbols. There must have been much truth in the sentence found often in
the children's copy-books: "He who would become a scribe must rise with
the dawn." In the school of Sippara a tablet has been found which is
supposed to have been either a medal or a diploma given by the school.
An inscription upon it reads: "Whosoever has distinguished himself at
the place of tablet writing shall shine as the light." The calling of
the scribe was an honorable one and his social position was good.
One indication that people of the better classes in Babylonia could
write is to be found in the number of personal letters which have been
found. These are not written, as in Assyria, in one uniform handwriting,
but show many variations and degrees of perfection.
In Assyria writing was a profession, and only trades-people whose
business compelled them to understand rudimentary writing, public
officials and the upper classes understood the art. Public scribes wrote
many private letters, much in the same way as a lawyer of today might
draw up some document, and to the letter so written, the sender affixed
his seal.
Learning was limited in the northern kingdom to the favored few. Some of
the kings, notably Asshurbanipal, was a book collector and sent his men
everywhere to gather up tablets of worth and antiquity.
Letters which have been translated help to bring these early days before
us. This one was probably sent by a lover to the object of his
adoration:
"To Bibea say, thus saith Gimil-Marduk: May Shamash and Marduk for my
sake preserve thy health forever. I have sent for thy health. Tell me
how thou art. I went to Babylon and did not see thee. I was greatly
disappointed. Send me the reason of thy leaving, and let me be cheered.
In Marchevan do thou come. For my sake keep well always."[2]
The next is written by the captain of a river barge to King Sennacherib,
concerning the transporting of colossal bulls.
"To the king my lord, thy servant Asshur-mukin has ordered me to
transport in boats the colossal bulls and cherubim of stone. The boats
are not strong enough and are not ready. But if a present be kindly made
to us, we will see that they are got ready, and ascend the river."
If the writer of the third failed to have his request granted, it could
scarcely be for lack of persistence in making it known. It is a letter
written by a tenant to his landlord, and belongs to the age of Abraham:
"To my lord say, thus saith Ibgatum thy servant: As, my lord, thou hast
heard, the enemy has carried off my oxen. Never before have I sent to
thee, my lord. Now I have caused a letter to be brought to thee, my
lord, Do thou, my lord, send me one young cow. I will weigh out and send
five shekels of silver to thee, my lord. My lord, what thou sayest,
under the command of Marduk, thy protector, what pleases thee, no one
can hinder thee, my lord. My lord, do thou make her worth the five
shekels of silver that I have weighed out and sent to thee. Do thou, my
lord, treat seriously this request, do not trifle with my wish. Let my
lord not wonder at this request, which I send my lord. I am thy servant.
I will do thy will, my lord. As to the young cow, which thou, my lord,
dost send, let her be on credit, and either to Basu, or wherever is
convenient to my lord, do thou send. With Iliikisham, my brother, let
the young cow come. And I, in order that my lord should quickly consent
and send the young cow, will forthwith weigh out and send fifteen
shekels of silver to thee, my lord."[3]
Sayce has suggested that the five shekels of silver was the amount he
paid annually for the lease of his farm, and that he sent it at this
time to further influence the landlord to grant his request. Another
interpretation has been put upon it that he sent the five shekels as a
payment down, but did not propose to pay the full price until he saw the
particular cow sent him.
Letters were enclosed generally in an envelope of clay. Powdered clay
was sprinkled over the letter to prevent its clinging to the cover.
Because the envelope of clay had to be broken before the letter was
read, safety and privacy was proven by the unbroken cover. Again the
tablet upon which the letter was inscribed was sometimes covered with a
linen wrapper and the ends held by a seal--a lump of clay pressed down
with the impression of the seal upon it. Few of these clay or linen
envelopes have been found, for they were regarded as valueless and were
cast aside. A very fair postal system was maintained in Mesopotamia.
"Babylonian and Assyrian letters were treated much as ours are when they
are put into a post-bag to which the seals of the post-office are
attached. There were excellent roads all over Western Asia, with
post-stations at intervals where relays of horses could be procured.
Along these all letters to or from the king and the government were
carried by royal messengers. It is probable that the letters of private
individuals were also carried by the same hands.... The civilized and
oriental world was bound together by a network of postal routes over
which literary intercourse was perpetually passing. They extended from
the Euphrates to the Nile and from the plateau of Asia Minor to the
confines of Arabia. These routes followed the old lines of war and trade
along which armies had marched and merchantmen had traveled for
unnumbered generations. The Tell-el-Amarna tablets show that
letter-writing was not confined to Assyria and Babylonia on the one
hand, or to Egypt on the other. Wherever the ancient culture of
Babylonia had spread, there had gone with it not only the cuneiform
characters and the use of clay as a writing material, but the art of
letter-writing as well."[4]
Fifteen hundred and seventy-five letters alone were found in the library
of Asshurbanipal, unearthed by Layard. This great Assyrian king sent
scribes throughout Babylonia to visit ancient temples and copy tablets
on which were preserved ancient writings. Some thirty thousand were
collected before his death and they treated of all subjects known at
that time. It was remarkable that when this splendid palace fell into
ruins, many of these tablets remained uninjured, and, having laid
undisturbed for twenty-five hundred years, were finally brought to light
some fifty years ago to give the world of today their old-time messages.
DELUGE STORY--COLUMN III.
"The surface of the land like fire they wasted;
they destroyed all life from the face of the land;
to battle against men they brought the waters.
Brother saw not his brother; men knew not one another.
In heaven the gods feared the flood and
hastened to ascend to the heaven of Anu.
The gods, like dogs in the kennel, crouched down in a heap.
Six days and nights ...
the wind, the flood, and the storm go on overwhelming.
The seventh day, when it approached, the flood subsided, the
storm which had fought against men like an armed host
was quieted. The sea began to dry, and the wind and the flood ended.
I beheld the sea and uttered a cry,
for the whole of mankind was turned to clay;
like trunks the corpses floated.
I opened the window, and light smote upon my face;
I stopped and sat down; I wept;
over my face flowed my tears.
I beheld a shore beyond the sea;
a district rose twelve times distant.
On the mountain of Nizir the ship grounded;
the mountain of Nizir stopped the ship, and it was not able to pass
over it.
The first day, the second day, the mountain of Nizir stopped the ship.
The third day, the fourth day, the mountain of Nizir stopped the ship.
The fifth day, the sixth day, the mountain of Nizir stopped the ship.
The seventh day when it approached
I sent forth a dove, and it left. The dove went in and returned
and found no resting place, and it came back.
Then I sent forth a swallow, and it left. The swallow went and returned,
and found no resting place, and it came back.
I sent forth a raven, and it left.
The raven went, and saw the going down of the waters, and
it approached, it waded, it croaked; it did not return.
I sent the animals to the four winds; I sacrificed a sacrifice
I built an altar on the peak of the mountain.
I sent vessels ... by sevens;
underneath them I spread reeds, cedar-wood, and herbs.
The gods smelt the savour; the gods smelt the good savour;
the gods gathered like flies over the sacrifices.
Thereupon the great goddess at her approach
lifted up the mighty bow which Anu had created according to
his wishes.
These gods, by my necklace, never will I forget."
[Illustration: ISHTAR. FROM AN ASSYRIAN CYLINDER.]
FOOTNOTES:
[1] George Smith: Babylonia, 46.
[2] Johns: Baby. and Assy. Laws, Letters and Contracts, 336.
[3] Johns: Baby. and Assy. Laws, Letters and Contracts, 334.
[4] Sayce: Life and Customs in Baby. and Assy., 228.