_Duchess_: I had a very strange dream to-night;
Methought I wore my coronet of state,
And on a sudaine all the diamonds
Were chang’d to pearles.
_Antonio_: My interpretation
Is, you’ll weepe shortly;
For to me the pearles
Doe signifie your teares.
And we quote also from “The Parson’s Wedding” (1663), Act II, sc. 5,
where Jolly exclaims: “What! in thy dumps, brother? The captain sad!
’Tis prophetic. I’d as lieve have dreamt of pearl, or the loss of my
teeth.”
Tradition relates that Queen Margaret Tudor, wife of James IV of
Scotland, just before the battle of Flodden Field (1513), had many fears
as to the disastrous issue of that conflict, owing to having dreamed on
three nights in succession that all her jewels were suddenly turned into
pearls. This was interpreted as a sign of coming widowhood and sorrow,
which was soon verified; and a similar story is told of Marie de’ Medici
shortly before the murder of Henry IV of France in 1610.
The employment of pearls medicinally dates from an ancient period. This
use is mentioned in the oldest existing Sanskrit medical work, the
“Charaka-Samhita,”[352] composed early in the Christian era; and
likewise in the somewhat more modern “Susruta,”[353] which probably
originated before the eighth century.
It is particularly in Oriental countries that therapeutic properties
have been credited to pearls. The powder of these gems has been rated
very highly there, and is still used to some extent. It was considered
beneficial in cases of ague, indigestion, and hemorrhages, and was
regarded as possessing stimulative qualities. Medical literature of the
Orient contains many accounts of the uses of pearls and of the methods
of forming them into pills, ointments, etc.
According to a treatise written by Narahari, a physician of Kashmir,
about 1240 A.D., the pearl cures diseases of the eyes, is an antidote to
poisons, cures consumption and morbid disturbances, and increases
strength and general health.[354]
In China, as well as in other Asiatic countries, a distinction was made
in the therapeutic effects of so-called “virgin” pearls and of those
pierced or bored for stringing. The Chinese natural history of Li Shi
Chin, completed about 1596, states that bored pearls will not serve for
medicine, for which unpierced ones should be used. It further adds that
the taste is saltish, sweetish, and cold; and that they benefit the
liver, clear the eyes, and cure deafness. Dr. T. Nishikawa informs us
that at the present time many Mytilus seed-pearls are exported from
Japan to China for medicinal purposes.
Quoting principally from Ahmed Teifashi, Whitelow Ainslie wrote in 1825
that Arabian physicians suppose the powder of the pearl to have virtues
in weak eyes; and they credit it with efficacy in palpitations, nervous
tremors, melancholia, and hemorrhage. Also they have this strange
notion, that when applied externally and while in the shell, it cures
leprosy.[355]
Statements of the curative properties of pearls come also from Japan at
a somewhat recent date. The catalogue of the National Exhibition at Yedo
in 1877, Part V, page 78, notes that they soothe the heart, lessen
phlegm, are an antidote to poison, and cure fever, smallpox, and
blear-eyedness.
The popular modern idea in India as to the therapeutic value was thus
expressed by a native prince, Sourindro Mohun Tagore, Mus. Doc., the
Maharajah of Tagore, in 1881:
The use of pearls conduces to contentment of mind and to strength of
body and soul. The burnt powder of this gem, if taken with water as
sherbet, cures vomiting of blood of all kinds. It prevents evil
spirits working mischief in the minds of men, takes off bad smell
from the mouth, cures lunacy of all descriptions and all mental
diseases, jaundice and all diseases of the heart, intestines and
stomach. Burnt pearl mixed with water and taken into the nostrils,
as a powder, takes away headsickness, cures cataract, lachryma and
swelling of the eyes, the painful sensation such as is caused by the
entry of sand into them, and ulcers. Used as a dentifrice, it
strengthens the gums and cleanses the teeth. Rubbed on the body with
other medicines, it cures all skin diseases. It stops bleeding from
cuts and ultimately heals them up. Whether taken internally or
externally, it is a sure antidote to poison. It drives away all
imaginary fears and removes all bodily pain. To prevent its tendency
to affect the brain, it should always be used with the burnt powder
of basud, and in its absence with that of white mother-of-pearl. The
dose of pearl-powder should not exceed 2¼ mashas [19.68 grs.].[356]
The Hindus credited specific virtues to pearls of different colors: the
yellow brought wealth, the honey shade fostered understanding, the white
attracted fame, and the blue, good luck. Defective pearls caused
leprosy, loss of fortune, disgrace, insanity, and death, according to
the degree of defect. The “Mani-málá,” previously quoted, states that
“pearls possessed of every valuable quality shield their master from
every evil, and suffer nothing harmful to come near him. The house which
contains a perfect pearl the ever-restless Lakshmi (goddess of wealth)
chooses to make her dwelling for ever and a day.”[357]
A similar idea is expressed in an old Hindu treatise on gems by
Buddhabhatta, where we read: “The pearl from the shell ought always to
be worn as an amulet by those who desire prosperity.”[358]
Pearls still find a place in the pharmacopœia of India. One of the
latest standard works, that of R. N. Khory and N. N. Katrak,[359]
credits the powder as a stimulant, tonic, and aphrodisiac. It is one of
the ingredients in numerous Indian prescriptions used in curing
impotence, heart-disease, consumption, etc. According to these
authorities, the dose is from one fourth to one half grain of the
powdered pearl.
Owing to the high cost of sea pearls, even those of the smallest size, a
substitute for medicinal and similar purposes is found in the Placuna
pearls of Ceylon, Borneo, etc. These are of such slight luster that only
the choicest are of ornamental value, consequently they are sold at
relatively small prices. A considerable demand exists for them to be
placed in the mouths of deceased Hindus of the middle class, instead of
the sea pearls which are used by the wealthy, or the rice which is
employed in a similar manner by persons of poorer rank. This custom
seems to be analogous to that of the ancient Britons, and also to that
of the American Indians, in depositing food and other requisites for a
journey in burial graves. The practice is an old one in India and was
noted by Marco Polo more than six hundred years ago.
Most of the Placuna pearls are calcined and are used with areca-nuts and
betel-pepper leaves in a very popular masticatory, one of the “seven
sisters of sleep,” which is to the Hindu what opium is to the Chinaman,
or tobacco to the American or European. The hard white areca-nut (_Areca
Catechu_) is about the size and shape of a hen’s egg. Three or four
thousand tons of the small, tender nuts are annually shipped from Ceylon
to India for this masticatory, which is chewed by a hundred million
persons. After boiling in water, pellets of them are placed in a leaf of
the betel-pepper (_Piper betle_) with a small quantity of lime made from
pearls or shells, according to the desired quality and value of product.
It is credited with hardening the gums, sweetening the breath, aiding
digestion, and stimulating the nervous system like coffee or tobacco;
its most visible effect is tingeing the saliva and blackening the teeth,
which is far from attractive, especially in an otherwise beautiful
woman. A more recent use for these Placuna pearls is as an ingredient in
a proprietary face powder and enamel, which is marketed in Europe.
It is not alone the Orientals that have found medicinal virtues in
pearls. Even in Europe they have occupied a prominent place in materia
medica, especially during the Middle Ages when a knowledge of the occult
properties of gems was an important branch of learning. Indeed, they
could scarcely have been overlooked by people who at one time or another
swallowed pretty much everything, from dried snake’s eyes to the filings
of a murderer’s irons, in their quest for the unusual and costly with
which to relieve and comfort themselves. During the Middle Ages in
Europe, writers who gave attention to pearls, as well as to other gems,
treated almost exclusively of their reputed efficacy in magic and in
medicine; and most of the accounts from the ninth to the fourteenth
century seem wholly without scientific value, and at times reach the
climax of extravagance and absurdity in their claims for the wonderful
potency of the gem.
Albertus Magnus, the Dominican scholar born in Germany in the twelfth
century, wrote that pearls were used in mental diseases, in affections
of the heart, in hemorrhages, and dysentery.[360]
The “Lapidario” of Alfonso X of Castile (1221–1284), called “The Wise,”
the father of the Spanish language, states:
The pearl is most excellent in the medicinal art, for it is of great
help in palpitation of the heart, and for those who are sad or
timid, and in every sickness which is caused by melancholia, because
it purifies the blood, clears it and removes all its impurities.
Therefore, the physicians put them in their medicine and lectuaries,
with which they cure these infirmities, and give them to be
swallowed. They also make powders of them, which are applied to the
eyes; because they clear the sight wonderfully, strengthen the
nerves and dry up the moisture which enters the eyes.[361]
Anselmus de Boot, physician to Emperor Rudolph II, and one of the great
authorities at the beginning of the seventeenth century, gave the
following directions for making “_aqua perlata_, which is most excellent
for restoring the strength and almost for resuscitating the dead.
Dissolve the pearls in strong vinegar, or better in lemon juice, or in
spirits of vitriol or sulphur, until they become liquified; fresh juice
is then added and the first decanted. Then, to the milky and turbid
solution, add enough sugar to sweeten it. If there be four ounces of
this solution, add an ounce each of rose-water, of tincture of
strawberries, of borage flowers and of balm and two ounces of cinnamon
water. When you wish to give the medicine, shake the mixture so that the
sediment may be swallowed at the same time. From one ounce to an ounce
and a half may be taken, and nothing more excellent can be had. In
pernicious and pestilential fevers, the ordinary _aqua perlata_ cannot
be compared to this. Care must be taken to cover the glass carefully
while the pearls are dissolving, lest the essence should escape.”[362]
A curious book on the medicinal use of pearls was written in 1637 by
Malachias Geiger,[363] in which he especially praises the efficacy of
Bavarian pearls. It was true that their material value was less than
that of oriental pearls, but this was compensated by their therapeutic
qualities. He had accomplished many cures of a very serious disease and
had used these pearls successfully in cases of epilepsy, insanity, and
melancholia.
Quotations might be given from a hundred medieval writers as to the
therapeutics of pearls. The diseases for which they were recommended, as
noted by Robert Lovell’s “Panmineralogicon, or Summe of all Authors,”
published at Oxford in 1661, seems to have included a large portion of
the entire list known at that period. This summary states:
Pearls strengthen and confirme the heart; they cherish the spirits
and principall parts of the body; being put into collyries, they
cleanse weafts of the eyes, and dry up the water thereof, help their
filth, and strengthen the nerves by which moisture floweth into
them; they are very good against melancholick griefes; they helpe
those that are subject to cardiack passions; they defend against
pestilent diseases, and are mixed with cordiall remedies; they are
good against the lienterie, that is, the flux of the belly,
proceeding from the sliperiness of the intestines, insomuch that
they cannot retaine the meat, but let it passe undigested; they are
good against swounings; they help the trembling of the heart and
giddinesse of the head; they are mixed with the _Manus Christi_
against fainting (called _Manus Christi perlata_ in the London
_Pharmacopaea_); they are put into antidotes or corroborating
powders; they help the flux of bloud; they stop the terms, and
cleanse the teeth; they are put into antidotes for the bowels, and
increase their vertue, make the bloud more thin, and clarify that
which is more thick and feculent; they help feavers. The _oile of
Pearles_ or unions helpeth the resolution of the nerves, convulsion,
decay of old age, phrensie, keepeth the body sound, and recovereth
it when out of order, it rectifieth womens milk, and increaseth it,
corrects the vices of the natural parts and seed. It cureth
absesses, eating ulcers, the cancer and hemorrhoides.... The best
are an excellent cordial, by which the oppressed balsame of life and
decayed strength are recreated and strengthened, therefore they
resist poyson, the plague, and putrefaction, and exhilarate, and
therefore they are used as the last remedie in sick persons.[364]
[Illustration:
RUSSIAN EIKON OF THE MADONNA
Ornamented with pearls
]
So powerful and mysterious were their alleged virtues, that in some
instances it was necessary only that the pearls be worn to make
effective their prophylaxis against disease. This belief was by no means
confined to the ignorant and inexperienced, for we are told that even
Pope Adrian was never without his amulet made of the extraordinary
combination of oriental pearls, a dried toad, etc.[365] Leonardo, in the
fifteenth century, wrote that pearls render true and virtuous all who
wear them.[366] Although we wonder at what we call the superstitions of
the Middle Ages, perchance future generations will smile at many of our
mistaken follies.
A prominent historical instance of administering pearls medicinally was
in the treatment of Charles VI of France (1368–1422), to whom pearl
powder mixed with distilled water was given for the cure of insanity.
A far more illustrious patient was Lorenzo de’ Medici, “The Magnificent”
(1448–1492), the celebrated ruler of Florence. When this plebeian prince
lay dying of a fever at Careggi, just after that famous interview with
Savonarola, his friends called in Lazaro da Ticino, a physician of
reputation, who administered pulverized pearls. Politian, who was
present, is credited with the statement that when the medicine was
administered, to the inquiry as to how it tasted, Lorenzo replied: “As
pleasant as anything can be to a dying man.”[367]
Even the English philosopher, Francis Bacon (1561–1626), mentioned
pearls among medicines for the prolongation of life. He adds: “Pearls
are taken, either in a fine powder or in a kind of paste or solution
made by the juice of very sour and fresh lemons. Sometimes they are
given in aromatic confections, sometimes in a fluid form. Pearls no
doubt have some affinity with the shells wherein they grow; perhaps may
have nearly the same qualities as the shells of crawfish.”[368]
Powdered pearl or mother-of-pearl mixed with lemon juice was used as a
wash for the face, and was considered “the best in the world.”[369] The
pearl powder and lemon juice were permitted to stand for a day or two
and the combination was then filtered before using. Another method of
preparing this was:
Dissolve two or three ounces of fine seed-pearl in distilled
vinegar, and when it is perfectly dissolved, pour the vinegar into a
clean basin; then drop some oil of tartar upon it, and it will cast
down the pearl into fine powder; then pour the vinegar clean off
softly; put to the pearl clear conduit or spring water; pour that
off, and do so often until the taste of the vinegar and tartar be
clean gone; then dry the powder of pearl upon warm embers, and keep
it for your use.[370]
Through their composition of carbonate of lime, pearls possibly possess
some slight therapeutic value, which, however, can easily be supplied by
other materials—as the shell, for instance—and is entirely out of
proportion to their market value as ornaments.
Although pearls have lost their therapeutic prestige and no longer have
a recognized place in materia medica, their healing qualities are not to
be denied, for there are few ills to which women are subject that cannot
be bettered or at least endured with greater patience when the sufferer
receives a gift of pearls; the truth of which any doubting Thomas may
easily verify in his own household to the limit of his purse-strings.
Owing to their beauty and great value, pearls have been deemed
particularly appropriate as a sacrifice in enriching a drink for a toast
or tribute. Shakspere alludes to this in the words of King Claudius, the
pearl being frequently designated _union_ in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries:
The king shall drink to Hamlet’s better breath;
And in the cup an union shall he throw,
Richer than that which four successive kings
In Denmark’s crown have worn.[371]
It is stated that a pearl worth £15,000 was reduced to powder and drunk
by Sir Thomas Gresham, the English merchant, in the presence of the
Spanish ambassador, as a tribute to Queen Elizabeth, by whom he had been
knighted.[372]
The most celebrated instance of enriching a drink with a pearl was
doubtless Cleopatra’s tribute to Antony, Pliny’s account of which we
give in the words of old Philemon Holland:
This princesse, when _M. Antonius_ had strained himselfe to doe her
all the pleasure he possibly could, and had feasted her day by day
most sumptuously, and spared for no cost: in the hight of her pride
and wanton braverie (as being a noble courtezan, and a queene
withall) began to debase the expense and provision of Antonie, and
made no reckoning of all his costly fare. When he thereat demanded
againe how it was possible to goe beyond this magnificence of his,
she answered againe, that she would spend upon him at one supper ten
million Sestertij. _Antonie_ laid a great wager with her about it,
and shee bound it againe, and made it good. The morrow after,
_Cleopatra_ made _Antonie_ a supper which was sumptuous and roiall
ynough: howbeit, there was no extraordinarie service seene upon the
board: whereat _Antonius_ laughed her to scorne, and by way of
mockerie required to see a bill with the account of the particulars.
She again said, that whatsoever had been served up alreadie was but
the overplus above the rate and proportion in question, affirming
still that she would yet in that supper make up the full summe that
she was seazed at: yea, herselfe alone would eat above that
reckoning, and her owne supper should cost 60 million Sestertij: and
with that commanded the second service to be brought in. The
servitors set before her one only crewet of sharpe vineger, the
strength whereof is able to resolve pearles. Now she had at her
eares hanging these two most precious pearles, the singular and only
jewels of the world, and even Natures wonder. As _Antonie_ looked
wistly upon her, shee tooke one of them from her eare, steeped it in
the vineger, and so soon as it was liquified, dranke it off. And as
she was about to doe the like by the other, _L. Plancius_ the judge
of that wager, laid fast hold upon it with his hand, and pronounced
withal, that _Antonie_ had lost the wager.[373]
Elsewhere has been set forth the impracticability of dissolving a pearl
in a glass of vinegar without first pulverizing it.[374] It seems
probable that if Pliny’s interesting story has any foundation, Cleopatra
might have swallowed a solid pearl in a glass of wine—certainly a more
pleasing draught as well as a more graphic sacrifice; and we should
accept its reported value with a grain of salt, for it would scarcely
have been safe for the court gossip to belittle the value of this
tribute of love.
Pliny, and other Roman writers, mention another instance, that of
Clodius “the sonne of Aesope the Tragedian Poet,” who took two pearls of
great price “in a braverie, and to know what tast pearles had, mortified
them in venegre, and drunke them up. And finding them to content his
palat wondrous well, because he would not have all the pleasure by
himselfe, and know the goodnesse thereof alone, he gave to every guest
at his table one pearle apeece to drinke in like manner.”[375] The
chronicler fails to tell what the guests thought of the flavor of
pearls, or whether some would not have preferred them for a more
appropriate use.
XIII
VALUES AND COMMERCE OF PEARLS
XIII
VALUES AND COMMERCE OF PEARLS
A pearl,
Whose price hath launch’d above a thousand ships,
And turn’d crown’d kings to merchants.
_Troilus and Cressida_, Act II, sc. 2.
To trace the markets of the pearl is to trace the routes of commerce
from early times. The first routes from the Far East seem to have been
two: one by the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates to Babylonia and Assyria,
and thence by caravan through Damascus to Tyre and Sidon; the other by
the Red Sea and Suez to Egypt. As regards the former route, Sir George
Birdwood furnishes positive evidence that the Phenicians visited India
as early as 2200 B.C. It seems highly probable that pearls were
introduced by this route at an early period, although it is difficult to
find material proof of the fact.
By means of this commerce, the great ancient civilizations of Phenicia,
Mesapotamia and the Nile valley doubtless became familiar with the gem
treasures of eastern Asia. Then came the opening of the Mediterranean
with first “the great Sidon,” and later Tyre, as the starting-points of
commerce, exploration, and colonial settlement among the islands and on
the shores of what, to the Asiatic peoples, was the great western sea.
However, as the Greek islands and their colonies developed, the
Phenicians were more strictly confined to the coasts of Africa and
Spain. Gades, Tartessus, and Carthage were their great colonies and
trading-ports, and their adventurous sailors passed on through the
Straits of Gibraltar and directed their course northward to the British
Isles, where they very probably obtained the pearls of the Scotch
rivers.
Meanwhile, the campaigns of Alexander had carried Greek influence and
authority over all western Asia, reaching even to India itself, and had
led to a widely increased intercourse. Although he died at the age of
thirty-two, Alexander the Great did more than any single individual in
the world’s history to bring the nations of the Eastern and the Western
worlds into contact with each other, and it is certainly due to this
circumstance that we find much greater evidences of the use of pearls in
the western countries after his time. Besides this, the founding of
Alexandria provided a mart, in whose bazaars the traders of India,
Persia, and Arabia bartered their treasured gems, just as their
descendants do in the same place at the present day.
It was not, however, until the establishment of the Roman empire that
this commercial intercourse reached its highest development. The Romans,
with their marvelous capacity for organization, were the first to build
a great system of permanent and well-kept roads to facilitate land
travel and land traffic. These great roads, starting from the Forum,
reached out in every direction, even to the limits of the empire; and,
as a result of increased commercial activity, more gems were engraved,
mounted, and set during the five hundred years of Rome’s commercial
supremacy than during any other early epoch of the world’s history.
In Rome, the trade in pearls was so important that there was a
corporation of “margaritarii.” The _officinæ margaritariorum_ were
installed in the Forum, in the neighborhood of the _tabernae
argentariæ_; some were also on the Via Sacra.[376] However, the name
_margaritarius_ did not only apply to the jewelers, merchants, and
setters of pearls, but also to those who fished for them and to the
guardians of the gems and jewels wherein pearls were used.
With the fall of the Western empire, the Dark Ages settled down like a
cloud over Europe for five hundred years. Only among the Saracens and at
Byzantium did the culture of the old civilization survive, and
eventually the light of knowledge and of progress was rekindled from
these sources. The Crusades were the chief factors in this new
development; they gave a mighty stimulus, by means of which Europe was
aroused from her lethargy and once more brought into contact with the
Orient. Venice and Genoa now became the great carriers, and from this
time, and to this source, may be traced many of the oriental gems in
Europe. The Venetian fleet of three hundred merchant ships brought the
products of the East and distributed them over Europe, by way of the
German cities of Augsburg and Nuremberg, where the great jewelers and
silversmiths made world-famed ornaments.
[Illustration:
PECTORAL CROSS OF CONSTANTINE IX. MONOMACHUS (1000–1054 A.D.)
Containing some wood attributed to the true cross.
]
When Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, the treasures of
the Eastern empire were scattered throughout Europe; but, at the same
time, the establishment of the Turkish empire served to close the way to
India and the far East for the merchants and travelers of Europe, and,
hence, new means of access had to be sought by sea. This, as is well
known, was the cause of the voyages of De Gama and Columbus. The
unexpected result of these voyages—the discovery of a new
continent—ushered in the wonderful period of Spanish and Portuguese
development and their colonization of both the East and the West Indies;
and to this epoch belongs the introduction of American pearls to the
markets of Europe. The gradual decline of the power of Spain and
Portugal—largely owing to bigotry and to the reckless exploitation of
the regions under their control—brings us to the beginning of the
present phase of commercial intercourse in which all the nations of the
civilized world are engaged in varying proportion, according to their
power and aptitude. Never before have the different regions of the earth
been more closely in touch with each other, and we may safely say that
nothing is likely to occur which can permanently interrupt the
progressive development of the world’s commerce.
With the various means of transportation and locomotion that have
existed in the past twenty-three or twenty-four centuries, there is no
doubt that the commerce of pearls has varied more or less, but there has
ever been, in some part of the world, a great potentate, a great
collector or dealer who has influenced the finest gems to gravitate his
way. Never has there been a time when some person was not prepared to
encourage—and to richly encourage—the sale of fine jewels to him. The
history of the commerce of precious stones is a history of travel and
exploration, of hardship, pleasure, reward, and sometimes of serious
disappointment.
The lesson we derive from these decorative objects of natural beauty and
softness—treasured alike by savage, barbarian, ancient warrior,
statesman, king, emperor, peasant, bourgeois, magyar, lady, and
queen—always carries with it the moral that the gifts of creation are
ever prized by some one in every age or place.
The necessary qualifications affecting the value of a pearl are: first,
that it should be perfectly round, pear-shaped, drop-shaped, egg-shaped,
or button-shaped, and as even in form as though it were turned on a
lathe. It must have a perfectly clear skin, and a decided color or tint,
whether white, pink, creamy, gray, brown or black. If white, it must not
have a cloud or a blur or haze, nor should the skin have the slightest
appearance of being opaque or dead. It must be absolutely free from all
cracks, scratches, spots, flaws, indentations, shadowy reflections or
blemishes of any kind. It must possess the peculiar luster or orient
characteristic of the gem. The skin must be unbroken, and not show any
evidence of having been polished.
Diamonds and the more valuable precious stones generally are bought and
sold by the weight called a carat. This carat, whatever its precise
value, is always considered as divisible into four diamond or pearl
grains, but the subdivisions of the carat are usually expressed by the
vulgar fractions, one fourth, one eighth, one twelfth, one sixteenth,
one twenty-fourth, one thirty-second, and one sixty-fourth. The origin
of the carat is to be sought in certain small, hard, leguminous seeds,
which, when dried, remain constant in weight. The brilliant, glossy,
scarlet-and-black seed of _Abrus precatorius_ constitutes the Indian
rati, about three grains; the _Adenanthera pavonina_ seed weighs about
four grains. The seed of the locust-tree, _Ceratonia siliqua_, weighs on
the average three and one sixth grains, and constitutes, no doubt, the
true origin of the carat.
Another[377] of the more notable of these weight-units used for precious
stones and precious metals is the _candarin_, _condorine_, or
_cantarai_, also termed by the Chinese _fun_ or _fan_, and by the south
Indians a _fanam_, and used all over the Indo-Chinese archipelago. This
is by origin a large lentil or pea of a pinkish color dotted with black,
about double the size of the _gonj_, and possessing the same quality of
very slight variability of weight when dried. It is probably a variety
of the same botanic genus or species as the _Abrus precatorius_. The
value when reduced to absolute standard became a subsidiary part or
submultiple of the weight of some local coin, rupee, or pagoda, or a
decimal fraction of some local tchen, as in China and Japan.
The following derivation of the word carat is given by Grimm: “Carat.
Italian: _carato_; French: _carat_; Spanish and Portuguese: _quilate_;
Old Portuguese: _quirate_, from Arabic _qirat_, and this from the Greek,
κεράτιον.”[378]
The carat is not absolutely of the same value in all countries. Its
weight, as used for weighing the diamond, pearl, and other gemstones in
different parts of the world, is given in decimals of a gram, by the
majority of the authorities, as follows:
Grams In Grains Troy
Indian (Madras) .2073533 3.199948
Austrian (Vienna) .20613+ 3.18107+
German (Frankfort) .20577+ 3.175514
Brazil and Portugal .20575+ 3.175206
France .2055+ 3.171347
England .205409 3.169943
Spain .205393 3.169696
Holland .205044 3.16431+
Pearl Grains in Grams In Grains Troy
Indian (Madras) .0518383 .799987
Austrian (Vienna) .05153+ .79526+
German (Frankfort) .05144+ .793878
Brazil and Portugal .05143+ .793801
France .051375 .792836
England .051352 .792485
Spain .051348 .792424
Holland .051261 .791077
Assuming that the gram corresponds to 15.43235 English grains, an
English diamond carat will nearly equal 3.17 grains. It is, however,
spoken of as being equal to four grains, the grains meant being
“diamond” or “pearl” grains, and not ordinary troy or avoirdupois
grains. Thus a diamond or pearl grain is but .7925 of a true grain. In
an English troy ounce of 480 grains there are 151½ carats; and so it
will be seen that a carat is not indeed quite 3.17 grains, but something
like 3.1683168 grains, or less exactly, 3.168 grains. Further, if we
accept the equivalent in grains of one gram to be, as stated above,
15.43235, and if there be 151½ carats in a troy ounce of 480 grains, it
will follow that an English diamond carat is .205304 of a gram,
not .205409, as commonly affirmed. The following exact equivalents, in
metric grams and grains troy, of the diamond carat as used in different
parts of the world in 1882, are given by Mr. Lowis d’A. Jackson:
DIAMOND CARATS
Grams Grains Troy
Turin .2135 3.29480
Persia .2095 3.23307
Venice .2071 3.19603
Austro-Hungary .2061 3.18060
France (old) .2059 3.17752
France (later) .2055 3.17135
France (modern) .2050 3.16363
Portugal .2058 3.17597
Frankfort and Hamburg .2058 3.17597
Germany .2055 3.17135
East Indies .2055 3.17135
England and British India .2053 3.16826
Belgium (Antwerp) .2053 3.16826
Russia .2051 3.16517
Holland .2051 3.16517
Turkey .2005 3.09418
Spain .1999 3.08492
Java and Borneo .1969 3.03862
Florence .1965 3.03245
Arabia .1944 3.00004
Brazil .1922 2.96610
Egypt .1917 2.95838
Bologna .1886 2.91054
International carat .2050 3.16363
Proposed new international carat .2000 3.08647
Recalculating the above figures into pearl grains we have:
PEARL GRAINS
Grams Grains Troy
Turin .053375 .823700
Persia .052375 .808267
Venice .051775 .799007
Austro-Hungary .051525 .795150
France (old) .051475 .794380
France (later) .051375 .792837
France (modern) .051250 .790907
Portugal .051450 .793902
Frankfort and Hamburg .051450 .793992
Germany .051375 .792837
East Indies .051375 .792837
England and British India .051325 .792065
Belgium (Antwerp) .051325 .792065
Russia .051275 .791292
Holland .051275 .791292
Turkey .050125 .773545
Spain .049975 .771230
Java and Borneo .049225 .759655
Florence .049125 .758112
Arabia .048600 .750010
Brazil .048050 .741522
Egypt .047925 .739595
Bologna .047150 .727635
International .051250 .790907
Proposed International .050000 .771617
With the present system of diamond carats and pearl grains it is
necessary to keep two entirely different sets of weights or to resort to
troublesome calculations. The stock-book of a jeweler, at the present
time, will contain the following fractions, expressing the weight of a
single pearl: ½, ¼, ⅛, 1⁄16, 1⁄32, 1⁄64, when the weight could be much
better stated as 63⁄64 of a carat. It requires but a glance to see how
much easier this would be. Certain dealers have therefore proposed the
use of sets of fractions arranged in a similar way. In this manner a
stock-book can be kept much more easily and with greater precision.
Others, again, have adopted a decimal notation of the fractions of a
carat, which is even more simple and feasible, since the common
fractions ½, ¼, ⅛, etc. can be expressed as .5, .25, .125, etc., of a
carat, this being either a carat of .2053 of a gram or the English carat
of .20534 of a gram.
On the other hand, an agreement was arrived at, as the result of a
conference between the diamond merchants of London, Paris, and
Amsterdam, by which the uniform weight of a diamond carat was fixed
at .205 of a gram, making the pearl grain .05125 of a gram. This
standard, which was suggested in 1871, by a syndicate of Parisian
jewelers, goldsmiths, and others dealing in precious stones, was
subsequently (1877) confirmed. But there is still a lack of uniformity
in the standard by which diamonds and pearls are bought and sold, and
very serious discrepancies exist in the sets of carat weights turned out
by different makers, although the international carat is almost
universally used.
At the International Congress of Weights and Measures held at the
World’s Fair at Chicago in 1893, the writer suggested that the carat
should consist of 200 milligrams, so that ½ of a carat would be 100
milligrams and ¼ of a grain would be 12.5 milligrams. This would mean 5
carats or 20 grains to a French gram, and 5000 carats or 20,000 pearl
grains to a French kilogram. This would depreciate the present diamond
carat or pearl grain only about one per cent., and it would do away with
the needless series of carats and grains of the many nationalities. It
could be simply explained to any private individual in any country,
especially as there are only two countries which do not use the metric
system.
This carat has been earnestly indorsed, its introduction advocated, and
its merits clearly shown, by M. Guilliame, of the French Bureau des Arts
et Metiers, whose energetic work has found a reasonable cooperation, in
this country as well as in Europe, in introducing what will be a
scientific, logical, comprehensive, and possibly the final and
international carat; and any ancient, obsolete, or foreign carat can be
readily reduced to this carat once the metric value of the former is
computed.
The Association of Diamond Merchants of Amsterdam has already, to avoid
confusion, fixed the value of the carat (17th October, 1890) at 1
kilogram = 4875 carats, or 1 carat = 3.16561 grains troy = 205.128 mg.
One pearl grain = .7914 grains troy = 51.282 mg.; but the association
has decided that, in case of litigation, these values shall be
determined by appointed bureaus, which would express them in grams and
milligrams, a most important and valuable decision, as the gram and the
milligram will always be known as weights of constant value.
In view of the difficulty of inducing the abolition of the carat in
different countries, the German Federation of Jewelers decided to
petition the imperial government for authority to use the carat, in
order that it might be legally recognized. Such a proposition not being
in accord with the German laws in force on the subject of the metric
system, it was proposed to substitute for the carats then in use one
carat only, weighing two hundred milligrams. This proposal was very
favorably received in trade circles and may be taken into consideration
by the International Committee of Weights and Measures. The Commission
des Instruments et Travaux, to which this proposition was referred,
recommended its adoption to the committee in the following terms:
“The Commission recognizes that it would be very desirable that the unit
of weight of precious stones (the carat) which varies in different
countries, should be made uniform, and should be reduced to the nearest
metric equivalent. The weight of 200 mg., which is very close to the
carat most in use (205.5 mg.), would seem to be the best for this
purpose. The Commission believes that there can be no objection to this
standard of 200 mg. being called ‘the metric carat’ in order to
facilitate the abolition of the old carat.”
This proposition, adopted at the meeting of the International Committee
on the 13th of April, was communicated to the more important
associations. The Chambre Syndicale de la Bijouterie, Joaillerie et
Orfèvrerie de Paris, and the Chambre Syndicale des Négotiants en
Diamants, Perles, Pierres Précieuses et des Lapidaires de Paris assured
the committee of their support of this measure.
The following is the text of the resolution which was passed by both the
above associations in January, 1906:
“The Council, recognizing the advantages which would result to the
international trade in precious stones from the use of a unit based on
the metric system, desires that the metric carat of 200 mg. be
universally adopted.”
The German Federation of Jewelers passed the following resolution in
August, 1906:
“The German Federation considers that it is both necessary and
advantageous to replace the old carat by the metric carat of 200 mg.; it
authorizes its president to approach the imperial government and the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures, and the foreign
associations in order that the metric carat may be introduced as soon as
possible in all countries.”
The Chamber of Commerce of Antwerp promised, in a letter dated the 7th
of December, 1906, to rescind a decision of 29th of April, 1895,
approving the adoption of a carat of 205.3 mg., when the metric carat of
200 mg. should come into universal use in the markets.
The Association of Jewelers and Goldsmiths of Prague formally authorized
the German Federation to act in its name, in order that the reform
should come about as soon as possible by international agreement, and
the Association of Goldsmiths of Copenhagen has declared its willingness
to support the reform. The Committee of Weights and Measures in Belgium
prepared a law for the adoption of the metric carat in December, 1906.
Mr. Larking, president of the Chamber of Commerce of Melbourne,
Australia, has transmitted by letter of September 16, 1907, the
following resolution of the Association of Manufacturing Jewelers of the
Colony of Victoria:
“It is desirable that the carat weight should be the same in all
countries, and our association approves a metric carat of 200
milligrams.”
On October 16, 1907, the Association of Societies for the Protection of
Commerce in the United Kingdom passed the following resolution:
“The Committee of the Association approves the attempt to urge the
adoption in all countries of an international carat of 200 milligrams,
and hopes that, in the interest of the unification of weights, it will
prove successful.”
The fourth General Conference of Weights and Measures, held in Paris in
October, 1907, passed this resolution:
“The Conference approves the proposition of the International Committee
and declares that it sees no infringement of the integrity of the metric
system in the adoption of the appellation ‘metric carat’ to designate a
weight of 200 milligrams for the commerce in diamonds, pearls, and
precious stones.”[379]
The following resolution was passed by The Birmingham Jewelers’ and
Silversmiths’ Association, January 23, 1908: “That the best thanks of
this Committee be conveyed to the Decimal Association for the good work
they are doing, and this Committee expresses the hope that all countries
will adopt an International Carat of 200 milligrams in weight.” Finally,
on March 11, 1908, the metric carat of 200 milligrams was adopted in
Spain as the official carat for diamonds, pearls, and precious stones.
Pearls have become of so much importance to so many dealers that a
special form of weight has been proposed for them. This would have a
diamond form and not a square form, and it would be stamped “Grain”
instead of “Carat.” Another set would be stamped in milligrams, the
regular milligram weight with the pearl fraction above it, and they
could even be made round so as better to designate the pearl.
The great value of pearls has suggested the making of a gage, called the
Kunz gage, by means of which round pearls can be very accurately
measured. Pearls of a given weight and perfectly spherical form have
been weighed and then measured by this gage, and the theoretical
diameters as computed from the measurement of a single pearl are in the
majority of instances in exact accord with these actual measurements,
the occasional variations in the smaller pearls barely exceeding the
thousandth part of an inch. These discrepancies may be due to
imperceptible divergencies in sphericity or, possibly, to trifling
differences in specific gravity.
The following table gives the diameters of round pearls by measurement,
from 1⁄16 to 500 grains, in millimeters and inches:
Weight Grains Diameter Millimeters Inches
1⁄16 1.3 .0512
⅛ 1.66 .0653
¼ 2.09 .0823
½ 2.65 .1043
¾ 2.99 .1187
1 3.32 .1307
1¼ 3.60 .1417
1½ 3.80 .1496
1¾ 3.98 .1567
2 4.18 .1645
2¼ 4.32 .1701
2½ 4.47 .1759
2¾ 4.63 .1823
3 4.80 .1889
3¼ 4.88 .1921
3½ 5.01 .1972
3¾ 5.17 .2035
4 5.23 .2058
4¼ 5.44 .2141
5 5.65 .2224
5½ 5.86 .2283
6 6.03 .2374
6½ 6.20 .2442
7 6.36 .2504
8 6.64 .2614
9 6.90 .2716
10 7.15 .2815
11 7.38 .2905
12 7.60 .2992
13 7.81 .3074
14 8.00 .3149
15 8.18 .3220
16 8.36 .3291
17 8.53 .3358
18 8.70 .3425
19 8.86 .3488
20 9.01 .3547
25 9.71 .3823
30 10.31 .4059
35 10.86 .4275
40 11.35 .4468
45 11.82 .4653
50 12.23 .4815
60 13.00 .5118
70 13.38 .5386
80 14.30 .5630
90 14.89 .5862
100 15.42 .6071
125 16.60 .6535
150 17.63 .6941
200 19.41 .7641
300 22.22 .8748
400 24.46 .9630
500 26.35 1.0374
The new and finer analytical balances weigh to the tenth part of a
milligram, the two thousandth part of a carat, the five hundredth part
of a grain; but this is not necessary. If the 200–milligram carat were
used, the two hundredth part of a carat could readily be ascertained,
and then a short-beam, rapid-weighing balance would answer every purpose
and save much time for the dealer who must make many weighings in the
course of a day. In an office where thousands of weighings were made in
a month, the task was accomplished with such minute accuracy that the
margin of error did not exceed one carat during that time.
The _mina_, the sixtieth part of the lesser Alexandrian talent of
silver, was divided by the Romans, when they occupied Egypt, into twelve
ounces (_unciae_), and, weighing as it did 5460 grains, it became the
predecessor of the European pounds of which the troy pound is a type. If
we may believe a Syrian authority, Anania of Shiraz, who wrote in the
sixth century, the carat or diamond weight was originally formed from
one of these ounces by taking the 1⁄144 part.[380]
We find in Murray[381] that the Greek κεράτιον was originally identical
with the Latin siliqua, and was called the _siliqua Graeca_. As a
measure of weight and fineness the carat represents the Roman siliqua as
1⁄24 of the golden solidus of Constantine, which was ⅙ of an ounce,
hence the various values into which 1⁄24 and 1⁄144 enter, or originally
entered. As a measure of weight for diamonds and precious stones, it was
originally 1⁄144 of an ounce or 3⅓ grains. It is stated in Hakluyt (Voy.
II, pp. 1, 225, 1598): “Those pearls are praised according to the
caracts which they weigh; every caract is four graines.”
There have been at all times men who possessed a delicate touch or a
fine sense of feeling, but probably few men are living to-day who would
be able to accomplish the feat attributed to Julius Cæsar, namely, that
of estimating the weight of a pearl by simply holding it in his hand.
There are very few who can tell the weight of a pearl in this way, and
while the story may be historically interesting, it is rather dubious.
To attempt to formulate a list of prices, comparative or otherwise, of
pearls, is almost an impossibility, as probably no two authors of the
past three centuries have ever seen the same lot of pearls, nor have
their estimates always been the same as to quality, rarity and value.
As interesting statistics from an historical point of view, there will
be presented here a list of the values of pearls dating back some ten
centuries. That there always has existed a higher valuation for the
larger pearls, which are the rarest, will readily be apparent, but that
the correct value of a pearl of one, ten, twenty or fifty grains be
definitely given for the years 1602, 1702, 1802, or 1902 is an
impossibility. However, we believe this to be the first attempt to
present so large a body of carefully selected quotations, and they are
given to the reader, whether he be layman or professional, for what they
are worth.
In regard to the smaller pearls, as is the case with the smaller
diamonds, prices have been dependent upon the changes of fashion; that
is, whether the prevailing style of jewelry was such that the smaller
pearl or diamond was in demand. In other words, if they were used as a
decoration forming a border, a flower, a scroll ornament, or a pave
requiring many small gems, the demand naturally increased and the prices
were higher or lower as the occasion required.
It is not the project of this book to fix the prices of pearls at the
present time, for any such attempt would prove misleading, owing to the
fact that pearls vary in the estimation of the different dealers, and a
figure given here for the highest standard, if applied to an inferior
grade, would necessarily mislead the buyer to his positive injury. This
much, however, can be said: during the year 1907 pearls from five grains
upward have been sold according to their quality, at a base of five,
eight, ten, fifteen, or even twenty dollars in very exceptional cases;
that is to say, twenty, thirty-two, forty, sixty, or eighty shillings,
or twenty-five, forty, fifty, seventy-five or one hundred francs.
Nevertheless, it would be impossible, without considerable experience,
for a layman to apply these valuations to objects that require much
practice in determining their quality and perfection.
With diamonds, rubies, and emeralds there may be a stated price per
carat for stones of a certain size, but a gem of unusual perfection or
brilliancy, or of exceptionally fine color, will often command a price
far beyond that generally quoted. It is the same with the pearl. Sums
which may seem exorbitant in comparison with those that are paid for
ordinary pearls, are often given for specimens remarkable for their
beauty, size, or luster.
Pearls of one hundred grains are even more rare at the present time than
are diamonds of one hundred carats. Until the middle of the nineteenth
century, the diamonds of the world weighing one hundred carats or over
could be counted on the fingers, but since the opening of the African
mines in 1870, the number of large diamonds has increased at a much
greater ratio than have the pearls of one quarter of their weight. It
would thus seem that pearls of great size are worth four times as much
as diamonds of equal weight. For instance, a 100–carat diamond of the
finest quality would be worth at least from $1000 to $1500 a carat,
making a total value of $100,000 to $150,000; and a pearl of 100 grains
at a base of $10 would be worth $100,000. But no such high price has
ever been paid.
The usual method of estimating the value of pearls is by establishing a
base value for those weighing one grain and then multiplying this amount
by the square of the number of grains that the pearl weighs. For
instance, if the base value of a one-grain pearl should be fixed at $1,
a pearl weighing two grains would be worth $4 (2 × 2 = 4), or $2 per
grain; one weighing five grains would be worth $25, or $5 per grain,
etc. Naturally, these values increase in proportion to the increase in
the value of the base. A base of $3 would give a value of $75 for a
five-grain pearl, or $15 per grain, while a $10 base would make the
value $50 per grain, or $250.
This method of estimating pearls by squaring their weights has been
credited by many authors to David Jeffries, who published an interesting
treatise on diamonds and pearls in 1750–1753. It has also been credited
to Tavernier, the oriental traveler of the middle of the seventeenth
century. We have, however, traced this method back to Anselmus de Boot,
in his treatise on precious stones, dated 1609. Before this date we have
not been able to find any mention of the computation of the value of
diamonds and pearls by squaring their weight and multiplying the product
by a base of a franc, guilder, crown, dollar, or of many dollars, as
would be necessary at present. It is probable, however, that this system
is of oriental origin and it may have come to Europe through some of the
oriental traders, with the precious stones, as did the use of the carat.
De Boot makes the carat (four grains) his unit of comparison, increasing
his base value by one third for pearls weighing eleven carats
(forty-four grains) or over. In Pio Naldi’s treatise, published in
Bologna in 1791, the unit is the grain, the base being the fourth part
of the value of four pearls weighing together one carat. Naldi, also,
increases his base value making it 1½ lire ($.30) for pearls weighing
less than ten grains, and 2½ lire ($.50) for those weighing twenty
grains and upward.
A curious method of valuing pearls by their weight is shown in a
treatise by Buteo, published in 1554.[382] The writer states that a
pearl weighing two carats was valued at 5 gold crowns; one of four
carats at 25 crowns; and so on, the price increasing fivefold when the
weight was doubled. The intermediate figures were obtained by computing
the proportional mean of any two known weights and values. For example:
8 × 4 = 32, the square root of which is 5.656. Now, the value of a
four-carat pearl is 25 and that of an eight-carat pearl 125 crowns, and
125 × 25 = 3125, the square root being 55.9; hence a pearl weighing
5.656 carats was worth 55.9 crowns.
The base value of a necklace can be determined in the following way.
Should the center pearl weigh 25 grains, multiply 25 by 25; the result
is 625; then, take the next two, three, or four pearls, as many as are
of approximately the same weight, add their weights together, multiply
the resulting figure by itself and divide the product by the number of
pearls in the group. Proceed in exactly the same way with the remainder
of the necklace, always grouping the pearls so that there shall not be a
considerable difference in weight between the smallest and the largest
pearl, and then add together the figures obtained for the center pearl
and for the various groups and divide the price of the necklace by this
total; the quotient will represent the multiple or base.
As may be seen by comparison of the first with the second and third of
the accompanying tables, the result arrived at in this way will, if
there is any difference in the weight of the pearls in the various
groups, vary slightly from that obtained by calculating the weight of
each pearl separately, but it represents a satisfactory approximation.
NECKLACE OF 41 GRADUATED PEARLS ON A $10 BASE
1 pearl, weighing 25 grs. 25 × 25 = 625.000
2 pearls, each of 22 grs. 44 × 44 = 1936 ÷ 2 = 968.000
2 pearls, each of 20 grs. 40 × 40 = 1600 ÷ 2 = 800.000
2 pearls, each of 19 grs. 38 × 38 = 1444 ÷ 2 = 722.000
2 pearls, each of 18 grs. 36 × 36 = 1296 ÷ 2 = 648.000
2 pearls, each of 17½ grs. 35 × 35 = 1225 ÷ 2 = 612.500
2 pearls, each of 17 grs. 34 × 34 = 1156 ÷ 2 = 578.000
2 pearls, each of 16½ grs. 33 × 33 = 1089 ÷ 2 = 544.500
2 pearls, each of 16 grs. 32 × 32 = 1024 ÷ 2 = 512.000
2 pearls, each of 15½ grs. 31 × 31 = 961 ÷ 2 = 480.500
2 pearls, each of 15 grs. 30 × 30 = 900 ÷ 2 = 450.000
2 pearls, each of 14½ grs. 29 × 29 = 841 ÷ 2 = 420.500
2 pearls, each of 14 grs. 28 × 28 = 784 ÷ 2 = 392.000
2 pearls, each of 13½ grs. 27 × 27 = 729 ÷ 2 = 364.500
2 pearls, each of 13 grs. 26 × 26 = 676 ÷ 2 = 338.000
2 pearls, each of 12½ grs. 25 × 25 = 625 ÷ 2 = 312.500
2 pearls, each of 12 grs. 24 × 24 = 576 ÷ 2 = 288.000
2 pearls, each of 11½ grs. 23 × 23 = 529 ÷ 2 = 264.500
2 pearls, each of 11 grs. 22 × 22 = 484 ÷ 2 = 242.000
2 pearls, each of 10¾ grs. 21½ × 21½ = 462¼ ÷ 2 = 231.125
2 pearls, each of 10¼ grs. 20½ × 20½ = 420¼ ÷ 2 = 210.125
—— ——— ——————————
41 624 10,003.750
$10 × 10,003.75 = $100,037.50
THE SAME NECKLACE FIGURED IN GROUPS
1 pearl, weighing 25 grs. 25 × 25 = 625.00
2 pearls, total weight 44 grs. 44 × 44 = 1936 ÷ 2 = 968.00
4 pearls, total weight 78 grs. 78 × 78 = 6084 ÷ 4 = 1521.00
4 pearls, total weight 71 grs. 71 × 71 = 5041 ÷ 4 = 1260.25
6 pearls, total weight 99 grs. 99 × 99 = 9801 ÷ 6 = 1633.50
6 pearls, total weight 90 grs. 90 × 90 = 8100 ÷ 6 = 1350.00
6 pearls, total weight 81 grs. 81 × 81 = 6561 ÷ 6 = 1093.50
6 pearls, total weight 72 grs. 72 × 72 = 5184 ÷ 6 = 864.00
6 pearls, total weight 64 grs. 64 × 64 = 4096 ÷ 6 = 682.67
——— ———————
624 9997.92
$10 × 9997.92 = $99,979.20
[Illustration:
GREAT PEARL NECKLACE OF THE FRENCH CROWN JEWELS
Composed of 362 pearls, weighing 58.8 grains. Actual size. Worn by
Empress Eugenia
]
On a $5 base this necklace would be worth $50,018.75 according to the
first reckoning, and $49,989.60 according to the second; on a base of
$2.50 the figures would be $25,009.37 and $24,994.80 respectively.
THE SAME NECKLACE FIGURED IN OTHER GROUPS
1 pearl, weighing 25 grs. 25 × 25 = 625.00
4 pearls, total weight 84 grs. 84 × 84 = 7056 ÷ 4 = 1764.00
6 pearls, total weight 109 grs. 109 × 109 = 11881 ÷ 6 = 1980.16
6 pearls, total weight 99 grs. 99 × 99 = 9801 ÷ 6 = 1633.50
6 pearls, total weight 90 grs. 90 × 90 = 8100 ÷ 6 = 1350.00
8 pearls, total weight 106 grs. 106 × 106 = 11236 ÷ 8 = 1404.50
10 pearls, total weight 111 grs. 111 × 111 = 12321 ÷ 10 = 1232.10
——— ———————
624 9989.26
$10 × 9989.26 = $99,892.60
On a $5 base this would represent a value of $49,946.30 and one of
$24,973.15 on a base of $2.50. The different grouping of the pearls
accounts for the slight reduction in value.
A system of estimating the value of pearls which has recently been
introduced into Germany, is an adaptation of the ordinary method of
squaring the number of grains and then multiplying the result by a
certain base figure. The pearls are first grouped according to quality
and size, and a figure is agreed upon as the multiplicator of each
class. In Germany the carat is employed as the weight unit for pearls as
well as for diamonds, and in this new system the total weight of a given
number of pearls of the same class is first reduced to grains; the
number of grains is then multiplied by four and the quotient is
multiplied by the figure agreed upon. The resulting sum, after being
divided by the number of pearls, gives the carat value of such pearls.
For example, if the base figure agreed upon is 5, and we wish to find
the carat worth of 4 pearls of similar size, weighing together 3–14⁄64
carats, the sum would be as follows:
206 × 4 × 4 × 5
——————————————— = 64.37
64 × 4
At this rate per carat, reckoning in marks, the value of the 3–14⁄64
carats would be 207.20 marks. This result is identical with that
obtained by the ordinary method, but the calculation is perhaps a trifle
simplified.[383]
A curious Hindu treatise on gems has been preserved for us in the
Brhatsamhitâ of Varâhamihira (505–587 A.D.). It is the earliest work of
this kind that we have in Sanskrit, and M. Louis Finot,[384] who has
published it, together with several other similar treatises, believes
that it was based upon an original composed at a much earlier period. In
his introduction M. Finot says: “It would be an error to regard the
ratnaçastra [treatise on gems] as a simple manual for the use of
jewelers. Without doubt this subject formed one of the principal
branches of commercial instruction, ... but it was also taught to
princes and it is for their use that the ratnaçastras we publish seem to
have been composed.”
This treatise only describes four gems, although a larger number are
enumerated. These gems are the diamond, the pearl, the ruby, and the
emerald. One of the most interesting portions is that treating of the
valuation of pearls. The system described is peculiar, and,
unfortunately, there is some difficulty in finding an absolutely correct
equivalent for the values expressed.
A price is first placed upon a pearl weighing 4 mâsakas (about 45
grains). This is estimated at 5300 kârsâpanas (about $1600). As the
weight diminishes the valuation decreases as follows:
4 mâsakas 5300 kârsâpanas
3½ mâsakas 3200 kârsâpanas
3 mâsakas 2000 kârsâpanas
2½ mâsakas 1300 kârsâpanas
2 mâsakas 800 kârsâpanas
1½ mâsakas 353 kârsâpanas
1 mâsakas 135 kârsâpanas
4 guñjas[385] 90 kârsâpanas
3 guñjas 50 kârsâpanas
2½ guñjas 35 kârsâpanas
Smaller pearls were grouped together in dharanas (one dharana = about 72
grains). If there were thirteen fine pearls in a dharana, they were
valued at 325 rûpakas (about $100); the other values were as follows:
16 pearls in a dharana were worth 200 rûpakas
20 pearls in a dharana were worth 170 rûpakas
25 pearls in a dharana were worth 130 rûpakas
30 pearls in a dharana were worth 70 rûpakas
40 pearls in a dharana were worth 50 rûpakas
55–60 pearls in a dharana were worth 40 rûpakas
80 pearls in a dharana were worth 30 rûpakas
100 pearls in a dharana were worth 25 rûpakas
200 pearls in a dharana were worth 12 rûpakas
300 pearls in a dharana were worth 6 rûpakas
400 pearls in a dharana were worth 5 rûpakas
500 pearls in a dharana were worth 3 rûpakas
It would be extremely interesting if we could find at this early date
(sixth century A.D.) an indication of the use of the system of computing
the value of pearls by the square of their weight as expressed in some
weight unit, and it is singular that the three valuations given for the
weight in guñjas are graduated in accordance with this system. A pearl
weighing 2½ guñjas and valued at 35 kârṣapâṇas would have a base value
of 5.6 kârṣâpaṇas. Estimated at this ratio we would have the following
figures:
3 guñjas 50.4 kârṣâpaṇas
4 guñjas 89.6 kârṣâpaṇas
Now, the values actually given are 50 and 90 kârṣâpaṇas, respectively,
and these figures are easily obtained by rejecting the fraction that is
less than one half and counting the fraction that is in excess of one
half as a unit. After this, however, the progression becomes irregular.
A pearl weighing 1 mâṣaka (5 guñjas) is valued at 135 kârṣâpaṇas, while
the equivalent according to the system would be 140. However, it is
possible that the writer may have changed this figure intentionally so
as to add exactly one half to the preceding valuation (90 + 45 = 135).
The succeeding values bear no relation to the system and appear to be
entirely arbitrary. Still, it can scarcely be due to hazard that the
first three figures are practically in exact accord with the system and
the fourth in close approximation. As the change seems to come when the
weight is expressed in mâṣakas instead of guñjas, we are tempted to
think that the system may have been used for single pearls weighing less
than twelve grains (1 mâṣaka = 11¼ grains), while the value of those
over that weight was estimated in a different way.
In a much later Hindu treatise, by Buddhabhatta, after certain values
have been given for pearls of the best quality, a pearl of this class is
described as follows:
White, round, heavy, smooth, luminous, spotless, the pearl gifted
with these qualities is called qualified (_guṇavat_). If it be
yellow, it is worth half this price; if it be not round, a third; if
flat or triangular, a sixth.[386]
One of the earliest records we have of a system of prices for pearls is
the treatise on precious stones written in the year 1265, by Ahmed ibn
Yusuf al Teifashi, who was probably a native jeweler of Egypt. In his
time pearls were sold in Bagdad in bunches of ten strings, each string
comprising thirty-six pearls. If one of these strings weighed one sixth
of a miskal (four carats or sixteen grains), the ten strings were valued
at four dinars (about ten dollars). The values increased progressively
as follows:[387]
Average weight 10 strings of 36 pearls, Value
of each pearl weight of each string
Grains Carats Grains Dinars U. S. money
½ 4 16 4 $10.00
⅔ 6 24 5 12.50
1⅓ 12 48 6 15.00
2 18 72 10 25.00
3⅓ 30 120 15 37.50
4 36 144 20 50.00
4⅓ 42 168 25 62.50
5⅓ 48 192 35 87.50
6 54 216 40 100.00
7⅓ 66 264 70 175.00
8 72 288 80 200.00
9⅓ 84 336 110 275.00
10 90 360 150 375.00
10⅔ 96 384 200 500.00
12 108 432 400 1000.00
12⅔ 114 456 550 1375.00
13⅓ 120 480 650 1625.00
14 126 504 750 1875.00
14⅔ 132 528 800 2000.00
16 144 576 1000 2500.00
18⅔ 168 672 1500 3750.00
Al Teifashi then proceeds to describe a pearl of the first quality; it
must be “perfectly round in all its parts, colorless and gifted with a
fine water. When a pearl possesses these requisites and weighs one
miskal [24 carats or 96 grains] it is worth 300 dinars [$750]. If,
however, a match is found for this pearl and each one weighs one miskal
and has the same form, the two pearls together cost 700 dinars [$1750].”
This writer also mentions that in the shops of the Arab jewelers, the
pearl which exceeded the weight of a drachma (12 carats or 48 grains)
even by one grain, was called _dorra_, while the name _johar_ was used
for that which did not reach the above weight.
In 1838, Feuchtwanger gave the price of a one-carat pearl as five
dollars, and used this amount as the multiplier of the square of the
weight; therefore, a four-carat pearl would cost four times four
multiplied by five dollars, the value of the first carat; that is to
say, a sixteen-grain (four-carat) pearl would have been worth eighty
dollars in 1838, according to this computation.
[Illustration:
THE SIAMESE PRINCE IN FULL REGALIA
]
In 1858, Barbot[388] gave the value of pearls under ordinary conditions,
but very indefinitely, as follows:
Grains Carats Francs per carat U. S. currency
1 ¼ 4 $0.80
2 ½ 10 2.00
3 ¾ 25 5.00
4 1 50 10.00
Above four grains they sold by the piece, and below, by the ounce.
Baroque pearls sold for 300 to 1000 francs per ounce. Seed-pearls, if
quite round, were worth about 120 francs per ounce.
Emanuel[389] gave the following table of prices for the pearl, reduced
to United States currency:
Grains 1865 1867