Aqueduct that conveyed water from the neighboring mountains, and led it
through a great number of well cultivated gardens.
Among the ruins of the city of _Zacatecas_, are found the remains of an
Aqueduct; and at _Palenque_ is found an Aqueduct of stone, constructed
with the greatest solidity.
Among the hieroglyphical ornaments of the pyramid of _Xochicalco_ are
heads of crocodiles _spouting water_, and much proof may be found that
the ancient Americans were acquainted with that property of liquids by
which they find their level; and applied it not merely to fountains and
_jets d’eau_, but to convey water through _pipes_ to their dwellings.
_Aqueducts of South America._
The ancient inhabitants of Peru, Chili, and other parts of South
America were undoubtedly a refined, civilized and agricultural people;
they constructed extensive cities, roads, _Aqueducts_, &c. Though they
constructed many and extensive Aqueducts for the supply of towns and
cities with water, yet the object of the greater part of the public
works of this kind was for the encouragement of agriculture.
“The Peruvians and some of the neighboring nations carried the
cultivation of the soil to a higher stage of perfection than any of
the American nations. In consequence of the narrow extent of land
intervening between the mountains and the sea, the rivers in this
region are usually of small size, and the soil, being arid and sandy,
needs the aid of artificial irrigation. To such an extent did they
carry their ingenious efforts, that the sides of the steepest mountains
were converted into productive fields, by being encircled with
terraces, supported by stone walls, and watered by _canals_.”
“Upon the sides of some of the mountains,” observes Mr. Temple, “were
the remains of walls built in regular stages round them, from their
base to their summits, forming terraces on which, or between which, the
Indians, in days of yore, cultivated their crops.”
“Frezier says the Indians were very industrious in conveying the waters
of the rivers through their fields and to their dwellings, and that
there were still to be seen in many places Aqueducts formed of earth
and stone, and carried along the sides of hills with great labor and
ingenuity.”
“I have had various opportunities,” says a recent traveller, “of
closely examining one of these canals, which is formed at the source
of the river Sana, on the right bank, and extends along a distance of
fifteen leagues, without reckoning sinuosities, and which consequently
supplied a vast population; particularly one city, whose ruins still
remain in the vicinity of a farm now called Cojal.”
“These Aqueducts were often of great magnitude, executed with much
skill, patience and ingenuity, and were boldly carried along the most
precipitous mountains, frequently to the distance of fifteen or twenty
leagues. Many of them consisted of two conduits, a short distance
apart; the larger of these was for general use; the other and smaller,
to supply the inhabitants and water the fields, while the first was
cleansing; a circumstance in which they bear a striking resemblance to
those of Mexico.”
Molina, in his “Natural and Civil History of Chili,” observes, that
previous to the invasion of the Spaniards, the natives practised
artificial irrigation, by conveying water from the higher grounds
in canals to their fields. Herrera says, many of the vales were
exceedingly populous and well cultivated, “having trenches of water.”
The Peruvians carried the system to a great extent. “How must we
admire, (says Humboldt,) the industry and activity displayed by the
ancient Mexicans and Peruvians in the irrigation of arid lands!
“In the maritime parts of Peru, I have seen the remains of walls,
along which water was conducted for a space of from 5 to 6000 metres,
from the foot of the Codilleras to the coast. The conquerors of the
16th century destroyed these Aqueducts, and that part of Peru has
become, like Persia, a desert, destitute of vegetation. Such is the
civilization carried by the Europeans among a people, whom they are
pleased to call barbarous.” These people had laws for the protection of
water, very similar to those of Greece, Rome, Egypt, and all the older
nations; for those who conveyed water from the canals to their own land
before their turn, were liable to arbitrary punishment.
Several of the ancient American customs respecting water, were
identical with those of the oldest nations.
They buried vessels of water with the dead. The Mexicans worshipped
it. The Peruvians sacrificed to rivers and fountains. The Mexicans had
_Tlaloc_, their god of water. Holy water was kept in their temples.
They practised divinations by water. The Peruvians drew their drinking
water from _Deep Wells_, and for irrigation in times of drought, they
drew it from pools, and lakes, and rivers.
There is reason to believe that Peru, Chili, and other parts of the
southern continent, were inhabited by a refined, or partially refined
people, centuries before the time of Manco Capac, the first Inca; and
that a long period of barbarism had intervened, induced, perhaps,
by revolutions similar to those which, in the old world, swept all
the once celebrated nations of antiquity into oblivion. The ancient
Peruvians had a tradition respecting the arrival of giants, who located
themselves on the coast, and who _dug_ wells of immense depth _through
the solid rock_; which wells, as well as cisterns, still remain.
There is much uncertainty respecting Manco Capac. Who he was, and
from what country he came, are equally unknown. According to their
_Quippus_, or historical cords, and the opinion of the Inca, who
was uncle to Garcilasso, and who communicated to the latter all the
knowledge of their ancestors then extant, he made his appearance in
Peru about 400 years before the invasion of the Spaniards. It is said
he was whiter than the natives, and was clothed in flowing garments.
Awed by his presence, they received him as a divinity, became subject
to his laws, and practised the arts he introduced. He founded Cusco,
and extended his influence to all the nations around. He taught them
agriculture and many useful arts, especially that of irrigating land.
His son succeeded him, and without violence greatly extended the limits
of the kingdom; prevailing with the natives, it is said, by a peaceable
and gentle manner, “to plough, and manure, and cultivate the soil.”
His successors pursued the same mode, and with the same success. The
fifth Inca, we are informed, constructed Aqueducts, bridges and roads
in all the countries he subdued. When the sixth Inca acquired a new
province, he ordered the lands to be “dressed and manured;” the fens
to be drained, “for in that art (draining) they were excellent, as is
apparent by their works, which remain to this day; and also they were
(then) very ingenious in making _Aqueducts_ for carrying water into dry
and scorched lands, such as the greatest part of that country is; they
always made contrivances and _inventions_ to bring their water. These
Aqueducts, though they were ruined after the Spaniards came in, yet
several reliques and monuments of them remain unto this day.”
The seventh Inca, _Viracocha_, constructed some water works, which, in
their beneficial effects, perhaps equalled any similar undertakings in
any other part of the world. “He made an Aqueduct 12 feet in depth, and
120 leagues in length; the source or head of it arose from certain
springs on the top of a high mountain between Parcu and Picuy, which
was so plentiful that at the very head of the fountains they seemed to
be rivers. This current of water had its course through all the country
of the Rucanas, and served to water the pasturage of those uninhabited
lands, which are about 18 leagues in breadth, _watering almost the
whole country of Peru_.”
There is _another_ Aqueduct much like this, which traverses the whole
province of _Cuntisuyu_, running above 150 leagues from south to north.
Its head or original is from the top of high mountains, the which
waters falling into the plains of the Quechuas, greatly refresh their
pasturage, when the heats of the summer and autumn have dried up the
moisture of the earth.
“There are many streams of like nature, which run through divers
parts of the empire, which being conveyed by Aqueducts, at the charge
and expense of the Incas, are works of grandeur and ostentation, and
which recommend the magnificence of the Incas to all posterity; for
these Aqueducts may well be compared to the miraculous fabrics which
have been the works of mighty princes, who have left their prodigious
monuments of ostentation to be admired by future ages; for, indeed,
we ought to consider that these waters had their source and beginning
from vast, high mountains, and were carried over craggy rocks and
inaccessible passages; and to make these ways plain, they had no help
of instruments forged of steel or iron, such as pickaxes or sledges,
but served themselves only with one stone to break another. Nor were
they acquainted with the invention of arches, to convey the water
on the level from one precipice to the other, but traced round the
mountain until they found ways and passages at the same height and
level with the head of the springs.”
“The cisterns or conservatories which they made for these waters, at
the top of the mountain, were about 12 feet deep; the passage was
broken through the rocks, and channels made of hewn stone, of about
two yards long and about a yard high; which were cemented together,
and rammed in with earth so hard, that no water would pass between, to
weaken or vent itself by the holes of the channel.
“The current of water which passes through all the division of
Cuntisuyu I have seen in the province of Quechua, which is part of
that division, and considered it an extraordinary work, and indeed
surpassing the description and report which hath been made of it.
But the Spaniards who were aliens and strangers, little regarded the
convenience of these works, either to serve themselves in the use of
them, or to keep them in repair, nor yet to take so much notice of them
as to mention them in their histories, but rather out of a scornful
and disdaining humor, have suffered them to run into ruin, beyond all
recovery. The same fate hath befallen the _Aqueducts_ which the Indians
made for watering their corn lands, of which two thirds at least are
wholly destroyed, and none kept in repair, unless some few which
are so useful that without them they cannot sustain themselves with
bread, nor with the necessary provisions of life. All which works are
not so totally destroyed but that there still remain some ruins and
appearances of them.”
In describing the temple and gardens at Cusco. Garcilasso observes,
“there were five fountains of water, which ran from divers places
through pipes of gold. The cisterns were some of stone, and others of
gold and silver in which they washed their sacrifices, as the solemnity
of the festival required.”
FOUNTAINS.
Artificial fountains and _jets d’eau_ are of extreme antiquity; they
have been used for beautifying public grounds of cities, and have
served the purpose of moderating the temperature of the air; in these
cases the water has been in some instances perfumed.
“From excavations made at Pompeii it appears that in almost every
street there was a fountain, and that bronze statues, through which
the water issued were common,--several have been found,--four or five
are boys of beautiful workmanship; the fluid issued from vases resting
on their shoulders, or held under their arms, and in some cases from
masks. Paintings of elegant fountains, from which the water issued in
perpendicular jets, have also been discovered both at Herculaneum and
Pompeii.”
“In the middle of the square of the Coliseum, is a pretty remarkable
piece of antiquity, (says Blainville,) though very little minded by
most people. Here stood anciently, a beautiful fountain, adorned with
the finest marbles and columns; and on the top was a bronze statue of
Jupiter, from which issued great plenty of water, as may be seen on the
reverse of one of Titus’ medals. This fountain was of great use both
to the spectators and the gladiators in the amphitheatre to refresh
themselves. Pope Alexander VII. caused it to be repaired, but since his
time it has been entirely neglected.”
“During hot weather, Augustus the Roman Emperor slept (observes
Sentonius) with his chamber doors open, ‘and frequently in a portico
with waters playing around him.’”
The garden water-works of the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth are
probably the finest in England; being ornamented by many fanciful
devices and from a jet of six inches diameter the water rises
perpendicularly to the height of 90 feet.
The most remarkable fountain or _jet d’eau_ in the world, is at
Cassal in Germany, where the water rises from an orifice of 12 inches
diameter to a perpendicular height of 250 feet. The source from which
it is supplied is at the top of a mountain near by, being about 500
feet above the level of the town. The surplus water not used for the
supply of the fountain flows down the mountain-side forming a beautiful
cascade.
The cities of Europe abound in fountains which in their arrangement
furnish beautiful designs and are ornamented with specimens of
workmanship displaying much skill and refinement of taste: a minute
description of them would, however, occupy too much space, and since
we have had our attention drawn (on the subject of Aqueducts) more
particularly to the works of the Romans, we will revert to the
_Fountains of Rome._
“If during the most distinguished eras of the Roman state, the
Aqueducts conduced to the luxurious enjoyments of the wealthy and
powerful, yet in modern times, the residents of Rome have also found
them particularly advantageous, by their furnishing occasions for the
cultivation of those elegant arts, which, in a peculiar manner, call
forth the energies of genius, and the exercise of refined taste, in
realizing and decorating her productions. Qualities of this kind appear
conspicuous in several of the numerous fountains which adorn that
celebrated city; and the most intellectual and accomplished professors
of sculpture and architecture, have happily united beauty and grandeur
in the construction of many such admirable edifices. These structures
are also characterized by great diversity of design, as well as skilful
execution; hence, a concise description of several of them may be
interesting.”
“The largest structure of this kind in Rome, is that denominated the
_Pauline_ Fountain, which was built by order of Pope Paul V., with
the materials of Nerva’s Forum. This spacious edifice is situate on
the highest part of the Janiculum hill, and Dominica Fontana, and
Carlo Mederno, furnished the designs for its construction. The front
is adorned with six Ionic columns of red granite, on which an attic
has a tablet containing an inscription with the pontiff’s arms placed
above it. Between the columns the spaces are open, and from these
arcades the currents of water flow with a loud noise, and in great
abundance. The apertures on the sides are smaller than the others, and
in each of those is placed a dragon spouting water into the spacious
magnificent marble basin below. This fountain is furnished with water
by the Aqueduct called _Aqua Paolo_; and it runs from the basin, in a
very large stream into several canals, whence it is employed to work
various corn, paper, and other mills, as well as to supply fountains
and fish-ponds in the gardens and palaces of the opulent.”
“Near to the baths of Dioclesian, and in the square of the _Termini_,
stands the fountain of the _Aqua Felice_. The edifice is not only
elegant but fanciful, and it has three arcades ornamented with four
Ionic columns of granite. The middle arcade has a colossal statue of
Moses, causing the water to issue from the rock; and at the sides are
two basso relievos, one representing Aaron leading the Israelites to
the miraculous spring, and the other Gideon selecting the soldiers
to enlarge the passage for the water, which flows in great abundance
through three apertures into marble basins. The sides are adorned
by four marble lions, with the water issuing from their mouths: two
of these are formed of white Grecian marble, and the other two of
black granite. The latter are Egyptian workmanship, and covered with
hieroglyphics. This noble fountain was erected from a design of Cav.
Fontana; by the order of Pope Sixtus V., and its supply of water is
obtained twenty-two miles from the city.”
“Another of these fine structures is that called the _Fountain of
Trevi_, in which boldness of design, and elegance of architecture
are admirably united. The erection of this very magnificent edifice
commenced during the pontificate of Clement XII., who repaired the
Aqueducts. Niccolo Salvi designed the grand front, but the work was
completed under Clement XIII., who decorated it with statues, basso
relievos in marble, and different columns of the Corinthian, Ionic,
and Composite orders. In the centre is a statue representing Oceanus,
standing in a car, drawn by two large sea-horses, guided by Tritons.
One of the horses appears furious and impatient, whilst, on the
contrary, the other is exhibited as calm and placid, so that both are
symbolical of the tempestuous or tranquil state of the sea.
‘Bounding to light, as if from ocean’s cave,
The struggling sea-horse paws the lucid wave,
While health and plenty smile, and Neptune’s form
Majestic sways the trident of the storm.’
“A statue, designating Abundance, is placed at the right of Oceanus,
and on the left another emblematical of Health. The basso relievo,
which adorns the right side, portrays the Emperor Trajan, contemplating
a plan of the fountain; and that on the left exhibits a girl showing
to some soldiers, the spring that supplies it with water. Various
other sculptures decorate this superb edifice; and at the top of
the principal front are two figures of Fame, supporting the arms
of the Pope. Its supply of water is furnished by the Aqua Virgini,
and it flows in very large streams from three arcades. The cost of
constructing this splendid and useful fountain was great; but it ranks
among the most interesting objects conspicuously embellishing the city
of Rome.”
“The _Piazza Novana_ has a very noble fountain standing in its centre.
It is composed of a large circular marble basin 79 feet in diameter,
in the middle of which is placed a rock of square form with apertures
at the sides. The figure of a lion adorns one side, and that of a
sea-horse another. From the base to the top of the rock, the height is
about 14 feet; and on its summit stands an Egyptian obelisk formed of
red granite, 55 feet in height, and covered with hieroglyphics. At the
four sides of the rock are colossal marble statues, which designate the
four great rivers in different quarters of the world: viz. the Danube,
the Nile, the Ganges, and the Plata: and from these statues the water
flows in copious streams to the spacious basin below.
‘The Nile and Ganges from the silver tide:
La Plata too, and Danube’s streams unite
Their liquid treasures, copious, clear and bright.’
“During the summer, it is the custom occasionally to permit the water
to overflow the whole square, for the entertainment of the people;
and on midsummer’s eve persons amuse themselves by wading and driving
through the flood. This practice has sometimes been attended with fatal
accidents, and not only men but horses have actually been drowned in
the attempts to pass it in carriages.
“In the month of August the area of the square is likewise filled with
water for the purpose of amusement.
“The same square likewise contains two other fountains, one of which
consists of a capacious marble basin, having at its centre a Triton
holding a dolphin by the tail; and on the margin of the basin are four
heads with the same number of Tritons that spout the water from their
mouths. The other fountain has not any remarkable characteristics to
entitle it to peculiar attention.”
“Where formerly stood the circus of Flora is now the site of the Piazza
Barberinni, which has two fountains to embellish it:--one of them being
composed of four dolphins supporting a large open shell, with a Triton
in the middle ejecting water to a great height. The other is fanciful,
being also formed of an open shell, from which three bees throw out the
water.”
“In the vicinity of the Temple of Vesta stands a handsome fountain,
having a capacious basin, in which some Tritons support a large
marble shell. From the centre of the latter, the water spouts to a
considerable height, and then descending flows over its margin into
the basin beneath. Some fine fountains adorn the magnificent colonnade
in front of the Cathedral of St. Peter. The _Piazza di Spagna_ has
likewise for its embellishment, a fountain in the form of an antique
boat. Besides the structures described above, there is a great number
of other fountains which evince much diversity of taste and ingenuity
in their contrivance. But at the different villas of the opulent, the
abundance of water is rendered subservient to amusing as well as useful
purposes, and several of them are rather singular. The description of
one will convey some notion of what is common to many of them.
“The delightful promenades, groves, and gardens belonging to the Doria
family, are interspersed with fountains of various forms; besides
having a beautiful lake with waterfalls. Statues, antique basso
relievos, and small fountains, adorn a kind of amphitheatre, where
a circular edifice contains the marble figure of a fawn holding a
flute, on which it seems to play different airs: the music, however,
is produced by a machine resembling an organ in its construction, and
motion being given to it by the flowing of the water from a cascade.”
“Perhaps the few instances recited above will suffice to demonstrate
the different modes employed at Rome, for calling into exercise
genius, fancy, and taste, to diversify the public edifices concerned
with its abundant supply of water; thus rendering them subservient to
magnificence, entertainment, and utility. Whilst John Dyer resided
there, he viewed these celebrated fountains with the mingled feelings
of the painter and the poet; hence, associating them with other
interesting circumstances, they furnished the materials for one of his
most striking and pathetic delineations.
‘The pilgrim oft,
At dead of night, ’mid his oraison hears
Aghast the voice of Time, disparting towers,
Tumbling all precipitate, down-dashed,
Rattling around, loud thundering to the moon;
While murmurs sooth each awful interval
Of ever-falling waters; shrouded Nile,
Eridanus, and Tiber with his twins,
And palmy Euphrates; they with dropping locks
Hang o’er their urns, and mournfully among
The plantive echoing ruins, pour their streams.’”
_Ruins of Rome._
HISTORY
OF THE
PROGRESSIVE MEASURES FOR SUPPLYING
THE
CITY OF NEW-YORK WITH WATER.
As early as 1774, when the population of the city of New-York was only
_twenty-two thousand_, the Corporation commenced the construction of
a reservoir and other works for supplying water; and for the purpose
of defraying the expense of the undertaking, issued a paper money,
amounting to _two thousand five hundred pounds_, under the denomination
of “_Water Works Money_,” and bonds were executed in favor of certain
individuals for land and materials to the amount of _eight thousand
eight hundred and fifty pounds_ more.
A spacious reservoir was constructed on the east line of Broadway,
between, what is now known as Pearl and White streets, and a well of
large dimensions was sunk in the vicinity of the Collect. The war of
the revolution, which commenced in 1775, and the consequent occupation
of the city of New-York by the British troops, was the cause of the
abandonment of the work in its unfinished state.