The Washington Historical Quarterly
VOLUME V.
1914
THE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY
STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY
UNIVERSITY STATION
SEATTLE, WASHINGTON
The Washington Historical Quarterly
Board of Editors
CLARENCE B. BAGLEY, Seattle.
W. D. LYMAN, Walla Walla.
J. N. BOWMAN, Seattle.
T. C. ELLIOTT, Walla Walla.
FRANK A. GOLDER, Pullman.
CEYLON S. KINGSTON, Cheney.
EDWARD MCMAHON, Seattle.
THOMAS W. PROSCH, Seattle.
OLIVER H. RICHARDSON, Seattle.
O. B. SPERLIN, Tacoma.
E. O. S. SCHOLEFIELD, Victoria, B. C.
ALLEN WEIR, Olympia.
Managing Editor
EDMOND S. MEANY
Business Manager
CHARLES W. SMITH
VOL V, NO. 1 JANUARY, 1914
_ISSUED QUARTERLY_
Contents
CLARENCE B. BAGLEY George Wilkes 3
LEWIS H. ST. JOHN The Present Status and Probable
Future of the Indians of Puget
Sound 12
THOMAS W. PROSCH The Pioneer Dead of 1913 22
W. J. TRIMBLE American and British Treatment of
the Indians in the Pacific
Northwest 32
DOCUMENTS--An Indignation Meeting Over Chief Leschi 55
BOOK REVIEWS 57
NEWS DEPARTMENT 66
NORTHWESTERN HISTORY SYLLABUS 69
REPRINT DEPARTMENT--George Wilkes: History of Oregon, Geographical,
Geological, and Political (New York, Colyer, 1845) 72
THE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY
STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY
UNIVERSITY STATION
SEATTLE, WASHINGTON
Entered at the Post-office at Seattle as second-class mail matter.
The Washington University
State Historical Society
* * * * *
Officers and Board of Trustees:
CLARENCE B. BAGLEY, President
JUDGE JOHN P. HOYT, Vice-President
JUDGE ROGER S. GREENE, Treasurer
PROFESSOR EDMOND S. MEANY, Secretary
JUDGE CORNELIUS H. HANFORD
JUDGE THOMAS BURKE
SAMUEL HILL
PRINTING DEPARTMENT UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON
_Vol. V. No. 1 January, 1914_
The
Washington Historical Quarterly
GEORGE WILKES
The republication of George Wilkes' History of Oregon, begun in the
Quarterly in October, 1906, is completed in the present issue.
In several ways the book or pamphlet is of much historical importance.
It was prepared by a journalist rather than a historian, and with
a sincere desire to give accurate information regarding the Oregon
Country and the best means of getting there, and without expectation of
gain in its publication.
At a time when railroads and railroading were in their infancy, Mr.
Wilkes was among the first to realize the importance of long and
connecting lines of rail communication, and so far as I have been
able to ascertain was the first to publicly advocate the building of
a line from the Atlantic to the Pacific by the National Government.
He argued against land grants or subsidies to private individuals or
corporations. The government ownership of the proposed road was the
central idea of part I of the book. It was published in New York in
1845. In 1847 he published another pamphlet entitled "Proposal for a
National Rail-Road to the Pacific Ocean, for the Purpose of Obtaining a
Short Route to Oregon and the Indies." The latter repeated many of the
arguments of the earlier work, in fact had little new material. Both
are exceedingly scarce at the present day.
In the preface to the book, Wilkes says: "The second part of the work
consists of a journal, prepared from a series of letters, written by
a gentleman now in Oregon, who himself accompanied the celebrated
emigrating expedition of 1843. They make no pretensions in their
style, but are merely simple, conversational epistles, which in their
familiar, offhand way, furnish a large amount of useful practical
information to the emigrant, and much interesting matter to the general
reader. The author has done scarcely more to this portion than to
throw it into chapters, and to strike from it such historical and
geographical statistics as had been drawn from other sources, and
arranged in the preceding portions of the work. These letters fell into
his hands after the adoption and commencement of his original design;
and adapting them to his purpose, by linking them with his own mss., a
deal of research was saved him by the valuable and peculiar information
they contributed."
Mr. Wilkes did not disclose the name of the writer of the letters, and
in fact their authorship was never formally announced, but internal
evidence proves they were written by Peter H. Burnett.
Mr. Burnett was born in Nashville, Tennessee, November 15, 1807. The
family removed to Missouri in 1817. He was almost entirely self-taught,
as in his childhood and youth he had little opportunity of going to
school. When about 26 years of age he began the study of law, but
continued in other business until in 1839 he abandoned mercantile
pursuits and began the practice of law. In 1842 he determined to go to
Oregon. May 8, 1843, he left his home in Weston, Missouri, with two ox
wagons, one small two-horse wagon, four yoke of oxen, two mules, and a
fair supply of provisions. He had a wife and six children. They arrived
at the rendezvous, some twelve miles west of Independence, just across
the state line and in the Indian country, on the 17th of May. Five days
later a general start was made and this historic migration was begun.
An excellent account of the trip is given in Part II of Wilkes' History.
Mr. Burnett was quite prominent in Oregon affairs until 1848, when he
was attracted to California by its rich gold fields, and after a time
he sent for his family to join him there.
In August, 1849, he was chosen one of the Judges of the Supreme
Tribunal of California, and on the 13th of November of that year he
was elected Governor. The Constitutional Convention had been held in
September and October. California was admitted a state September 9,
1850. Governor Burnett sent in his resignation in January, 1851, and
resumed the practice of law. In 1857-8 he served as a Justice of the
Supreme Court of the State. Later he engaged in the banking business.
In 1880 there was issued from the press of D. Appleton & Co. the
"Recollections and Opinions of an Old Pioneer," written by Mr. Burnett.
It is an extremely interesting narrative of his life in Missouri,
Oregon and California, and valuable for its history of pioneer life on
the Pacific Coast.
In the annual address before the Oregon Pioneers at Portland, in April,
1895, appears the following:
"Perhaps the demise of no one has attracted more widespread attention
nor caused deeper sorrow on the Pacific Coast than the death of the
late Peter H. Burnett, the first Governor of California, and an Oregon
Pioneer of 1843, who had served in the legislature and was one of the
justices of the supreme court."
Jesse Applegate was the only other gentleman who was with the 1843
immigration who might possibly have written the letters, but they
contain dates, locations and facts that make sure the declaration that
Burnett wrote them.
A discussion between William I. Marshall, the author of the
"Acquisition of Oregon," and Professor Schafer, of the University of
Oregon, regarding this book, the authorship of its letters, etc., was
published in the Oregonian in 1903. Both gentleman seem to have agreed
that letters written by Mr. Burnett and by him sent to the New York
Herald for publication formed the basis of Part II of Wilkes' book,
but they disagreed as to the value of the work as an "Original Source"
of history. References to places and affairs in Oregon were quoted in
substantiation of their conclusions. In this connection both gentlemen
seem to have overlooked a paragraph on page 113 that, to my mind, is
more nearly conclusive than the others, as follows:
"The more extended political organization of which I before spoke, is
about to take place, and I was waited upon two or three days ago by a
party from the Falls, to consult upon a plan of general territorial
government, with a legislature of two houses, and a Chief Justice
for its first executive officer. This arrangement will embrace
all the settlements of the valley into one common government, the
representatives of which will convene in general congress, at stated
periods, at Multnomah or Oregon City, and there transact all the
necessary business for our little body politic. When this plan is
adopted, (as it doubtless will immediately be) it will perhaps, be the
peculiar honor of your humble servant, to sit in a curule chair of the
first Republican Government beyond the Rocky Mountains. We shall then
be able to make our own laws, and likewise do our own voting and our
own fighting."
A few months later Mr. Burnett was chosen Chief Justice of Oregon,
under its provisional government, thus fulfilling the prediction in his
letter above quoted.
Wilkes must have written considerable of Part II of his book before
acquiring the letters, and then instead of rewriting it he tried to
work in the letters. In some places this was quite clumsily done.
The first chapter is nearly all fictitious, both in names and facts.
Robbins, Smith, Harris, Baker, Brown, McFarley, Wayne and Dumberton
were not members of the party, and near the bottom of page 65 Burnett
is introduced to Peter H. Burnett. Why Wilkes should have failed to
give the name of the writer is unexplainable. In minor details it
was often inaccurate, but in important facts and in giving intending
emigrants information about Oregon and those on the way there valuable
facts about roads, fords, grass, distances, etc., it was reliable.
Commenting upon the road from the upper waters of the Sweetwater to
Fort Hall, Professor Schafer says: "When we inquire into what motive
could have induced Wilkes to deliberately deceive his readers with
reference to this piece of road, only one natural answer suggests
itself. He evidently was doing it in the interest of his railroad
scheme."
The writer remembers vividly that part of the road in 1852. A lad of
eight years, in common with the women and other children of the party,
he trudged afoot along many weary miles of this road, up and down many
long and, to his mind, interminable hills, through the biting frost of
early morn and the torrid heat of midday, and he can testify to its
roughness and manifold difficulties.
Against Prof. Schafer's comment I wish to protest most emphatically.
Mr. Wilkes was a man of high ideals, of lofty public spirit. It was
impossible for him to "deliberately deceive" anyone. To attempt
deceit carries with it unworthy or dishonest motives. A reader of
Wilkes' writings, his books, pamphlets and newspapers, will find an
entire absence of selfishness or wish for private gain or personal
aggrandizement at the expense of anyone.
One writer has described the style of the book as "flamboyant," which
is doubtless true, but greater faults than this can readily be forgiven
one not more than twenty-seven years of age who devotes his splendid
talents, his time and his money to the exploitation of a colossal
national improvement that for the period of seventy years ago was of
infinitely more importance to the United States, and especially to
the Pacific Coast, than the Panama Canal of today. By most people his
proposal was thought more impossible of achievement than today would
be an effort to establish a line of airships between the earth and the
moon. He was a little more than twenty years in advance of his time.
The first transcontinental line was completed in 1869 and the scandals
that followed its construction served to prove Wilkes' contention about
the unwisdom of subsidizing railroads by land grants or money and still
permitting private ownership of them.
Particular importance attaches to this book for another reason. The
migration of 1843, consisting of about 900 men, women and children,
who brought with them large numbers of horses and cattle, fruit trees,
etc., was the first large one. It strengthened the hands of the men
who had at all times demanded that the claims of Great Britain to any
part of Old Oregon south of latitude 49 degrees should be resisted
at all hazards, by force of arms if necessary. The speeches of Linn,
Benton, Calhoun, Webster, Clay and nearly all the notable men of the
period between 1819 and 1846 show a surprising knowledge of the soil,
climate, productions of land and water, its commercial advantages and
all the varied details of the grazing and agricultural possibilities of
Old Oregon. The record shows that these matters were familiar to these
great men before an American missionary or American settler had reached
Oregon.
Until many years later no member of that migration published an account
of it except these letters to the Herald and fragmentary notes from
others. The journals of Burnett and others, so far as they have been
given to the public, were jotted down from time to time by men wearied
by unremitting toil, who had no time or disposition to record more than
the briefest itinerary of the day. Therefore, with all its faults,
Wilkes' book is of priceless value as a memorial to Congress about the
Oregon of that period and the history of its local events and men of
seventy years ago.
To one familiar, as was the writer of this paper, with the remarkable
editorials appearing in the Spirit of the Times during all the Civil
War period, with their vigorous English, their fervent loyalty and
lofty patriotism, the style of the book is not comparable, but in
giving the salient facts about the migration and the conditions then
existing in the Willamette Valley it is so accurate that an occasional
slip of the pen can be readily condoned.
At the time of his death, which occurred September 23, 1885, the New
York Herald and the Times each devoted nearly a column to his obituary
and other newspapers of that city and other Atlantic cities made more
or less extended mention of him and his life.
The Librarian of the New York Public Library has furnished me with
photostat reproductions of the obituaries of Mr. Wilkes published by
the New York Herald and Times and the Spirit of the Times. The latter
article, dated September 26, 1885, is given in full below:
"We regret to record the death, in this city, on Wednesday, of George
Wilkes, one of the founders and proprietors of The Spirit of The
Times, and for many years its sole editor. Mr. Wilkes joined the staff
of this paper when it was called Porter's Spirit. A division of the
proprietorship having occurred, he continued its publication under
the title of Wilkes' Spirit until 1866, when his name was dropped. He
lived abroad for several years, in the enjoyment of an ample income,
which enabled him to indulge his cultivated tastes, and returned here
a few months ago, as if he felt some premonition of his approaching
death, and desired to rest in his native land, which he loved
enthusiastically and served zealously.
"George Wilkes was, in his way, one of the foremost American
journalists. He not only founded the greatest paper of its class which
this country has ever possessed, but he made it, during the Civil War,
as tremendous a power in national politics as it has always been in
the departments to which it is more particularly devoted. Among such
giants of journalism as James Gordon Bennett, Horace Greeley, Henry J.
Raymond, Charles A. Dana and William Cullen Bryant--of whom only Mr.
Dana now remains to us--Mr. Wilkes held an equal place by virtue of
his remarkable talents. They had daily papers in which to address the
public; his paper was published only once a week; but they all conceded
the vigor and brilliancy of his writing and his articles in The Spirit
were republished so extensively that their circulation may be said to
have been world wide. His editorials during the War were regularly
reprinted in the Tribune and some of them were read in Congress. His
advice was asked and followed by President Lincoln and the members of
his famous Cabinet. Having convinced himself that General McClellan was
inefficient, Mr. Wilkes fairly wrote him out of the command of the Army
of the Potomac. He was largely instrumental in bringing Grant to take
charge of our Eastern armies. He was on most intimate terms with the
leading statesmen and generals of the Union.
"Mr. Wilkes went to the front at the outbreak of the Rebellion and
witnessed and described for The Spirit the battle of Bull Run. In the
concluding words of that report he gave the keynote for all patriots
by stating that the South had fought so well as to be worthy of being
brought back into the Union. Throughout the magnificent series of
letters and editorials which illuminated the pages of The Spirit this
was the text which Mr. Wilkes enforced. He never displayed toward
the misguided men who were trying to break up the Union the bitter
animosity with which he hunted down the incompetent leaders of the
Union side, whose incapacity delayed the restoration of peace and
unity. He never doubted the ultimate salvation of the Republic, but he
was righteously impatient with those who did not share his faith and
agree with him in his opinions of men and measures. He labored ardently
to hasten the triumph of the Union as any soldier in the field--as
General Grant himself. If he made any mistakes they were on the side
of patriotism and were due to his anxiety to hurry on the inevitable
victory. One mistake of his in regard to General Fitz John Porter cost
that officer his condemnation by Court Martial and nearly cost him
his life. But Mr. Wilkes lived to see this error redeemed by the full
justice done to General Porter in The Spirit, by Grant, by Congress
and by the American people. In the fever and fury of a Civil War such
injustices could scarcely be altogether avoided; but Mr. Wilkes went
with our armies, saw personally the matters which he criticised, and,
in McClellan's camp on the Peninsula, caught the disease which has
finally resulted in his decease.
"George Wilkes has been so long absent from editorial connection with
The Spirit that his death will not affect it in any way. But, like all
strong individualities, he has left a permanent impression upon the
paper which he so long conducted. His energetic and splendid style of
writing elevated the journalism of sports from the slipslop methods of
his predecessors. He attempted to banish slang from every department
of The Spirit and he succeeded. In Shakespeare he found a living well
of English undefiled and there he sought for strength and purity of
diction. After his retirement from practical journalism, he wrote a
commentary upon Shakespeare which is remarkable for its original views
and theories. But Mr. Wilkes felt that the work of his life had ended
with the Civil War and that thereafter he might take such enjoyment as
his broken health permitted. He made business arrangements which left
him free to live or travel wherever he pleased and independent of all
cares and responsibilities. Never afraid of death and boldly facing it
a hundred times in the discharge of what he believed to be his duty, he
finally died at home, peacefully and fearlessly."
Allibone's Dictionary of Authors, Vol. 3, p. 2720, quotes the
following: "New York, April 28, 1870.--George Wilkes, the proprietor of
the Spirit of the Times, has received from the Emperor of Russia the
Grand Cross of the Order of St. Stanislas, as a recognition for the
suggestion made to the Russian Government in reference to an overland
railway to China and India by way of Russia. This mark of royal favor
entitles the holder to have his male children at the Military School of
Russia at the expense of the State."
This great honor from the Russian Government came to him about a
quarter century after he had been made the object of jest and ridicule
for a similar suggestion backed by sound argument for a railroad across
the United States. Scriptural comment: "A prophet is not without honor
save in his own country."
The New York Times said of him that when the Civil War broke out Wilkes
wrote a series of newspaper and magazine articles on the burning
question of the hour that attracted wide attention, and gained him the
friendship of many prominent men. Secretary Stanton took a personal
interest in him, and gave him a great deal of literary work to do
in Washington. His articles were very vigorous, well written, and
patriotic. They commanded a wide influence, and besides strengthening
the attachment of the author to people who had heretofore been
his friends, they had the effect of subduing the belligerence and
increasing the caution of his enemies.
In April, 1860, Frank Leslie's "Illustrated Newspaper" published a
photograph of him and a brief but complimentary note about him.
In 1849 Mr. Wilkes went to California with David C. Broderick, who
afterward became U. S. Senator from that State. Wilkes took great
interest in the political fortunes of Broderick, and rendered him
valuable services. In 1851 he returned to New York and resumed his
career as a journalist.
Early pioneers will remember the wave of indignation that swept over
the Pacific Coast when it was known that Broderick had been killed in
a duel with David S. Terry. The latter became widely known as Judge
Terry, whose tragic death while attempting to murder Justice Field is
comparatively recent California history.
The fatal meeting took place September 13, 1859, and Broderick died
three days later. Volumes have been written about this duel. It was
quite generally believed it was the result of a conspiracy among the
leaders of the ultra slaveholding wing of the then dominant party in
the State to get rid of Broderick at all hazards.
Broderick's great friendship became apparent when his will was made
public. An estate valued at $300,000 was all left to Wilkes, except one
legacy of $10,000. Considerable litigation between him and the State of
California ensued. The ultimate verdict was in favor of the legatee,
but the estate had shrunk a good deal on account of the heavy costs of
the law suit.
Under date of Washington, September 9, 1913, the Librarian of Congress
gave me the following list of the writings of George Wilkes so far as
he had been able to find them:
Europe in a Hurry. New York, H. Long & Brother, 1853. 449 pp.
The Great Battle, Fought at Manassas, Between the Federal Forces, under
Gen. McDowell, and the Rebels, under Gen. Beauregard, Sunday, July 21,
1861. From notes taken on the spot. New York, Brown & Ryan, 1861. 36 pp.
History of California. New York, 1845. (Note.--It is doubtful if this
book was published, as it is not in the Library of Congress and I have
never seen a reference to it.--C. B. B.)
The History of Oregon, Geographical and political. New York, W. H.
Collyer, 1845. 128 pp.
The Internationale; its principles and purposes. Being a sequel to the
Defence of the Commune. New York, 1871. 23 pp.
The Lives of Helen Jewett and Richard Robinson. New York, H. Long &
Brother, 1849. 132 pp.
McClellan; from Ball's Bluff to Antietam. New York, S. Tousey, 1863. 40
pp.
"McClellan"; who he is and "what he has done," and "Little Mac; from
Ball's Bluff to Antietam." Both in one. New York, The American News
Company, 1864. 14 pp.
Project of a National Rail-Road from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean
for the Purpose of Obtaining a Short Route to Oregon and the Indies.
2nd ed. Republished from the "History of Oregon." New York, The Author,
1845. 23 pp.
Proposal for a National Rail-Road to the Pacific Ocean, for the Purpose
of Obtaining a Short Route to Oregon and the Indies. 4th ed. Rev. and
repub. from the "History of Oregon." New York, D. Adee, 1847. 24 pp.
Shakespeare from an American Point of View. New York, D. Appleton, 1877.
The Mysteries of the Tombs, a Journal of Thirty Days' Imprisonment in
the New York City Prison for Libel. New York, 1844, 64 pp.
Wilkes, George, vs. John F. Chamberlin. N. Y. Supreme Court. The answer
of John F. Chamberlin to the complaint of George Wilkes in an action
to recover damages for defamation of character. New York, W. J. Reed,
1873. (Diplomatic Pamphlets, v. 16, p. 1.) 15 pp.
CLARENCE B. BAGLEY.
THE PRESENT STATUS AND PROBABLE FUTURE OF THE INDIANS OF PUGET SOUND
The central fact to be observed in dealing with this problem is that
the Indian of today is largely what the white man has made him. The
relationship between the whites and the Indians in the past has done
more than any other thing to bring about the present conditions of life
among the Indians; and it is only as we understand this relationship
of the past that we can fully grasp the present status and can catch a
glimpse of the probable future or learn to apply remedies to eradicate
existing evils. What progress the Indian has made, therefore, toward
civilization can be traced directly to his relations with the whites,
and similarly the evil conditions of life among a great number of our
Indians can be traced to the same cause. It is, then, essential to take
particular notice of some of these relations between the two races.
The Indians of Puget Sound were put on reservations by treaties
concluded between them and Governor Isaac I. Stevens in the latter part
of the fifties. These treaties established eighteen reservations, four
in the Neah Bay agency, nine under the Puyallup consolidated agency
and five under the Tulalip agency. The lands were set aside for the
use of the Indian, to make a home for him, and to protect it from the
encroachment of the whites. Under the federal act of July 4, 1884,
the Indian was allowed to take advantage, without severing his tribal
relations, of the Homestead Act of 1862. In 1887, Congress passed the
General Allotment Act, or the so-called Dawes Act, which had for its
purpose the breaking up of tribal life and establishing the Indians
on private farms according to the customs of the whites. This is by
far the most important piece of legislation enacted in the history of
Indian affairs, because many complications have arisen under it. This
law states, in part: "Every Indian born within the territorial limits
of the United States to whom allotment shall have been made under the
provisions of this Act, or under any law or treaty, and every Indian
born within the territorial limits of the United States, who has
voluntarily taken up, within said limits, his residence separate and
apart from any tribe of Indians therein, and has adopted the habits of
civilized life, is hereby declared to be a citizen of the United States
and is entitled to all the rights, privileges and immunities of such
citizens." (24 Stat. L. 390.)
It must be noted that this made such an Indian a citizen of the United
States, but not necessarily a citizen of the state in which he resided.
The Constitution of the State of Washington declares that Indians not
taxed shall not vote, and the penal code of the State makes it a felony
to induce an Indian to vote--in spite of the fact that such class
legislation and class restrictions are clearly not in harmony with the
intentions of this federal law.
This Act has worked inestimable harm and has been one chief instrument
of political and pecuniary graft through conferring citizenship under
conditions which in no way required or evidenced the slightest fitness
for citizenship. Charles M. Buchanan, Superintendent in charge of the
Tulalip agency, said: "I know of instances where allotments have been
made to an Indian without his application, without his knowledge, and
without his desire--where in twenty-five years he has never set foot
upon his alleged land, does not know where it is and does not want it.
He is in possession of land that he does not want and a citizenship
that he does not know, much less understand." It is difficult to
attribute mere sympathy for the poor unprotected red man, as the
only purpose for the enactment of such an ignorant, vicious piece of
legislation. This Act, probably more than any other one thing, has
determined the present-day status of our Puget Sound Indians.
Another complication which arose under this Dawes Act was the
conflicting and antagonistic procedure on the part of local courts in
regard to the transfer and sale of lands. Section 6 of that Act states
that allotments shall be held in trust for a period of twenty-five
years and the Indian allottees are to acquire citizenship at the time
of the approval of such allotments. Also the inheritance or entail of
allotments is made subject to the laws of descent and partition in
the respective states where such allotments might be located. This
provision, together with the Act of May 27, 1902 (32 Stat. L., 245),
authorizing and providing for the sale of allotments of deceased
allottees, has resulted in great confusion and conflicting procedure
in local courts, thus making still more difficult the already complex
administration of Indian affairs and impeding the progress of the
Indian as a whole.
These developments of the vicious conditions arising under the Dawes
Act pale into insignificance before the United States Supreme Court
decision, "In the matter of Heff," 1905. This, famous or infamous,
case arose in Kansas from the endeavor to enforce the federal law of
1897 relating to the sale of liquor to the Indians. A man named Heff,
in Kansas, was arrested, tried and convicted for selling two quarts of
beer to an Indian. He was sentenced to a fine and to a term in jail.
He had the case appealed to the United States Supreme Court, and that
body decided that if, under the Dawes Act of 1887, an Indian becomes
a citizen of the United States, he is entitled to all the rights,
privileges and immunities pertaining to such citizenship, and hence to
acquire and consume liquor at pleasure. Therefore, to that extent the
prohibitory provisions of the Act of 1897, affecting such privileges,
were declared to be null and void, and Heff was ordered to be released.
This has been the most vicious piece of legislation in the history of
Indian affairs. The worst enemy of the Indian is his overpowering love
for liquor. Congress has attempted again and again to protect him from
this weakness, and in the Act of 1897 it was thought that this trouble
was at an end with the enacting of such an ironclad law. It practically
prohibited the furnishing of liquor in any form, in any place, and
under any pretense to an Indian. The year following the Heff decision
saw an increase of the liquor traffic among the Indians of Puget Sound
undreamed of before. It spelled almost absolute ruin and prostration
for the Puyallup Indians. Other agencies report a similar striking
increase in the amount of drunkenness, crime, and death, and a marked
lowering of moral standards and civilization. Even some of the more
intelligent men of the Tulalip tribes express their sorrow over the
Heff decision and its results.
On May 8, 1906, Congress attempted to remedy these evil conditions
arising under the Dawes Act by passing the Burke Act. This amends the
Dawes Act to read, "At the expiration of the trust period and when the
lands have been conveyed to the Indians by patent in fee, as provided
in Section five of this act, then each and every allottee shall have
the benefit of and be subject to the laws, both civil and criminal, of
the state or territory in which they may reside; Provided, that the
Secretary of the Interior, may, in his discretion, and he is hereby
authorized, whenever he shall be satisfied that any Indian allottee
is competent and capable of managing his or her affairs at any time
to cause to be issued to such allottee a patent in fee simple, and
thereafter all restrictions as to sale, incumbrance, or taxation
of said land shall be removed and said land shall not be liable to
the satisfaction of any debt contracted prior to the issuing of
such patent." (34 Stat. L. 182). This postpones the acquisition of
citizenship until the termination (instead of the initiation) of the
trust period. This can, however, only apply to such allotments as have
been made, or shall be made, subsequent to May 8, 1906. It cannot undo
the evils resulting from the past.
It would be sad indeed if this were the only aspect of the Indian
question. There is, however, a brighter side. Great progress has been
made in civilization through contact with the whites. The simple,
primitive, uneducated child of Nature is a thing of the past. The Puget
Sound Indian of today has discarded many of his tribal customs and
habits and adopted those of the whites. Reservation reports show that
nearly all have adopted the white man's dress, can speak the English
language more or less, and have adopted a great many American customs,
manners of living, and institutions. The occupations of the men are
practically the same as those of the whites. They engage in fishing,
truck gardening, stock raising, and some work in the logging camps,
lumber mills, and hop fields. They are, however, as a rule, extremely
shiftless, preferring to sell their land outright and get the money
rather than to clear it and make it their home. Each year, however, a
few more homes are made. These are quite like those found among the
whites of a similar social status.
One of the big obstacles with which the Puget Sound Indian is
contending at the present time is found in the conditions of the
fishing industry. Owing to the very rapid increase in importance of
this industry, through the use of traps, together with concentration of
capital and consolidation of the canning plants, the salmon fisheries,
which are the chief means of subsistence of the coast Indians, are
being rapidly monopolized. The means of obtaining a living are,
therefore, becoming daily more precarious, particularly among the older
Indians. The stock of fish is being depleted so rapidly that there is
an increasing demand for more and larger hatcheries. The white man,
with superior intelligence and more capital, is gradually crowding
the unfortunate Indian out of his time-honored occupation. The same
thing may be said in regard to the logging industry. The ignorant
Indian, without capital, cannot compete successfully with the superior
intelligence and greater wealth of his white neighbor. This makes the
matter of employment and subsistence extremely precarious and forms one
of the biggest problems that confronts us today in regard to Indian
affairs.
Perhaps one of the best and most hopeful signs of progress is the
growing interest and rapid improvement in education. Each of the Indian
reservations is provided with one or more day schools and the Puyallup
and Tulalip agencies have industrial training schools. These latter
especially are doing very efficient and creditable work. They are
fitting the new generation of Indians for a life of usefulness. Very
few of the older generations can be induced to clear and farm their
lands, but the time has now come when this is the only practicable
thing for them to do and so the purpose of the schools should be to
fit the rising generation for a life occupation. These two industrial
schools are meeting this task very efficiently. The Tulalip school
ground was cleared mostly by the pupils themselves. Recently the
Government has provided them with a donkey engine. A large plot of
ground is set out to fruit and vegetables. A sufficient amount of
garden products is produced on this to supply the entire school, and
besides a large amount is sold. At the same time, valuable instruction
is given to the boys in fruit raising and truck growing. In 1908 a
large mill and manual training building were erected entirely by school
help. Pupil self-government is used in connection with the discipline
of the school. The officers include mayor, city clerk, city council,
health officer, policeman and judges. The system seems to be capably
managed and good results are produced.
The day schools are experiencing a great deal more difficulty. The
allotments are so far apart that there are, necessarily, but few
families close to the schools. The remainder of the children are
compelled to come a long way. This, together with the bad, rainy
climate of Puget Sound, makes the enforcement of attendance at day
schools a very difficult problem. These factors make the attendance
uncertain and irregular, and when the pupils do go they are often
compelled to sit all day long with wet clothing. Such conditions are
enough to break down the strongest constitutions. What wonder is it,
then, that the death rate is high among the Indian children, who are
often poorly fed, poorly clad and already predisposed. Then, too, to
be efficiently administered these schools require a strong, capable,
well-trained teacher, one imbued with the true missionary spirit. Such
teachers are not, as a rule, found in the Indian service, and the
salaries are not usually large enough to attract them into the service
from outside. On the whole, however, it must be said that progress in
the right direction is slowly being accomplished. Better teachers and a
larger number of well-equipped schools are being supplied.
In a great many cases, it is a difficult undertaking to influence the
older people to change their customs and habits, although the rising
generation do so very readily. Some progress can be noted among the
old people, however. For example, over three-fourths of the families
on the Lummi reservation use the English language exclusively at home,
and in a great many cases the children can speak nothing but English.
The Indians have given up a great many of their forms and ceremonies
and superstitions. Marriage is now performed according to the customs
of the whites. Licenses are obtained usually from the county officials,
seldom from the agency. Each reservation has individual courts of
Indian offenses, officered and administered by Indians. These, on the
whole, have done very careful, conscientious and helpful work, not only
in the administration of justice, but in maintaining law and order and
peaceably adjusting quarrels and disputes.
The morals of the Indians of Puget Sound are as good as could
reasonably be expected when we take into consideration our ignorant,
unwholesome legislation and the fact that, as a race, laxness in this
respect has been only too common. Contact with the lower class of
whites has unfortunately resulted in the copying of a great many of
their vices, as well as virtues. Some progress can be noted, however.
They are observing the marriage tie with much more faithfulness than
formerly, and where man and wife are not living together, they are
divorced by due process of law.
The Heff decision has undoubtedly done much toward sending the Indian
down to destruction. Since then it has been almost impossible to keep
drink and the Indians apart. The Puyallup Indians have nearly all
passed the trust period and become citizens, as, in fact, have a good
many on the other reservations. Since that time they have lost their
property, self-respect, and health to a large degree. The only thing
they haven't been able to get rid of is their citizenship, which has
been largely responsible for their present condition. Superintendent
Buchanan reports in 1907, in speaking of the enforcement of our state
laws in regard to liquor selling, "In thirteen years of life in
this vicinity I have yet to see or hear of the first case of actual
enforcement of any of these provisions. In six years of very vigorous
prosecution I have secured remarkably few convictions in such cases,
and these only on pleas of guilty, and in all of which the minimum
penalty was inflicted. Indeed, the situation is so very extraordinary
that one is not always sure of a conviction even when the defendant
admits his guilt and pleads guilty. In one such case, which went before
the federal grand jury on such a plea of guilt, the jury, with all the
facts before them, and with the defendant admitting guilt and pointing
out and identifying the confiscated bottles and flasks, turned the
prisoner loose as innocent, even though he insisted that he was guilty.
This very extraordinary event occurred in Seattle before the May, 1905,
session of the Federal Grand Jury." (Page 58, Report of Indian Agents
and Superintendents to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1907.) Is it any
wonder, then, that liquor dealers violate the law with impunity when it
is such a difficult matter to secure conviction?
In 1909, the State of Washington passed a very stringent law relating
to the selling of liquor to Indians and since that time, enforcement
has been somewhat stricter. This makes it a felony for anyone to sell
liquor in any form, at any time, and under any pretense, to an Indian,
to whom allotment has been made, while the title is held in the trust
period, or to an Indian who is held under guardianship of an Indian
agent or superintendent, or under the charge of the United States. This
law is being much more rigidly enforced than has hitherto been the
case, yet the Indians still get the liquor. Saloon keepers in towns
bordering on the reservations are wary about selling it to them, but in
towns some distance from the reservations open selling still goes on.
On the whole, our liquor laws are more honored in the breach than the
observance.
The consumption of such a large amount of liquor in the past has, in
a great many cases, absolutely destroyed the health of the Indians.
Their constitutions always have been weak, subject to tuberculosis,
pneumonia, and all pulmonary diseases, and when the consumption of
large amounts of alcohol is added to this, little wonder is it that the
death rate is high among them, and that so many weak, diseased Indian
children come into the world.
In the matter of religion, the Puget Sound Indians are in an
evolutionary stage. On the whole, the old form of religion, called
Tamahnous, in which the evil spirit was worshipped in order to appease
it, and hence not to be visited by it, has been replaced by the
Christian religion, or by a mixture of the Christian and the old.
The Puget Sound Indians are peculiar in one respect, viz: that they
are indolent and lazy, are easily persuaded to accept and follow any
belief, but are usually unwilling to make an effort to think or reason
out a question. They are indolently and willingly superficial. The
result of this has been that while a great many have been converted to
the Christian religion, still that conversion has been very superficial
in character. They have been satisfied with the content that external
forms and actions would make them right with God, and secure to them
a future happiness, and, at the same time, have utterly disregarded
the true inner spirit of religion. Hence, they have readily taken up
anything that appeals to the sensuous in their religious nature.
In 1882 or 1883, a Mud Bay Indian, named John Slocum, who had been
converted to Catholicism, but who had led a rather desultory life, fell
sick and apparently died. The usual death ceremonies took place. But
to the great surprise of the Indians, Slocum came to life again on the
second or third day after his death. He brought with him a wonderful
tale. He affirmed that he had indeed died, gone up to the pearly gates
and there met St. Peter, who refused him entrance on the grounds that
he had led too loose a life. There was one way, however, so St. Peter
informed him, by which he could yet earn his way into Paradise, and
that was to go back to earth and teach his fellow Indians a new form of
religion, which was to be the same as that in the white man's book, but
better adapted to the needs of the Indians. Hence his return to life.
Slocum immediately began to preach his new doctrine, a religion since
named "Shakerism," which has gathered together at least half of the
Indians of Puget Sound, who profess any religion at all. This is
a curious mixture of the old Tamahnous religion and Protestantism
and Catholicism. It is undoubtedly a decided step in advance of the
old religion, since it enjoins a worship of an all-powerful, good
God rather than malicious devils and evil spirits. The beliefs and
ceremonies differ among different tribes, and are more nearly in
harmony with the Christian religion where the missionaries have had
the most influence. The influence of Catholicism is to be seen in the
elaborate forms and ceremonies of worship and the cross and candle
sticks on the altar. Those afflicted with a guilty conscience remain
on their knees during the entire Sunday service, crossing themselves
repeatedly. The songs and prayers are translations into Indian or
Chinook done by the early missionaries.
The retained features of the old Tamahnous religion are to be seen
largely in the conversion ceremonies and the healing of the sick--the
so-called "Night Work." It is difficult for the Indians to give up
their old superstitions and barbaric rites. These still remain in their
minds and crop out with the more modern beliefs in their religion. To
quote from an article by Edwin L. Chalcraft, a teacher in one of the
Indian schools, "Every act tends to excitement. The weird Indian chant,
the dance music, the frenzied dances, the ringing of hand bells and the
rubbing of the patient's body to drive out sickness or the evil spirit,
as the case may be, and let in the new religion, all have a place, and
are sometimes continued through the night, or until the participants
become exhausted."
The introduction of this new belief among the Indians worked havoc in
the churches. From the first the new religion gained a large number
of converts at the expense of the Christian institution. A great many
of the Christian churches have had to close their doors and go out
of business, because of this keen competition. Especially among the
Puyallup reservation tribes is this true. This religion has taken such
a firm hold upon them that Christianity is making no progress at all at
the present time. For thirty-five years, up to 1901, Rev. Myron Eells
worked faithfully and perseveringly among them against innumerable
obstacles, but since his death in that year the work has almost ceased.
The Neah Bay agency is supplied with one Presbyterian mission, but
it is struggling along, fearing to have to go out of business every
day. The missionary work of the Tulalip agency is done entirely by
the Catholic church, and on the whole very good results have been
accomplished. Most of the reservations have churches of their own, and
the priests of neighboring towns minister to their welfare. Shakerism
has a very weak hold among them.
Taken altogether, this religion has had its place in helping the
Indians live better lives, especially where the Bible has been
faithfully taught. Where the old Tamahnous still bears sway, and the
old superstitions are still current, however, the effect has been
noticeably bad, showing itself principally in unfaithfulness in the
family life. As C. L. Woods, Superintendent of the Neah Bay agency,
says, "The Shakers, a peculiar religious sect, are seemingly doing
good, as there has been little or no law breaking by their members, and
no drunkenness whatever. Their professed creed is a model of orthodoxy,
and it would be bigotry to oppose their outlandish and queer manner of
worship."
I think it can be safely assumed that at least assimilation, if not
race fusion, between the Puget Sound Indians and the whites will
take place some time not very far distant. The younger generation
of Indians are showing a very marked capability of taking over our
habits, customs, institutions and manner of living. Nearly all can
speak and read the English language, a good many cannot speak their
native tongue. They come in contact with the white children a great
deal and so copy from them their games and amusements, and ultimately
their ideals and ways of doing things. This is one of the most hopeful
signs for the future of the race. If we can keep the Indian children
interested in their school work and keep them in contact with the
white children, assimilation will quickly be brought about. The closer
the contact with the better class of whites, the sooner will the
Indians reach our plane of civilization, and the easier will become
assimilation and fusion. Already there is quite a noticeable drift away
from the reservations, and I believe the time will come, and not very
long distant, when the reservations will be done away with entirely.
Assimilation will go on more easily and more rapidly because of the
relatively small number of Indians. There are but something less than
four thousand reservation Indians at the present time around Puget
Sound, and statistics show that they are just about holding their
own in numbers. If any change at all, there may be a slight natural
increase in population.