Recently, in my time and in the Spanish time, there came to me

Captain Tiana; he wanted to dive for pearl shells. I said “I cannot

give you my consent at once because since our forefathers (sultan

and people) we have an agreement, I will confer with my people.” I

sent for the chiefs and the dattos and I told them about it, that

Captain Tiana came to me and asked to dive for pearl shells. They

said it cannot be done, because there is an agreement between our

forefathers that other nations cannot join in this industry of the

Sulu seas, because there is no other means of earning a living for

your subjects.

[Illustration:

Moro boats, used among the pearl islands of the Malay Archipelago

]

[Illustration:

Raft used for pearl fishing in the Malay Archipelago

]

I informed Captain Tiana of it. He said: “Allow me to dive for pearl

shells, I will give toll to you as sultan and I will also give toll

to the owners of the pearl grounds according to what we agree upon.”

So I informed all the owners of the pearling ground, and they said,

“If he is really in earnest to give toll to us owners of the ground

according to what we agree upon, if we don’t agree, we will not

allow him to fish.” Thereupon Captain Tiana and I went to the

Spanish governor to bear witness. The governor said: “All right;

anything you agree upon; I cannot change the law of the Moro people,

and I will not interfere.”

That is how I allowed Captain Tiana to fish, and I gave him a letter

of the truth according to agreement. Therefore if any person of

other nation wants to fish for mother-of-pearl shell, he will have

to do as Captain Tiana did, and ask me for a letter of truth, and if

he has no letter and does not pay toll to the owners of the ground,

and especially to me, he cannot dive, and if he violates this and if

anything befalls him, I am not responsible and do not want to be

held responsible, because the mother-of-pearl shells are like the

property in our boxes given to us by God. They do not go away from

the places where they are put, they are not like fish that go about.

Therefore, we forbid it. It is our heritage from our forefathers.

(Signed) HADJI MOHAMAD JAMAUL KIRAM,

Sultan of Sulu.

[SEAL OF THE SULTAN.]

Following these representations, the legislative council of the Moro

province, by authority of the Philippine Commission, interdicted all

fishing for pearl-oysters within three marine leagues of any land within

the territorial limits of the Moro province, without license first

obtained from the treasurer of the district within which the vessel

carries on the major part of its operations.[267] No license was to be

issued to any vessel not owned in the Philippine Islands or in the

United States, and not wholly owned by citizens of the United States, by

natives of the Philippine Islands, or by persons who have acquired the

political rights of natives,[268] except that foreign vessels which for

one year immediately preceding had actually engaged in pearl fishing

might secure license to continue therein for a period of five years

thereafter.

Licenses were of two kinds, according to the nature of the fishery. To

engage in fishing with the aid of diving-suits, the fee was five hundred

pesos annually, for each of the greatest number of divers beneath the

surface of the water at any one time. For fishing without submarine

armor, the fee was five pesos annually, for each of the greatest number

of nude divers to be employed by the vessel during any voyage, and the

same sum for each of the greatest number of dredges or rakes to be

employed beneath the surface at any one time; but this did not apply to

vessels under 15 tons, owned and operated wholly by native Moros, until

January 1, 1906.

It was also made unlawful to catch or to have in one’s possession within

the Moro province “any pearl shell or any bivalvular or lateral plate,

or any pearl shell of less than 4½ inches in diameter, measured with a

flat, rigid measuring rod along the line of the ligament which joins one

binocular or lateral plate to the other at the hinge, unless the lateral

plate of such shell be more than 7 inches in diameter measured with a

flat, rigid measuring rod from the outer edge of the horny lips to the

center of the hinge, the rod being so placed as to form a right angle

with the line of the hinge.”[269]

According to a report furnished by the Mining Bureau at Manila, there

were seven vessels fishing with diving-suits in the Sulu Archipelago in

1905, each representing an investment of about 6000 pesos. In 1906 there

were ten vessels engaged in this industry, and the collection on

licenses for that fiscal year amounted to 3375 pesos. These vessels are

mostly small Moro craft which cannot venture upon distant cruises in the

archipelago for prospecting purposes, and their operations are confined

for the most part to the immediate vicinity of Jolo. Each vessel carries

one diver, a tender, a cook, and four sailors. In addition to food

supplies, the sailors and the cook each receive twelve to fifteen pesos

per month, the tender thirty to forty pesos per month, and the diver the

same amount and in addition thereto a bonus of twenty cents for each

shell secured. Near Jolo the vessels work throughout the year, but

farther north very little fishing is done from December to April, when

monsoons prevail. The man in charge of each vessel is obliged by law to

keep an accurate record of the number and weight of shells found, and

his figures are checked up by a customs official at either Jolo or

Zamboanga, the ports of discharge.

To enable them to secure pearl-oysters at depths of from twenty to forty

fathoms, the Sulus have long made use of a dredge (_badja_) peculiarly

constructed of native materials, and admirably adapted to the purpose.

This consists of five or more long wooden teeth slightly curved and

spreading outward, with an expanse at the ends of twenty inches or more.

The dredge is properly balanced by two stones, and a bridle rope is so

attached to it that, when thrown overboard and towed behind a canoe

drifting with the current or the wind, the implement rests on the curve

of the teeth, which are in almost a horizontal position. As the teeth

enter the gaping shell of an oyster lying on the bottom, the animal

instantly closes tightly on the intruder and effects its own capture.

The principle is similar to that of the “crowfoot” dredge of the

Mississippi River, although the design of the implement is radically

different. A second rope is attached so as to raise and lower the

implement and to detach it from corals, rocks, and other objects against

which it may catch in its course on the bottom. This dredge is designed

for very deep areas, where the bottom is relatively smooth.

The Moros employ yet another method of fishing, using a _magtung-tung_

or three-pronged catcher, which is let down by a rattan rope and by

means of which individual shells sighted from the surface are obtained.

When the water is perfectly clear this implement can be operated where

the depth is fifteen or eighteen fathoms, but its use is impractical

where the water is clouded or there is even a slight ripple on the

surface.

However, the bulk of the catch is made by the nude divers, of which

there are hundreds at Maimbun, Tapul, Lugus and elsewhere. In their

small boats these Moro fishermen visit the reefs, where the boats are

anchored. Provided only with a short, heavy knife, with which to release

the shells from the bottom or, perchance, as a weapon of defense against

sharks and other fish, they enter the water feet first, but soon turn

and descend head downward, precisely as on the Australian coast,

swimming toward the bottom with bold strokes. The Sulu pearl-divers—and

especially those at Parang, Patian and Sicubun—are among the most expert

in the world. They easily penetrate to twelve fathoms and, if necessary,

to eighteen or twenty fathoms. But they are not very industrious, and

seldom descend more than twelve or fifteen times a day, preferring

rather to go with their wants half satisfied than to satiate them by

more active exertions.

Many descents may be necessary to locate and obtain a single oyster, but

when this is secured the shell alone may ordinarily be traded for

sufficient to supply the fisherman’s needs for several days, and there

is always the chance of a pearl. After a short day of labor, the

fishermen return, and the oysters which they have secured are opened and

examined for pearls. After the flesh has been carefully searched it is

placed in the sun to dry and, later, to be used for food, and the shells

are carefully cleaned and placed under cover until they may be bartered

or sold.

The Sulu shell is characterized by a peculiar yellowish tint around the

rim, by means of which it is readily distinguished. Its size and

beautiful iridescence make it very attractive, and for choice individual

specimens high prices are received. It is the largest of the

mother-of-pearl shells, single half-shells of “bold” size average one

and one half pounds in weight, while some attain a weight of six pounds.

The body of the shell furnishes the most beautiful of all

mother-of-pearl, yet the necessity for discarding the yellow rim, or,

rather, for using it separate from the rest, makes it unpopular with

manufacturers. The annual product is estimated at 200 tons, valued in

London and New York at $200,000, and of pearls about $30,000 worth.

The Sulu pearls are frequently large and of choice quality, but they are

far more inclined to a yellowish tint than those from Australian waters,

1300 miles southward. The sultans accumulated the finest collection of

them, and some of these found their way into the markets from time to

time as the condition of the exchequer ran low or royal emergency

required, as in 1882, for instance, when it was necessary to defray the

expense of Sultan Buderoodin’s pilgrimage to Mecca. During the last six

or seven years, much has been heard of the present sultan’s collection,

which he largely inherited, and some fairly good specimens have been

presented to prominent Americans.

Pearl-oysters are among the important resources of the inshore waters of

the Dutch East Indies, including the surrounding seas of Sumatra, Java,

Borneo, Celebes, the Aru Islands, the Moluccas or Spice Islands, and

Papua or New Guinea. For very many years the natives have gathered pearl

shell and pearls from these waters, and especially on the coast of the

Aru Islands, at Gilolo or Halmahera, and the islands thereabout, on the

east coast of Celebes, and about the Sunda group. The collections were

made in the shallow waters by beach-combing and by nude diving, and were

bartered with the Chinese and Arab traders sailing from Singapore,

Macassar, and other ports. Occasionally a pearling vessel from Singapore

or from Torres Straits would try its luck in these waters; but, except

for the work of the natives, the reefs were practically untouched

previous to 1883.

As the Australian fleet increased in size and the oysters became scarce

in Torres Straits and on the northwest coast, some of the vessels

occasionally visited the Aru Islands, the coast of Papua, etc. These met

with considerable success and the number of trips increased, especially

in 1893, when oysters were unusually scarce in Australia.

The following year, 1894, the government restricted the fishery to

inhabitants of the Netherlands and of Netherlands India, or to companies

established in those countries and operating under the Dutch flag. Owing

to the activity of Dutch capital in coffee, tobacco and other plantation

enterprises, the pearl resources received very little attention from

them. The success of the Australian fishery encouraged the formation in

1896 of an Amsterdam company to exploit the Aru grounds; but apparently

without financial success, for it liquidated in 1898.

[Illustration:

Pearling village, with youthful fishermen. Sulu Islands

]

[Illustration:

Japanese diver in Dutch East Indies, come up to “blow” for a few

minutes

]

In the meantime, residents of these islands paid more and more attention

to the pearl fishery; also Europeans, Chinamen and Arabs arranged with

the native chiefs for fishing in their territorial waters, paying

therefor a fixed sum in cash or a percentage of the catch, which was

permitted on approval by the governor-general of Dutch India. The fleet

continued to increase from year to year, and in 1905 there was a very

large influx of vessels from the Australian fisheries, 110 luggers and 7

tenders coming from Thursday Island alone.

The species are the same as occur on the northern coast of Australia,

the “silver edge” or “golden lip” (_Margaritifera maxima_) occurring in

greatest abundance, and the “black lip” (_M. margaritifera_) to a less

extent.

The shells are the principal object of the search, and the pearls found

incidentally form an additional source of revenue. These shells divide

with those of Australia the reputation of being the most valuable in the

world. They are commonly known in the trade by the name of the port from

which they are originally shipped, as Manila, Macassar, Banda, Ceram,

Penang, Mergui, etc. Before the exploitation of the Australian grounds,

they sold at very high prices, and $2000 or more per ton was sometimes

realized for those of the best quality. Singapore is the headquarters

for supplies for the industry in all this region, and it is from that

port that the shells and pearls are mostly distributed.

The pearls obtained in Netherlands India are of choice quality and of

relatively large size, a considerable percentage of them weighing over

eight grains, and fairly good pearls of fifty grains or more are

occasionally reported. Colored pearls are rarely met with, nearly all of

them being clear white, like the beautiful Macassar shell.

At Pados Bay, island of Borneo, one hundred or more persons find

employment fishing the Placuna oysters, selling the shells for about $2

per picul (139 pounds to the picul), the dried meats at $4 to $6 a

picul, and the seed-pearls (_seleesip_) at about $2 per mayam. Many of

these pearls are sold in the village of Batu Batu. When a fisherman buys

his few necessaries at the Chinese shops, he pulls out his little

package of seed-pearls and pays in that currency, the Chinaman making a

good profit by the transaction.

X

AMERICAN PEARLS

VENEZUELA, PANAMA, MEXICO, AMERICAN FRESH WATERS, MISCELLANEOUS

X

PEARL FISHERIES OF VENEZUELA

When I discovered the Indies, I said that they composed the richest

country in the world. I spake of gold and pearls and precious

stones, and the traffic that might be carried on in them.

Extract from Columbus’s Fourth Letter.

The Caribbean Sea furnishes one of the most interesting chapters in the

history of the pearl fisheries. In no region of the world have these

resources caused more rapid exploitation or affected the inhabitants to

a greater extent than on the shores of Venezuela.

Before the discovery of America, the natives of this region collected

pearls from the mollusks which they opened for food in times of

necessity, and also sought them for ornamental purposes. And although

they had large collections which they used for personal ornamentation

and for decorating their temples, it does not appear that they prized

them extravagantly, readily bartering them for small returns.

In Columbus’s account of his third and fourth voyages to America, he

repeatedly refers to pearls. On the third voyage, in 1498, after passing

the mouth of the Orinoco River, he entered the Gulf of Paria, where the

natives “came to the ship in their canoes in countless numbers, many of

them wearing pieces of gold on their breasts, and some with bracelets of

pearls on their arms; seeing this I was much delighted and made many

inquiries with the view of learning where they found them. They replied

that they were to be procured in their own neighborhood and also at a

spot to the northward of that place. I would have remained here, but the

provisions of corn, and wine, and meats, which I had brought out with so

much care for the people whom I had left behind, were nearly wasted, so

that all my anxiety was to get them into a place of safety, and not to

stop for anything. I wished, however, to get some of the pearls that I

had seen, and with that view sent the boats on shore. I inquired there

also where the pearls were obtained. And they likewise directed me to

the westward and also to the north behind the country they occupied. I

did not put this information to the test, on account of the provisions

and the weakness of my eyes and because the ship was not calculated for

such an undertaking.”

In his letter to one of the queen’s attendants, written in 1500,

Columbus says, in justification of his conduct toward his miserable

detractors: “I believed that the voyage to Paria would in some degree

pacify them because of the pearls and the discovery of gold in the

island of Española. I left orders for the people to fish for pearls, and

called them together and made an agreement that I should return for

them, and I was given to understand that the supply would be abundant.”

And again in the same letter, after speaking of a quantity of gold which

mysteriously disappeared when Governor Bobadilla sent him and his

brothers loaded with chains to Spain, he says: “I have been yet more

concerned respecting the affair of the pearls, that I have not brought

them to their Majesties.... Already the road is opened to gold and

pearls, and it may surely be hoped that precious stones, spices, and a

thousand other things will also be found.”

A more detailed account of Columbus’s pearling adventures, and of the

subsequent discoveries and explorations on the Caribbean coast is given

by Francisco Lopez de Gomara in his “Historia general de las Indias,”

published in 1554, of which the following is a literal translation

slightly abridged:

Since there are pearls on more than four hundred leagues of this

coast between Cape Vela and the Gulf of Paria, before we proceed

farther it is proper to say who discovered them. In the third voyage

made by Christopher Columbus to the Indies, in 1498, having reached

the island of Cubagua, which he called “Isle of Pearls,” he sent a

boat with certain sailors to seize a boat of fishermen, to learn

what people they were and for what they were fishing. The sailors

reached the shore where the Indians had landed and were watching. A

sailor broke a dish of Malaga ware and went to trade with them and

to look at their catch, because he saw a woman with a string of

rough pearls (_aljofar_) on her neck. He made an exchange of the

plate for some strings of rough pearls, white and large, with which

the sailors returned highly delighted to the ships. To assure

himself better, Columbus ordered others to go with buttons, needles,

scissors, and fragments of the same Valencian earthenware, since

they seemed to prize it. These sailors went and brought back more

than six marcs (forty-eight ounces) of rough pearls, large and

small, with many good pearls among them. Said Columbus then to the

Spaniards: “We are in the richest country of the world. Let us give

thanks to the Lord.” They wondered at seeing all those rough pearls

so large, for they had never seen so many, and could not contain

their delight. They understood that the Indians did not care much

for the small ones, either because they had plenty of large ones, or

because they did not know how to pierce them.

Columbus left the island and approached the land, where many people

had collected along the shore, to see if they also had pearls. The

shore was covered with men, women, and children, who came to look at

the ships, a strange thing for them. Many Indians presently visited

the ships, went on board and stood amazed at the dress, swords, and

beards of the Spaniards, and the cannon, tackle, and arms of the

ship. Our people crossed themselves, and were delighted to see that

all those Indians wore pearls on their necks and wrists. Columbus

asked by signs where they fished them, and they pointed to the coast

and island.

[Illustration:

Venezuela and Panama; the principal pearling regions of South

America

]

Columbus then sent to the shore two boats with many Spaniards, for

greater certainty of those new riches, and because they importuned

him. The chief took them to a place where there was a circular

building that resembled a temple, where presently much bread and

fruits of different kinds were brought. At the end of the feast he

gave them pearls for sweetmeats, and took them afterward to the

palace to see the women and the arrangement of the house. Of the

numerous women there, not one was without rings of gold and

necklaces of pearls. The Spaniards returned to the ships, wandering

at such pearls and gold, and requested Columbus to leave them there.

But he did not wish to do so, saying they were too few to settle. He

hoisted sail and ran along the coast as far as Cape Vela, and from

there came to Santo Domingo, with the intention of returning to

Cubagua after regulating the affairs of the government. He

suppressed the joy he felt at having found such treasures, and did

not write to the king regarding the discovery of pearls, or at all

events did not write it until it was already known in Castile. This

was largely the cause for the anger of the king, and the order to

bring Columbus a prisoner to Spain. They say that he did not so much

intend to conceal this discovery from the king, who has many eyes,

as that he thought by a new agreement to get this rich island for

himself.

Of the sailors who went with Christopher Columbus when he found the

pearls, the greater number were from Palos. As soon as these came to

Spain, they told about the country of pearls, displayed many, and

carried them to Seville to sell, whence they went to the court and

into the palace. Excited by this report, some persons there

hurriedly prepared a ship and made Pedro Alonso Niño its captain. He

had from the Catholic king license to go in search of pearls and

land, provided he should not go within fifty leagues of any

discovered by Columbus.

Niño embarked in August, 1499, with thirty-three companions, some of

whom had been with Columbus. He sailed as far as Paria, visited the

coast of Cumana, Maracapan, Port Plechado, and Curiana, which lies

united to Venezuela. There he landed, and a chief, who came to the

coast with fifty Indians, conducted him amicably to a large town to

take water, refreshments, and the barter he was in search of. He

bartered for and secured fifteen ounces of pearls in exchange for

pins, rings of horn and tin, glass beads, small bells, and similar

trifles. The Spaniards stayed in the town twenty days, trading for

pearls. The natives gave a pigeon for a needle, a turtledove for one

glass bead, a pheasant for two, and a turkey for four. For that

price they also gave rabbits and quarters of deer. The Indians asked

to be shown the use of needles, since they went naked and could not

sew, and were told to extract the thorns with them, for they went

barefooted: Niño brought to Galicia ninety-six pounds of rough

pearls, among which were many fine, round, lustrous ones of five and

six carats, and some of more. But they were not well pierced, which

was a great fault. On the route a quarrel arose over the division,

and certain sailors accused Niño before the governor in Galicia,

saying that he had stolen many pearls and cheated the king in his

fifth, and traded in Cumana and other places where Columbus had

been. The governor seized Niño, but did not keep him in prison very

long, where he consumed pearls enough.[270]

[Illustration:

GRAY PEARLS FROM LOWER CALIFORNIA, AND DIAMONDS

Pan-American Exposition, 1901

]

This expedition of Pedro Alonso Niño was the first financially

profitable voyage to America. After his return, the Cubagua pearl

fishery became the object of numerous speculations, and many other

Spaniards fitted out voyages, most of them sailing from Hispaniola or

Haiti, nine hundred miles distant. Owing to the ill-treatment of the

Indians and excessive cruelties toward them, much difficulty was

experienced in securing divers. This was relieved in 1508 by

transporting large numbers of Indians from the Lucayan or Bahama Islands

and impressing them into the service. These were so expert in the work

that individuals sold for upward of 150 ducats each.[271] With their aid

the fishery prospered so greatly that in 1515 a settlement, called New

Cadiz, was established on Cubagua Island by the governor of Hispaniola,

Diego Columbus, son of the discoverer. This small island was dry and

desolate, without water or wood, which were brought from the mainland

twenty miles distant, or from Margarita Island about three miles to the

northward.

An interesting description of the manner of securing the pearls by these

early adventurers was given by Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes

(1478–1557) in his “Historia natural y general de las Indias,” written

less than thirty years after the discovery of the mainland of America. A

translation of this book was published in 1555 by Richard Eden in his

“Decades of the New World”; from which we extract the following account,

the retention of Eden’s quaint phraseology seeming permissible owing to

this being one of the very earliest books on America.

_Of the maner of fyshynge for perles_

The Indians exercise this kynde of fyschynge for the moste parte in

the coastes of the North in _Cubagua_ and _Cumana_. And manye of

theym which dwell in the houses of certeyne particular lordes in the

Ilandes of _San Dominico_ and _Sancti Iohannis_, resort to the

Ilande of _Cubagua_ for this purpose. Theyr custome is to go fyve,

syxe, or seven, or more in one of theyr _Canoas_ or barkes erly in

the mornynge to sume place in the sea there about where it appeareth

unto them that there shulde bee greate plentie of those shell fyshes

(which sume caule muscles and sume oysters) wherein perles are

engendered. And there they plonge them selves under the water, even

unto the bottome, savynge one that remaynethe in the Canoa or boate

which he keepeth styll in one place as neare as he can, lookynge for

theyr returne owte of the water. And when one of them hath byn a

good whyle under the water, he ryseth up and commeth swymmynge to

the boate, enterynge into the same, and leavynge there all the

oysters whiche he hath taken and brought with hym. For in these, are

the perles founde. And when he hathe there rested hym selfe a whyle,

and eaten parte of the oysters, he returneth ageyne to the water,

where he remaynethe as longe as he can endure, and then ryseth

ageyne, and swimmeth to the boate with his pray, where he resteth

hym as before, and thus continueth course by course, as doo all the

other in lyke maner, being all moste experte swymmers and dyvers.

And when the nyght draweth neare, they returne to the Ilande to

theyr houses, and presente all the oysters to the master or stewarde

of the house of theyr lorde who hath charge of the sayde Indians.

And when he hath gyven them sumwhat to eate, he layeth up the

oysters in safe custodie untyll he have a great quantitie thereof.

Then hee causeth the same fyssher men to open them. And they fynde

in every of them pearles other great or smaul, two or three or

foure, and sumtymes five and syxe, and many smaule graines accordyng

to the lyberalitie of nature. They save the pearles bothe smaule and

great whiche they have founde: And eyther eate the oysters if they

wyl, or caste them away, havynge so great quantitie thereof that

they in maner abhorre them. Those oysters are of hard fleshe, and

not so pleasant in eatyng as are owres of Spayne. This Ilande of

_Cubagua_ where this manner of fysching is exercised, is in the

Northe coaste, and is no bygger then the Iland of Zelande.

Oftentymes the sea encreaseth greatly, and muche more then the

fyshers for pearles wold, bycause where as the place is very depe, a

man can not naturally rest at the bottome by reason of the

aboundaunce of aery substannce whiche is in hym, as I have

oftentymes proved. For althoughe he may by vyolence and force

descende to the bottome, yet are his feete lyfted up ageyne so that

he can continue no tyme there. And therefore where the sea is verye

deepe, these Indian fyshers use to tye two great stoones aboute them

with a corde, on every side one, by the weyght whereof they descend

to the bottome and remayne there untyl them lysteth to ryse ageine:

At which tyme they unlose the stones, and ryse uppe at their

pleasure. But this their aptenesse and agilitie in swimming, is not

the thynge that causeth men moste to marvaile: But rather to

consyder how many of them can stande in the bottome of the water for

the space of one hole houre and summe more or lesse, accordynge as

one is more apte hereunto then an other. An other thynge there is

whiche seemeth to me very straunge. And this is, that where as I

have oftentymes demaunded of summe of these lordes of the Indians,

if the place where they accustomed to fysche for pearles beynge but

lyttle and narrowe wyll not in shorte tyme bee utterly without

oysters if they consume them so faste, they al answered me, that

although they be consumed in one parte, yet if they go a fyschynge

in an other parte or on another coaste of the Ilande, or at an other

contrary wynd, and continue fysshing there also untyll the oysters

be lykewyse consumed, and then returne ageyne to the fyrste place,

or any other place where they fysshed before and emptied the same in

lyke maner, they find them ageine as ful of oysters as though they

had never bin fysshed. Wherby we may judge that these oysters eyther

remove from one place to an other as do other fysshes, or elles that

they are engendered and encrease in certeyne ordinaire places. This

Iland of _Cumana_ and _Cubagua_ where they fyshe for these perles,

is in the twelfe degree of the part of the said coaste which

inclineth toward the North.

The cupidity of the proprietors of the fishery led to most cruel

treatment of the divers and, if the accounts of the time are to be

relied upon, a large percentage of them died under the harsh regime.

About 1515 the unfortunate natives obtained an earnest and influential

advocate in Bartolomé de las Casas, who, in 1516, prevailed upon the

youthful Charles V to decree that the fishery should be prosecuted only

in summer, that the divers should not be required to work more than four

hours a day where the depth exceeded six fathoms, that they should

receive good nourishment and half a quart of wine daily, should have

hammocks or beds in which to sleep, and should be provided with clothes

to put on as soon as they left the water.[272] And by later ordinances

it was stipulated that death should be inflicted on any one forcing a

free Indian to dive for pearls.

In 1528 the resources of Coche Island were exploited with so much

success that within six months “1500 marcs (12,000 ounces) of pearls”

were secured. Pearl banks were successively found at Porlamar,

Maracapana, Curiano, and at various places on the coast from the Gulf of

Paria to the Gulf of Coro, a distance of over five hundred miles, which

became designated the “Pearl Coast.” For a number of years previous to

1530, the output exceeded in value 800,000 piastres annually,

approximating one half the produce of the American mines at that

time.[273] It was largely these pearls that enriched the cargoes of many

of those famous caravels that crossed the Atlantic to Spain. Indeed, for

several decades, America was best known in continental Europe as the

land whence the pearls came.

An interesting account of an early effort to use dredges in the Cubagua

pearl fishery was given by Girolamo Benzoni, who had lived in America

from 1542 to 1555, and was familiar with the conditions. He states:

“At the time the pearl fishery flourished on this island there came

here one Louis de Lampugnan with an imperial license authorizing him

to fish such quantities of pearls as he pleased within all the

limits and bounds of Cubagua. This man set out from Spain with four

caravels loaded with all the necessary provisions and munitions for

such an enterprise, which some Spanish merchants furnished him. He

had made a kind of rake, the fashion of which was such that in

whatever part of the sea it was used, not an oyster would escape. At

the same time he would have raked and drawn out all that bore pearls

if he had not been disappointed. But the Spaniards in Cubagua all

banded against him in the execution of his privilege. They said the

emperor was too liberal with other people’s goods, and if he wished

to give he might give his own as he wished. As for themselves they

had conquered and kept that country with great labor and at the

peril of their lives, and there were far better reasons why they

should enjoy it than a stranger. Poor Lampugnan, seeing that his

patents did not avail him the value of a straw, and at the same time

not daring to return to Spain, partly through fear of being

ridiculed and partly on account of the money he owed, was ruined. In

fact, the business and its anxieties drove him crazy and he was

exposed to the mockery of all the world as a lunatic. In the end,

after dragging out five years in this miserable condition, he died

in this isle of Cubagua.”[274]

The average size of these pearls derived from the Venezuelan fisheries

was small, specimens rarely exceeding twenty grains. In 1577, Urbain

Chauveton wrote: “The pearls of Cubagua are mostly 2, 3, 4, and 5

carats. But the quantity of them is so great that the fifth part which

is paid to the king of Spain yields every year the value of more than

15,000 ducats; this besides the frauds committed and the pearls which

stick to the fingers of those who manage the business, and who pilfer

the most beautiful in great numbers, sending them here and there for

sale. They place themselves in great danger if the facts become known,

but they do it all the same.”[275]

The enormous demands made by the Spaniards soon had its effect on the

resources, for Chauveton adds: “It is apparent they decrease and not so

many are found as in the beginning. The reason for this is that the

Spaniards are so eager to gather large quantities of them quickly that

they are not content to use their divers to search for them in the

depths of the sea, but they have conceived and invented I know not how

many machines of rakes and drags to scrape up everything. In fact they

have at times collected them all so that another could not be found, and

have had to abandon their fishing for a considerable time to give the

oysters a chance to lay their eggs and grow their pearls.”[276]

The decrease noted by Chauveton was probably not very serious, for the

Spanish historian, Jose de Acosta, reports that in 1581 he saw “the note

of what came from the Indies for the king; there were 18 marcs of

pearles, besides 3 caskets; and for private persons there were 1265

marcs, and besides them, 7 caskets not pierced, which heretofore we

would have esteemed and helde for a lie.”[277] Also the records show

that in 1597 Spain received from the Venezuelan fisheries “350 pounds’

weight of pearls.” It is to be regretted that the Spaniards so

frequently reported the yield of pearls by pounds’ weight, for—owing to

the great variation in quality—this is about as unsatisfactory as to

report the wealth of an individual by the pounds’ weight of his

title-deeds or of his stock certificates. The value of “350 pounds of

pearls” might have been anywhere from twenty thousand dollars to as many

millions. Assuming that all were two grains each in weight and of good

quality, the total value would approximate $600,000 according to the

valuation of that period; and on a basis of eight grains each, it would

be $9,600,000, or sixteen times as much. But as original parcels of

pearls from the fisheries, these figures should be divided by three.

Following 1597, the productiveness of the Cubagua beds rapidly

decreased. By acts of cruelty and oppression the Spaniards had converted

the surviving Indians into deadly foes, ready to take advantage of any

opportunity to avenge themselves on their oppressors, and thus

terrifying the settlers into abandoning the enterprise. Early in the

seventeenth century the development of mining resources in Mexico, Peru,

etc., attracted the adventurous Spaniards. A considerable decrease in

the value of pearls, brought about by the skilful manufacture of

imitations at Venice, and elsewhere in southern Europe, also affected

the prosperity of the fisheries. As a result of these combined

influences, the output in Venezuela was greatly reduced, and it ceased

long before the close of the following century. Thus ended an enterprise

which, for a number of years, represented the greatest single industry

of the European people on the American continent.

According to General Manuel Laudecta Rosales, the Venezuela archives

contain no reference to any renewal of the fishery until early in the

nineteenth century. At the time of Humboldt’s visit in 1799, the fishery

was entirely neglected around the islands of Margarita, Cubagua, and

Coche, and the only evidence of pearls was a few very insignificant ones

picked up about Cumana and sold among the natives at a piaster per

dozen.[278]

After the overthrow of Spanish authority on this coast, Messrs. Rundell,

Bridge and Rundell, a firm of well-known goldsmiths of London, obtained,

in 1823, from the government of Colombia, a ten-year monopoly of the

fishery at several places on the coast of the new republic, in

consideration of one fifth of the pearls secured.[279] After the

independence of Venezuela in 1829, the taxes imposed were so heavy that

the industry languished, and about 1833 it was practically abandoned.

Owing to the improved physical condition of the reefs, the fishery

developed largely in 1845; and for several years an average of 1600

ounces of pearls were secured, an ounce of good quality selling for 150

to 500 bolivars (one bolivar = 19½ cents), and the inferior quality at

80 to 100 bolivars.[280] At that time there was a tax of sixteen

bolivars per boat monthly. In 1853 this was increased to forty-eight

bolivars per boat, and the use of dredges (_arrastras_) was interdicted,

soon reducing the fishery to a very low stage. Subjected to frequent

changes in regulations, and burdened by heavy taxes, the industry

remained in poor condition until about 1895. Since then the enhanced

value of pearls, and the increased industrial activity on the coast, has

resulted in a very large development of the fishery.

In recent years the government of Venezuela has granted concessions to

individuals and to companies for the exploitation of defined areas for a

limited period, exacting 10 per cent. royalty on the proceeds of the

enterprise. In granting these concessions, the government usually

reserves the right to examine the books, and to intervene when necessary

in any phase of the enterprise. For protecting its revenue, the

government requires that shipments of the pearls must be signed by its

agent, and bills of sale must be countersigned by the Venezuelan consul

in the place where the sales are consummated.

The Venezuelan pearl fishery now gives employment to about 350 boats,

manned by five or six men each, sailing from the ports of Juan Griego,

Cumana, and Carupano. These are sail craft, measuring from two to

fifteen tons each, and are licensed by the Venezuelan authorities at a

charge of 15 bolivars ($2.92) each. Most of the boats use dredges, but

some of them resort to nude diving, after the manner of the sixteenth

century. Attempts have been made to use the scaphander, or diving armor,

but without success, owing largely to the difficulty in obtaining

experienced workmen, and also to local prejudice against this form of

fishery. It is claimed that in using the scaphander, all oysters are

removed from the reefs, whereas the _arrastra_ or dredge spreads the

oysters and thereby enlarges the reefs. This is the principal and,

except those at Sharks Bay and the Sulu Islands, the only important

pearl fishery in which the oysters are secured by means of dredges.

These are made of iron and are similar to those implements used in the

scallop fisheries of New York and Rhode Island. They are dragged over

the beds, and when filled are lifted and their contents emptied into the

boat, the fishermen culling out the desirable oysters from the mass and

throwing the refuse material overboard.

The pearl-oyster (_Margaritifera radiata_) secured on the coast of

Venezuela is closely related to the Ceylon species. It averages slightly

larger in size, and there is a much greater range in coloration. The

pearls are of good quality. In color they range from white to bronze,

and occasionally a so-called black one is found. The total output is

valued locally at about 1,750,000 francs ($350,000) per year. Most of

them are sold in Paris.

Owing to their small size and lack of thickness, the shells of the

Venezuela pearl-oyster are of little or no value in the mother-of-pearl

trade. Thousands of tons of them, the accumulations of scores of

fisheries, lie in heaps and ridges along the coast, as though in years

long past vast armies of oysters, engaged in deadly combat, had left

their innumerable myriads of slain comrades to bleach on the shores.

THE PANAMA PEARL FISHERIES

The bordring Ilands, seated here in ken,

Whose Shores are sprinkled with rich Orient Pearle,

More bright of hew than were the Margarets

That Caesar found in wealthy Albion.

ROBERT GREENE, _Orlando Furioso_ (1594).

From the point of view of the Spaniards of his day, the greatest result

of Balboa’s immortal journey in 1513 across the Isthmus of Panama to the

broad waters of the Pacific, was the discovery of the pearl resources of

the Gulf of St. Michael, now known as the Gulf of Panama. Probably the

best description of this is given by Lopez de Gomara in his “Historia

general de las Indias,” published in 1554, from which we translate the

following account.

After Balboa had reached the Pacific in 1513, he proceeded a short

distance along the coast until he met with an Indian chief by the name

of Tomaco. Being questioned about the gold and pearls which some of his

people wore, Tomaco sent for some gold and 240 large pearls and a great

number of small ones—a rich present, which filled the Spaniards with

pleasure. Seeing the Spaniards so delighted, Tomaco ordered some of his

men to go and fish for pearls. These went and in a few days obtained 64

ounces, which also he gave them. The Spaniards were surprised to see

such pearls, and that their owners did not value them; they not only

gave them away, but their paddles were decorated therewith, for the

principal income and wealth of these chiefs was the pearl fishery.

Tomaco told Balboa that these riches were nothing in comparison with

those of Tararequi, which had pearls larger than a man’s eye, taken from

oysters the size of sombreros. The Spaniards wished to go there at once,

but fearing another tempest, left it for their return. They dismissed

Tomaco and rested in the country of Chiape, who, at the request of

Balboa, sent thirty of his men to fish. These did it in the presence of

seven Spaniards, who looked on and saw them take six loads of small

shells. As it was not the season for that fishery, they did not go into

very deep water where the shells were. Not only did they not fish in

September and the following months, but they did not even travel by

water, on account of the stormy weather which then prevails in that sea.

The pearls which they extracted from those shells were like peas, but

very fine and white. Of those received from Tomaco, some were black,

others green, blue, and yellow.

On the return of Balboa’s expedition to Darien in 1514, the sight of the

pearls and the wonderful reports made by the men, caused his successor,

Pedrarias, to fit out another expedition, an account of which we

likewise translate from Gomara.

By command of Pedrarias, Gaspar de Morales went in the year 1515 to

the Gulf of St. Michael, with 550 Spaniards, in quest of the island

of Tararequi, which was said by Balboa’s men to be so abundant in

pearls and so near the coast. The chief of that island sallied forth

with many people to prevent his entrance, and clamored and fought

three times with our people on equal terms, but the fourth time he

was defeated. He then made friends, carried the chief of the

Spaniards to his house, which was a large and good one, gave him

food to eat, and a basket of pearls which weighed 110 marcs [880

ounces]. The chief received for them some looking-glasses, stringed

beads, bells, scissors, axes, and small wares of barter, which he

valued more than he had the pearls. He promised to give as tribute

to the emperor, in whose guardianship he placed himself, 100 marcs

of pearls every year. With these the Spaniards returned to the Gulf

of St. Michael and from thence to Darien.

Tararequi is within five degrees of the equator. It possessed a

great fishery for pearls, which are the largest and best of the new

world. Many of the pearls which the cacique gave were like filberts,

others like nutmegs, and there was one of 26 and another of 31

carats, pear-shaped, very lustrous, and most perfect, which Peter of

the Port, a shop-keeper, bought of Gaspar de Morales for 12,000

castilians. The purchaser could not sleep that night for thinking on

the fact that he had given so much money for one stone, and so he

sold it the very next day to Pedrarias de Avila, for his wife Donna

Isabel de Bovadilla, at the same price, and afterwards the Bovadilla

sold it to Donna Isabella the Empress.

Pedrarias, who delighted in such fishery, requested the cacique to

make his men fish for pearls in the presence of the Spaniards. The

fishermen were great swimmers and divers, and seemed to have spent

all their lives in that employment. They went in small boats when

the sea was calm, and not in any other manner. They cast a stone for

an anchor from each canoe, tied by strong, flexible withes like

boughs of the hazel. They plunged to search for oysters each with a

sack or bag at the neck, and returned loaded with them. They entered

four, six, and even ten fathoms of water, for the shell is larger

the deeper they go, and if at times the larger ones come in shallow

water it is through storms, or because they go from one place to

another in search for food, and having found their pasture they stay

there until they have finished it. They perceive those who search

for them, and stick so close to the rocks or ground, or one to

another, that much strength is needed to detach them, and many times

the fishermen cannot raise them and leave them, thinking they are

stones. In this fishery many persons are drowned, either by

remaining too long at the bottom, or because they become entwined or

entangled in the cord, or such carnivorous fish as the shark devour

them. This is the manner of fishing pearls in all the Indies, and

many fishermen die from the dangers aforesaid, and from the

excessive and constant labor, the little food, and the maltreatment

they have. The emperor was led to enact a law among those whom

Blasco Nunez Vela brought, which imposed the penalty of death upon

him who should forcibly compel any free Indian to fish for pearls.

He thought more of the lives of the men than of his interest in

pearls, though they were of great value. The law was worthy of such

a prince and of perpetual memory.[281]

[Illustration:

CLARA EUGENIA, DAUGHTER OF PHILIP II

Painting by Gonzales, in the Galeria del Prado, Madrid Most of these

pearls were doubtless from the early American fisheries

]

Gonzalo de Oviedo referred to the pearl resources of Panama in his

“Historia natural de las Indias,” Toledo, 1526, mentioned in the chapter

on pearl fisheries of Venezuela. After describing the resources of

Cubagua and Cumana on the Venezuelan coast, he states, according to

Eden’s quaint translation:

Lykewise pearles are founde and gathered in the South sea cauled

_mare del sur_. And the pearles of this sea [the Caribbean coast]

are verye bygge. Yet not so bigge as they of the Ilande of pearles

cauled _de las perlas_, or _Margaritea_, whiche the Indians caule

_Terarequi_, lying in the gulfe of saincte Michael, where greater

pearles are founde and of greater price then in any other coaste of

the Northe sea, in _Cumana_, or any other porte. I speake this as a

trewe testimonie of syght, havyng byn longe in that South sea, and

makynge curious inquisition to bee certenly informed of all that

perteyneth to the fysshvnge of perles. From this Ilande of

Tararequi, there was brought a pearle of the fasshyon of a peare,

wayinge xxxi carattes, which Petrus Arias had amonge a thousande and

soo many poundes weight of other pearles which hee had when

capitayne Gaspar Morales (before Petrus Arias) passed to the saide

Ilande in the yeare 1515, which pearle was of great prise. From the

saide Ilande also, came a great and verye rounde pearle, whiche I

brought owte of the sea. This was as bygge as a smaule pellet of a

stone bowe, and of the weight of xxvi carattes. I boughte it in the

citie of Panama in the sea of Sur: and paide for it syxe hundredth

and fyftie tymes the weyght therof of good gold,[282] and had it

thre yeares in my custodie: and after my returne into Spaine, soulde

it to the erle of Nansao, Marquisse of Zenete, great chamberleyne to

youre maiestie, who gave it to the Marquesse his wyfe, the ladye

Mentia of Mendozza. I thyncke verely that this pearle was the

greatest, fayrest, and roundest that hath byn seene in those partes.

For youre maiestie owght to understande that in the coaste of the

sea of Sur, there are founde a hundredth great pearles rounde after

the fasshyon of peare, to one that is perfectly rounde and greate.

This Iland of Terarequi which the Christians caule the Ilande of

pearles, and other caule it the Ilande of floures, is founde in the

eyght degree on the southe syde of the firme lande in the provynce

of golden Castyle or Beragua. (Arber, “The First Three English Books

on America,” Birmingham, 1885.)

In addition to the gems noted by Oviedo, these waters furnished many

other beautiful pearls in the sixteenth century, and added largely to

the collections of the Spanish court and of the cathedrals of Seville,

Toledo, etc. The Italian traveler, Gemelli-Careri, who visited the

Panama fisheries in 1697, reported that they yielded pearls equal to

those of Ceylon. He mentioned one weighing 60 grains, for which the

owner—a Jesuit priest—refused 70,000 pesos.[283]

In 1735, the Spanish admiral, Antonio de Ulloa visited the Panama pearl

fisheries and wrote an extended description of them.[284] According to

his account the pearls were then found in such plenty that there were

few slaveholders in the vicinity who did not employ at least a portion

of their Negroes in the fishery. These were selected for their dexterity

in diving, and were sent to the islands in gangs of from eight to twenty

men each, under the command of an overseer. They lived in temporary huts

on the shore, and visited the pearl reefs in small boats. Anchoring in

eight or ten fathoms of water, the Negroes would, dive in succession to

the bottom, returning with as many oysters as possible. It was laborious

work, attended with danger owing to the numerous sharks.

Every one of these Negro divers is obliged daily to deliver to his

master a fixed number of pearls; so that when they have got the

requisite number of oysters in their bag, they begin to open them,

and deliver the pearls to the officer, till they have made up the

number due to their master; and if the pearl be but formed, it is

sufficient, without any regard to its being small or faulty. The

remainder, however large or beautiful, are the Negro’s own property,

nor has the master the least claim to them, the slaves being allowed

to sell them to whom they please, though the master generally

purchases them at a very small price.... Some of these pearls,

though indeed but few, are sent to Europe, the greater part being

carried to Lima, where the demand for them is very great, being not

only universally worn there by all persons of rank, but also sent

from thence to the inland portions of Peru.[285]

During the hundred years following, the pearl reefs of Panama were not

very productive, and relatively little attention was paid to them. The

development of a market for the shells in the mother-of-pearl trade,

about 1840, enhanced the profits of the few natives engaged in pearling

in a desultory manner, and led to an increase in the number of

fishermen. During some years when industrial and market conditions were

favorable, large quantities of shells were exported. In 1855, for

instance, 650 tons of these shells were shipped to England alone, and in

1859 the reported quantity was 957 tons. Those from the Island of San

José, one of the Pearl Archipelago, were said to be the largest and

choicest in the bay. Many of them were used in decorating the twin

towers of the stately old cathedral at Panama.

Since then the industry has fluctuated greatly, depending on the market

for the shell. Many outsiders have experimented in the fishery, but most

of these attempts have resulted in financial loss, through

mismanagement, storms, sickness, or other causes. A story is told

locally of a party of thirty men, principally from Scotland, who arrived

at Panama equipped with a diving-bell and such necessary machinery as

air-pumps, windlasses, etc. Much was expected of their operations, but

soon yellow fever broke out among them, and within six weeks two thirds

of the members of the party had died. The remaining members, becoming

disheartened, and in fear of the dread disease, lost no time in leaving

the country. The diving-bell and machinery remained for several years as

a curiosity at Panama, for no one returned to claim them, nor has the

use of similar apparatus been attempted since then.

The scattered pearl reefs extend from the east side of the Bay of Panama

nearly to the Costa Rica boundary. However, this gives an exaggerated

idea of their area, as much of this territory yields no pearl-oysters

whatever. The principal reefs and the headquarters of the fishery are at

Archipelago de las Perlas or Pearl Islands, which are from thirty to

sixty miles southeast of the Pacific terminus of the projected Panama

Canal. This archipelago contains sixteen small islands, on which are

about twice that number of small settlements of Negro and Indian

descendants, with a total population of perhaps one thousand. About half

of these live on Isla del Rey, the largest island, about fifteen miles

long and half that in width. The chief village, San Miguel, is the

center of the pearling industry, and consists mostly of palm-thatched

huts and a handsome stone church, more costly than all the remaining

buildings of the town combined. While the soil is fertile and some

vegetables are raised, the inhabitants depend almost wholly on the

fisheries.

In 1901, the Republic of Colombia invited bids for the right to operate

the pearl and coral fisheries for a term of fifteen years, but nothing

seems to have come of it, and the establishment of the Panama Republic

in 1903 terminated the authority of Colombia in these resources.

The Panama fisheries differ widely in their character from those of

Venezuela. The mollusk is much larger, averaging about six inches in

diameter when fully grown, thus furnishing a valuable quality of

mother-of-pearl. The shell constitutes the principal object of the

fishery; the pearls themselves are of incidental importance, but are

always looked for and anxiously expected.

The season extends from May to November, with a rest during the

remaining five months of the year. The fishery is open to natives and to

foreigners alike. While the leading fishermen employ diving-suits, which

were introduced here about 1890, nude diving is yet practised to a

considerable extent, the men descending in eight or ten, and some even

in twelve fathoms of water. There is no restriction whatever on the nude

fishermen, but for each machine diver an annual license fee of $125

United States currency is exacted.

Owing to the low market price for Panama shell during recent years, the

fishery has not been vigorously prosecuted, and it has even dwindled to

low proportions. A letter from one of the leading pearling companies in

Panama states that the machine divers number about twenty, while there

are about four hundred nude fishermen; and another firm likewise

prominent, estimates these fishermen at twenty and three hundred

respectively.

Yet a third pearling company writes that there are fifteen machine

divers and two hundred head divers; and adds that the small demand for

this quality of mother-of-pearl has made the condition of the industry

about as bad as it could be; many who have capital invested are getting

out of the business, and unless the market improves, the industry may be

abandoned. Probably with the introduction of new capital and methods in

the infant republic, the pearl resources may receive greater attention

and a large development ensue.

The Panama pearls are of good quality and frequently of large size. In

color they range from white to green and lead-gray, and frequently

greenish black. Valuable pearls are not common, but occasionally the

fisherman is amply rewarded. A letter from the American consul at Panama

states that in 1899 a native boy, fifteen years old, fishing in shallow

water, as much for sport as for profit, found a pearl which he sold to a

local speculator for 4000 silver dollars ($1760); this speculator

delivered the same pearl to a dealer in Panama for 10,000 silver dollars

($4400), and an offer of 30,000 francs was refused for it later in

Paris. A pearl worth $2400 was reported as found within half a mile of

the steamship anchorage at Panama. A pearl from a giant oyster

resembling Tridacna, was an absolute egg-shape, pure cocoanut white, and

weighed 169 grains; it was 21 mm. at the longest and 16.5 mm. at the

narrowest part. The surface showed very distinctly a wavy structure,

occasionally with a tiny, brighter central point; the surface under the

glass resembling a honeycomb network. At the smallest point there was a

radiated center with quite a brilliant field. It was worth only $100.

Not always, however, does the poor, ignorant fisherman receive the full

value of his find; and many a story is told of some thoughtless

improvident native, who, for less than a mess of pottage, “like the base

Indian, threw a pearl away, richer than half his tribe.”

Most of the Panama pearls are sold in Paris, relatively few of them

coming to America direct. This is not because of any greater estimation

of them in Paris or higher prices obtained; but the trade relation has

been long continued and the credits are well established. From Paris

many of these pearls reach the American market.

THE PEARL FISHERIES OF MEXICO

Then, too, the pearl from out its shell,

Unsightly in the sunless sea,

(As ’twere a spirit, forced to dwell

In form unlovely) was set free,

And round the neck of woman threw

A light it lent and borrowed too.

THOMAS MOORE, _The Loves of the Angels_.

Pearl-bearing oysters are found at various places on the Pacific coast

of Mexico, and especially along the coast of Lower California, where

extensive fisheries are prosecuted. The pearls are noted for the great

variety of colors which they display. A large percentage are black,

others are white, brown, peacock green, etc. Generally they are small

and of irregular form, yet sometimes very large ones are secured,

weighing 100, 200, and even 300 grains.

European knowledge of the pearl resources of Mexico dates from the

conquest of that country by Hernando Cortés about 1522. The diary of his

lieutenant, Fortuno Ximines, tells of finding native chiefs living in

primitive huts along the sea-shore, with quantities of beautiful pearls

lying carelessly around. From a tribe near the present site of

Hermosillo, in the State of Sonora, Cortés secured great quantities of

the gems. It appeared that the fishery had been in existence for

centuries. The location of the pearl reefs was prominently noted on

Cortés’ map of this coast, made in 1535, a copy of which was procured by

the Rev. Edward E. Hale when in Spain in 1883.

Following Cortés’ explorations of the Pacific coast of Mexico

(1533–1538), a number of expeditions were fitted out for securing pearls

by trading with the natives, by forcing them to fish, and by even more

questionable means. Several of these expeditions found record in history

either by reason of their unusual success or through the extreme cruelty

with which they were conducted. The contact of the Spaniards with the

Indians resulted in very bitter feelings on the part of the latter, so

that it became risky for small traders to venture among them. From time

to time, successful expeditions were made, especially the one of 200 men

sent in 1596 by the viceroy of Mexico to “the rich Isles of California,”

mentioned by Teixeira.[286] Antonio de Castillo, a Spanish colonist,

with headquarters south of Mazatlan, was one of the most successful of

the early adventurers, and Iturbide Ortega and José Carborel were also

among the fortunate ones of that period.[287] Ortega marketed his pearls

in the city of Mexico, and the reported sale of one for 4500 dollars had

considerable effect in stimulating the industry.

The advent of the Jesuits to western Mexico in 1642, developed amicable

relations with the Indians; and although the missionaries were

agriculturists rather than fishermen, the restoration of harmony

resulted in a more favorable prosecution of the fisheries. The colonists

of Sinaloa and Nueva Galicia, who had formerly, in small vessels and

with great danger, made occasional visits to the pearl beds, built

larger vessels and made more frequent visits without apprehension. The

skilful Yaqui and Mayo Indians were employed or impressed as divers,

just as natives of the Bahamas had served in the fisheries of Venezuela.

Great profits resulted from the operations. Venegas wrote that “it was

certain that the fifth of every vessel was yearly farmed for 12,000

dollars.”[288]

So profitable was the fishery that the Spanish soldiers and sailors

stationed in the Gulf of Cortes—as the Gulf of California was then

called—were frequently charged with devoting more attention to pearling

than to their official duties. In order to put a stop to this evil, in

1704, Father Silva-Tierra, who was in authority in that part of the

country, ordered that no soldier or sailor should engage in the fishery.

With a view to removing the demoralizing influences of promiscuous

adventurers among the Indians, the industry was later restricted to

persons specially authorized.

Probably the most successful of the early pearlers was Manuel Osio, who

is credited with having marketed “127 pounds’ weight of pearls in 1743,”

and “275 pounds’ weight” in 1744.[289] He operated in the vicinity of

Mulege and northward, employing the Yaqui Indians; and through his

pearling interests is said to have become the richest man in Lower

California.

[Illustration:

Gulf of California and the pearling territory of western Mexico

]

The revenue from the royal fifth, somewhat later, was reported by

Alvarado[290] at 12,000 dollars per year; but this was disputed by Jacob

Baegert, a Jesuit priest. Baegert spent seventeen years in Mexico and,

returning to Europe on the expulsion of his order from that country in

1767, published a report in 1772, containing rather an unfavorable view

of the fishery. He stated that each summer eight, ten, or twelve poor

Spaniards from Sonora, Sinaloa, and elsewhere on the mainland, crossed

the gulf in small boats to the California shore for the purpose of

obtaining pearls. They carried supplies of Indian corn and dried beef,

and also a number of Indians who served as divers, the Spaniards

themselves showing little inclination to engage in the work when native

fishermen could be employed so cheaply. Provided with a sack for

receiving the oysters which they removed from the bottom, the fishermen

dived head first into the sea, and when they could no longer hold their

breath they ascended with the gathered treasure. The oysters were

counted before opening; and, when the law was complied with, every fifth

one was put aside for the king’s revenue. Most of the oysters yielded no

pearls; some contained black pearls, others white ones, the latter

usually small and ill-shaped. If, after six or eight weeks of hard labor

and deducting all expenses, a Spaniard gained a hundred American pesos,

he thought he had made a little fortune, but this he could not do every

season. “God knows,” said Baegert, “whether a fifth of the pearls

secured in the California sea yields to the Catholic king an average of

150 or 200 pesos in a year, even without frauds in the transaction. I

heard of only two persons—with whom also I was personally acquainted—who

had accumulated some wealth, after spending 20 or more years in the

business. The others remained poor notwithstanding their pearl

fishing.”[291]

Father Baegert’s statement of the returns seems to be substantiated by

the reports of the royal fifth a few years later. For the period from

1792 to 1796 this was placed at “2 lbs. 2 ozs.” by some writers; and

according to others, from 1788 to 1797 it amounted to only “3 lbs. 9

ozs.,” which is the quantity assigned by some accounts to 1797

alone.[292] These returns apparently indicate that a great decrease had

occurred since the days of Osio; but it seems very doubtful whether,

under the conditions existing in Mexico at that time, the royal treasury

received its due share of the proceeds.

Shortly following the independence of Mexico in 1821, and after a period

of little activity, several attempts were made to exploit the pearl

resources. The great prosperity in England, ensuing upon the termination

of the Napoleonic Wars, resulted in much speculation and the promotion

of stock subscriptions in many visionary schemes. Among these was “The

General Pearl and Coral-Fishing Association of London,” which in 1825

equipped and sent out to Mexico, by way of Cape Horn, two vessels

prepared to exploit the pearl resources by the use of diving-bells

similar to those formerly employed in submarine construction. This

expedition was under the direction of Lieutenant R. W. H. Hardy, whose

report thereon presents an interesting exhibit of the condition of the

pearl fishery at that time.

Hardy found the fishery at a very low ebb, owing, largely, to the

scarcity of oysters and the uncertainty of depending on the native

divers. He adds with peculiar naïveté: “I had almost forgotten to

mention a very curious circumstance with respect to the pearl-oyster,

namely that on the coast of Sonora there are none at all, except at

Guaymas.” He states also that to the northward of 28° 30′ not the trace

of a shell could be discovered on either side of the gulf.

The center of the industry was then at Loreto, a village of 250

inhabitants; but another small station existed at La Paz. At Loreto six

or eight vessels of twenty-five tons each were employed, each having

three or four sailors and fifteen or twenty Yaqui Indians who served as

divers. Head-diving was in vogue, the work proceeding from 11 A.M. to 2

P.M., and the depth ranging from three to twelve fathoms. The annual

catch of pearls was “4 or 5 pounds’ weight, worth from $8000 to

$10,000.”[293] After the government’s claim of one fifth had been set

apart, the owner and captain of the vessel received one half and the

divers the other half.

It was found impossible to use diving-bells when the sea was at all

rough, and even during calm weather they were impracticable on account

of the unevenness of the ground and the strong undercurrents. An effort

was made to employ native divers, but owing to the disorganized state of

affairs only four could be secured. In the Gulf of Mulege a large number

of oysters were collected, but when these were opened “six very small

pearls” were all that could be found. After spending about three years

on the coast, Hardy returned to England, and the company abandoned the

enterprise.

In the early history of the Mexican pearl fishery, the shells were of no

market value; but about 1830 a French trader named Combier made

experimental shipments to France, securing cheap freight rates by using

the waste shells largely as ballast for the vessels.[294] The best

quality sold for about 600 francs per ton, and the market was found

sufficient for regular shipments. The value gradually increased, and in

1854 it approximated 2000 francs per ton in France, placing the industry

upon a very remunerative basis. This resulted in much activity in the

fishery, and an increase in the number of boats and divers.

In 1855, the fishery gave employment to 368 divers, and yielded $23,800

worth of pearls, and 350 tons of shells worth $13,500.[295] It was

estimated by Lassepas that from 1580 to 1857, inclusive, 95,000 tons of

oysters were removed from the Gulf of California, yielding 2770 pounds

of pearls, worth $5,540,000.[296]

For protection of the reefs, the Mexican government in 1857 divided the

Gulf of California into four pearling districts, and provided that only

one of them should be worked each year, and then only in areas leased

for the season to the highest bidders, thereby permitting the reefs

successively to remain undisturbed for three years.

The yield of pearls in 1868 approximated $55,000, and that of shells

$10,600 in value; while in 1869 these items were given as $62,000 and

$25,000, respectively.[297] The local prices ranged from $15 per ounce

for seed-pearls to $1500 for a choice gem.

At that period the fishery was carried on from shore camps or from large

vessels, each carrying twenty to fifty divers, who were mostly Yaqui

Indians from the eastern shore of the gulf. The camp or vessel was

located in the vicinity of the reefs or beds, and the fishing was

prosecuted from small boats, each carrying three or four nude divers.

Fastened to the waist or suspended from the neck was a net for the

reception of oysters, and each diver carried a short spud or stick with

which to detach them from the bottom, and to some extent for use as a

weapon of defense against sharks and similar enemies. The diving

progressed mostly in the morning, when the sea was unruffled by the

breeze which usually begins shortly after noon. The season lasted from

May to late in September, when the water became too cold for further

operations.

The divers were paid a definite share of the catch, and kept in

debt-bondage by means of advances and supplies. Little clothing was

necessary, and the provisions consisted principally of corn, beans, and

sun-dried beef. Luxuries were added in the form of tobacco, and of

mescal distilled from the maguey plant, indulgence in these constituting

the chief remuneration for the season’s labor. The finding of an

unusually choice pearl brought to the lucky fisherman a gratuity of a

few dollars, and shore leave for several days in which to spend it.

Dressing in his best calico garments, he hastened to the nearest town to

indulge in release from restraint, in drunkenness and debauchery—the

highest dreams of happiness of a Yaqui Indian—thoughts of which served

to bring him to the fishery each year from his home across the gulf.

From the Spanish conquest until 1874, the Mexican pearl fishery was

conducted exclusively by nude divers. The experiments with the

diving-bell in 1825 had been without favorable result, and also an

attempt by an American in 1854 to use a diving-suit with air-pump, etc.,

this failure being credited to imperfection of apparatus. In 1874,

through the influence of European pearl merchants, two schooners, each

of about 200 tons’ measurement, one from Australia and the other from

England, visited the Mexican grounds, with a dozen boats fully equipped

with scaphanders or diving armor, including helmets, rubber suits,

pumps, etc. Owing to their working in deeper water than the nude divers

were able to exploit, their success was remarkable, and they secured

upward of a hundred thousand dollars’ worth of pearls and shells during

the first season.

The hitherto somnolent inhabitants of Lower California were amazed at

seeing their resources thus easily removed, and were awakened to the

opportunities afforded them to acquire the wealth which nature had

scattered at their very doors. With this object-lesson before them,

companies were formed for raising sufficient capital for the business,

and the leading operators equipped their men with scaphanders, to the

great annoyance of the would-be independent fishermen, who had not

sufficient means to purchase the costly equipment. Many of these

continued to employ nude divers, but after 1880 this method of fishery

was subordinate to the use of diving apparatus. The change was

accompanied by many accidents, and rarely did a month pass without the

loss of a man, due in most cases to faulty apparatus or to inexperienced

management.

In 1884 President Gonzalez inaugurated the policy of granting exclusive

concessions to the pearl reefs. On February 28 of that year, five

concessions were granted to as many persons, giving them and their

associates and assigns the exclusive right to all shell fisheries in

their respective zones of large area, for a period of sixteen years, in

consideration of a royalty and export duty, amounting altogether to

about $10 per ton of shells exported in the first three years, and $15

per ton for the remaining thirteen years of the term. Immediately these

five grants were consolidated, forming the Lower California Pearl

Fishing Company (“Compañia Perlífera de la Baja California”),

incorporated under the laws of California with an invested capital of

$100,000.

Other concessions were given covering the ocean shore of Lower

California, the eastern side of the gulf within the States of Sonora and

Sinaloa, and the ocean shore of Mexico southward from Sinaloa. In

addition to these, certain territorial rights of fishing are claimed

through grants dating back very early in the history of the country. So

eagerly have these concessions been sought in recent years, that there

is now little pearling ground on the coast which is not under corporate

or private claim. And, owing to speculation in these concessions and in

the formation of companies to develop them, it is somewhat difficult to

obtain wholly reliable data relative to the condition and extent of the

industry.

Two species of pearl-bearing mollusks occur on the Mexican coast. The

principal one is the _M. margaritifera mazatlanica_, known locally as

the _concha de perla fina_. This species is closely related to the

“black lip shell” of the Australian coast. It is considerably larger

than the Venezuelan oyster, averaging four or five inches in diameter

and attaining an extreme diameter of seven or possibly eight inches. It

occurs to some extent all along the Pacific coast of Mexico, in detached

beds intercalated in places. The principal reefs, which have been

exploited for nearly four centuries, are in the shallow waters of the

Gulf of California and especially within the 300 miles between Cape San

Lucas and Mulege Bay. The fisheries have centered about the islands of

Cerralvo, Espiritu Santo, Carmen, and San José, and in the bays of

Mulege, Ventana, and San Lorenzo. The depth of water on the reefs ranges

from two to twenty-five fathoms, with an average of probably six or

eight fathoms. The species is generally isolated, and firmly attached by

the byssus to the bottom rocks or the stone corals, from which it may

remove in case of necessity, though it probably does not do so

frequently.

The second species is known locally under the name _concha nacar_, and

has been named _Margaritifera_ (_Avicula_) _vinesi_ (Rochebonne).[298]

It occurs only in the northern part of the gulf near the mouth of the

Colorado River. Formerly it was abundant in that region, occurring in

large areas, but it has become much reduced and is now little sought

after. It is claimed that this species is far more productive of pearls

than the _M. margaritifera_, and that it yielded the large quantities

obtained by Osio in the eighteenth century. Although iridescent, the

shell is so thin and convex that it is without commercial value.

[Illustration:

THE ADAMS GOLD VASE

Ornamented with American gems and fresh-water pearls, rock crystal,

gold quartz and agatized wood

Top of vase and side view

Now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art

]

The headquarters of the Mexican pearl fishery are at La Paz, the capital

of Lower California, 240 miles northwest of Mazatlan and 150 miles north

of Cape San Lucas. This “Mantle of Peace”—the literal translation of La

Paz—contains about 5000 inhabitants, nearly all of whom are more or less

dependent on the pearl fishery. It presents an attractive picture, with

the cocoanut-palms extending down almost to the water’s edge, and the

high mountains forming a background. The low, stone houses, the tile

roofs, the plaza with tropical trees, and the beautiful flower beds

under perennial sunny skies, give it a quaint appearance. The most

conspicuous objects from the harbor are the large old warehouses, with

thick walls and iron-barred windows, for the storage of the pearls and

the shells. During the season, from April to November, the arrival and

departure of the pearling vessels presents a scene of great animation.

The present methods of the fishery on the Mexican coast are quite

different from those of thirty years ago when nude diving was the only

method in vogue. Instead of the haphazard work, largely in shallow

water, the industry is conducted systematically, and the limit of depth

is increased, much of the diving being in depths of ten to fifteen

fathoms. The fishermen operate either from a large vessel making a

cruise two or three months in length, or from a camp on the shore near

the reefs. A vessel visits them frequently to furnish supplies and to

transport the catch to La Paz. The fishing boats are undecked craft,

each equipped with an air-pump and a crew of six men: a diver, a _cabo

de vida_ or life-line man, who is usually the captain, two _bomberos_ at

the air-pump, and two rowers.

The greatest depth at which armored diving is attempted in Mexico rarely

exceeds twenty fathoms; twenty-five fathoms is fully as deep as it is

practicable to go, and it is not advisable to remain at that depth more

than a very few minutes. At fifteen fathoms a diver may remain half an

hour or more, and at six or eight fathoms he may work uninterruptedly

for several hours. When the water is very cold, the diver comes up

frequently to restore his numbed circulation by vigorous rubbing. The

occupation is especially conducive to rheumatism, and paralysis is more

or less general, due, not only to the compressed atmosphere, but to the

abrupt changes of temperature. The work is very debilitating, with

particular effect on the nerves, and partial deafness is common. It is

important that the diver be careful about overeating before descending,

as heavy foods, and meats especially, make respiration difficult;

therefore, breakfast consists of little more than bread and coffee. The

risks and dangers from sharks, devil-fish, etc., have greatly diminished

since the introduction of scaphanders; for a stout diver in his

waterproof dress, with leads on the breast, shoulders, and shoes, and on

his head a massive helmet containing great gaping windows for eyes, is

enough to cause even a hungry shark to hesitate and to seek a more

digestible meal.

There are yet many nude divers in Mexico, who operate in shallow waters,

their cheap labor making them successful competitors of the armored

divers. In arranging with these, the pearling company commonly

grub-stakes a crew, pays a stipulated sum per hundredweight for the

shells, and bargains for the pearls. If the fishermen are not satisfied

with the price offered for these, they are at liberty to sell to other

buyers under certain restrictions.

Nude diving is confined to the warm months, beginning about the middle

of May and continuing until October. Owing to the cloudy or muddy

condition of the water in the gulf, the nude diver can not inspect the

bottom from the surface and select the best oysters before descending,

nor can he work satisfactorily at depths greater than seven or eight

fathoms. While the work is hard, it is more remunerative than the

average branch of labor in this region.

Each day the boats deliver their catch of oysters at the fishing-camps

or on board the receiving vessels. After they have been freed from

marine growths and refuse, the mollusks are opened and searched for

pearls. This operation is performed by trusted employees, usually

elderly men who have become physically disqualified for diving, and who,

seated together at a low table, work under the watchful eyes of

overseers. A knife is introduced between the valves of the oyster, the

adductor muscle is severed, and the valves are separated by breaking the

hinge. The animal is removed from the shell and carefully examined with

the eyes and the fingers, and then squeezed in the hands to locate any

pearl which may be concealed in the organs or tissues. The debris is

passed to other persons, who submit it to further examinations. A man

may work all day long and find only a few seed-pearls, but occasionally

there is the excitement of discovering a beautiful gem.

In some localities the flesh of the pearl-oyster is a source of profit

through its sale to Chinamen, who dry and otherwise prepare it for sale

among their countrymen in Mexico and America, as well as in the Orient.

Frequently the large adductor muscle is dried for food, making excellent

soup-stock, and, indeed, it is quite palatable when stewed.

It is difficult to approximate the output of the Mexican pearl

fisheries, other than the pearl shell, because the dealers place a

merely nominal value on the pearls in their invoices when sending them

to Europe, an invoice of $500 sometimes representing gems valued in

Paris at several thousand dollars. Furthermore, it is difficult to

obtain satisfactory information from the pearling companies, owing,

presumably, to the fear of developing greater competition. According to

the estimates at La Paz, the local value of the pearl yield now

approximates $250,000 annually, and the value of the same over the

counters in Europe and America probably exceeds one million dollars.

Some remarkably large pearls have been secured in the Mexican fisheries,

especially considering the small size of the oysters. In 1871 a pearl of

96 grains, pear-shaped and without a flaw, sold at La Paz for 3000

pesos. In March, 1907, a beautiful pinkish white one, found near the

lower end of the peninsula, sold for 28,000 pesos or $14,000. One of the

best years for choice finds was 1881, when the scaphanders were first

employed to their greatest efficiency. A black pearl was then secured

which weighed 112 grains, and which brought 40,000 francs in Paris. In

1882 two, weighing 124 and 180 grains respectively, sold for 11,000

pesos. In the following year a light brown pearl, flecked with dark

brown, and weighing 260 grains, sold for 7500 pesos. These are the

prices which the La Paz merchants received for these pearls, and not the

much greater amounts for which they were finally sold by the jewelers.

One of the finest pearls was found in 1884 near Mulege. This weighed 372

grains. The Indian fisherman is said to have sold it for $90; the

purchaser declined an offer of 1000 pesos, and also a second offer of

5000, and soon sold it to a La Paz dealer for 10,000 pesos. Its value in

Paris was estimated at 85,000 francs. Probably the most famous of all

pearls obtained from these grounds was “the 400–grain pearl” found near

Loreto, and “which is now among the royal jewels of Spain.” It is said

that this was offered by the lucky fisherman to the Mission of Loreto,

and by the Director of Missions in Lower California was presented to the

Queen of Spain.[299]

As in every other fishery, one hears in Mexico of fishermen who have

grasped a prize only to lose it through inexperience or improvidence.

The account given above of the sale of the 372–grain pearl found near

Mulege furnishes an instance of this. It is related in La Paz that in

1883 an Indian sold for ten pesos a gem weighing 128 grains, for which

the purchaser received 27,500 francs in Paris. On another occasion a

Mexican sold two pearls, easily worth $4000, for $16 worth of groceries.

In the eighteenth century, the Notre Dame de Loreto possessed a

remarkable collection of Mexican pearls, which had been presented from

time to time by the fishermen. During the régime of the Jesuits, it was

customary to devote the proceeds of the last day of the fishery to the

decoration of the altar of that mission. After the expulsion of this

religious order in 1767, the mission was pillaged and the collection

dissipated. From the old aristocracy of Mexico, family heirlooms of many

choice pearls were placed on the European market during the civil wars

in Mexico to contribute to the support of the contending armies. One

lady in Sonora is said to have disposed of her collection for 550,000

francs. A fine collection of these pearls, accumulated from 1760 to

1850, and showing them in a great variety of colors, shapes, and sizes,

was in Chihuahua until recently.

AMERICAN FRESH WATERS

And my pearls are pure as thy own fair neck,

With whose radiant light they vie.

WHITTIER, _The Vaudois Teacher_.

The most recently developed pearl fisheries are within the limits of the

United States, in the rivers and fresh-water lakes, and especially those

in the Mississippi Valley. As an important industrial enterprise, these

fisheries are less than two decades old, yet they are very productive,

yielding annually above half a million dollars’ worth of pearls, many of

which compare favorably in quality with those from oriental seas.

The prehistoric mounds in the Mississippi Valley present evidence of the

estimation in which pearls were held by a race of men who passed away

ages before America was first visited by Europeans. In some of these

mounds, erected by a long-forgotten race, pearls have been found not

only in hundreds and in thousands, but by gallons and even by bushels.

Some of these equal three quarters of an inch in diameter, and in

quantity exceed the richest individual collections of the present day.

Damaged and partly decomposed by heat and through centuries of burial,

they have lost their beauty, and are of value only to the archæologist

and to indicate the quantity of pearly treasures possessed by these

early people.

Owing to the great wealth of pearls which had been uncovered on the

Spanish Main, at Panama, and in the Gulf of California, Eldorado

explorers, in the sixteenth century, were particularly eager in

searching for them within the present limits of the United States; in

the reports of their wanderings, much space is given to these gems, and

these reports aided largely in inducing and encouraging other

expeditions. Some of these accounts read like the marvelous stories of

Sindbad the Sailor, quantities of pearls—hundreds of pounds in some

instances—being secured by the exchange of trinkets and by more

questionable means. It would be easy to bring together numerous accounts

of apparently reliable authorities to show that in the sixteenth century

pearls were obtained here in far greater quantities than were ever known

in any other part of the world; but this conclusion seems not wholly

correct.

The unfortunate wanderings of Hernando de Soto from 1539 to 1542 gave

rise to most of the reports of rich pearl finds within the limits of

this country. Of this voyage there are three principal accounts. The

first was by Luis Hernandez de Biedma, who had accompanied De Soto as

factor for Charles V of Spain. His brief report was presented to the

king in 1544, although it was not published until 1841, nearly three

centuries later, when it appeared in a French translation.[300] The

second, and in our opinion the most reliable account,[301] published at

Evora in 1577, was by an unnamed Portuguese (in English editions,

commonly spoken of as the Gentleman of Elvas), who was a member of the

expedition. The third account,[302] by far the longest and most widely

known, but which was not written until 1591, was by Garcilasso de la

Vega, who represented that his information was from a Spanish cavalier

who had accompanied De Soto.

The only reference made to pearls in Biedma’s report seems to be his

allusion to the large quantity secured at the village of Cofaciqui, on

the east bank of the Savannah River. He states: “When we arrived there,

the queen ... presented the governor with a necklace of pearls of five

or six rows, procured for us canoes to pass the river, and assigned the

half of the village for our quarters. After having been in our company

three or four days, she escaped into the forest; the governor caused

search to be made after her, but without success; he then gave orders to

break open a temple erected in this village, wherein the chiefs of the

country were interred. We took out of it a vast quantity of pearls,

which might amount to six or seven arrobas,[303] but they were spoiled

by having been underground.”[304]

The Portuguese narrative alludes to the pearls at Cofaciqui, stating

that the queen “took from her own neck a great cordon of pearls, and

cast it about the neck of the governor.... And the lady, perceiving that

the Christians esteemed the pearls, advised the governor to search

certain graves in the town, where he would find many; and that if he

would send to the abandoned towns, he might load all his horses. He

sought the graves of that town and there found fourteen rows of pearls,

and little babies and birds made of them.”[305] This account makes no

further mention of pearls, except to state that at the battle of Mavilla

this great collection was burned, and that when the Queen of Cofaciqui

escaped from the Portuguese she carried with her a little chest full of

unbored pearls, which some of the Spaniards thought were of great

value;[306] and further, that on one or two other occasions a few pearls

were received from the Indians as presents.

The account of De Soto’s wanderings, given by Garcilasso, the Peruvian

historian, contains many references to pearls, which read more like

romance than reality. With his knowledge of the jewels, temples, etc.,

in Mexico and Peru, and recognizing some similarities in the manners of

the people of those countries and the ones with whom De Soto came in

contact, Garcilasso was easily led to statements which, though possibly

true in the one case, seem fictitious in the other.

He gives the story of the Queen of Cofaciqui, with some additional

particulars. The string of pearls which she presented to the governor

made three circuits of her neck and descended to her waist. In his

account, the graves in Cofaciqui became a temple containing, among other

riches, more than a thousand measures of pearls, of which they took only

two. Near Cofaciqui was the temple of Talomeco, over a hundred steps

long by forty broad, with the walls high in proportion. Upon the roof of

the temple were shells of different sizes, placed with the inside out,

to give more brilliancy, and with the intervals “filled with many

strings of pearls of divers sizes, in the form of festoons, from one

shell to the other, and extending from the top of the roof to the

bottom.” Within the temple, festoons of pearls hung from the ceiling and

from all other parts of the building. In the middle were three rows of

chests of graded sizes, arranged in pyramids of five or six chests each,

according to their sizes. “All these chests were filled with pearls, in

such a manner that the largest contain the largest pearls, and thus, in

succession, to the smallest, which were full of seed-pearls only. The

quantity of pearls was such, that the Spaniards avowed, that even if

there had been more than nine hundred men and three hundred horses, they

all together could not have carried off at one time all the pearls of

this temple. We ought not to be too much astonished at this, if we

consider that the Indians of the province conveyed into these chests,

during many ages, all the pearls which they found, without retaining a

single one of them.”[307] In the armory attached to this temple were

long pikes, maces, clubs, and other weapons mounted with links and

tassels of pearls.

Garcilasso has an interesting story of an incident said to have occurred

a few days after leaving Cofaciqui, when the troops were passing through

the wilderness.

[Illustration:

Negro pearling camp on bank of an Arkansas river

]

[Illustration:

Group of Arkansas pearl fishermen; photographed shortly after the

woman in the center of the group had found a pearl for which she

received $800

]

Juan Terron, one of the stoutest soldiers of the army, toward noon,

drew from his saddle-bags about six pounds of pearls, and pressed a

cavalier, one of his friends, to take them. The cavalier thanked him

and told him that he ought to keep them, or rather, since the report

was current that the general would send to Havana, send them there

to buy horses and go no longer afoot. Offended at this answer,

Terron replied that “these pearls then shall not go any farther,”

and thereupon scattered them here and there upon the grass and

through the bushes. They were surprised at this folly, for the

pearls were as large as hazel-nuts, and of very fine water, and

because they were not pierced they were worth more than six thousand

ducats. They collected about thirty of these pearls, which were so

beautiful that it made them regret the loss of the others, and say,

in raillery, these words, which passed into a proverb with them,

“There are no pearls for Juan Terron.”[308]

At the capital of Iciaha, De Soto received from the cacique or chief, a

string, five feet in length, of beautiful and well-matched pearls as

large as filberts. Upon De Soto’s expressing a desire to learn how the

gems were extracted from the shells, the chief immediately ordered four

boats to fish all night and return in the morning.

In the meantime they burnt a great deal of wood upon the shore, in

order to make there a great bed of live coals, that at the return of

the boats they might put thereon the shells, which would open with

the heat. They found, at the opening of the first shells, ten or

twelve pearls of the size of a pea, which they took to the cacique,

and to the general who was present, and who found them very

beautiful, except that the fire had deprived them of a part of their

lustre. When the general had seen what he wished, he returned to

dine; and immediately after, a soldier entered, who instantly said

to him that, in eating oysters which the Indians had caught, his

teeth had encountered a very beautiful pearl of a very lively color,

and that he begged him to receive it to send to the governess of

Cuba. Soto politely refused this pearl, and assured the soldier that

he was as obliged to him as if he had accepted it; and that some day

he would try to acknowledge his kindness, and the honor which he did

his wife; and that he should preserve it to purchase horses at

Havana. The Spaniards valued it at four hundred ducats; and as they

had not made use of fire to extract it, it had not lost any of its

lustre.[309]

Notwithstanding the strong indorsement given to Garcilasso’s narrative

by Theodore Irving and some other writers, his tendency to exaggerate

depreciates greatly the historical value of his account, and it seems

wholly unreliable as an authority relative to early resources in

America. We may reasonably doubt whether De Soto’s expedition came in

contact with more pearls than those mentioned by Biedma and the

Portuguese writer.

The account of the first voyage along the coast of the United States,

that of the Italian, Juan Verrazano, in 1524, contains no reference to

pearls, although he penetrated into the interior a score or two of

miles, and was frequently in contact with the natives, who lived largely

by fishing, and who prized many ornaments of different colored stones,

copper rings, etc.

The first expedition which went far into the interior was the ill-fated

one under command of Pánfilo de Narvaez in 1528. A thrilling

account[310] of this journey was written by Cabeza de Vaca, who was one

of the four survivors, after eight years’ wandering through America to

Mexico. Cabeza had been controller and royal treasurer of the

expedition, and in that position it was his particular duty to acquaint

himself with all the pearls, gold, and similar riches found by the

party. Notwithstanding his tradings with the Indians and their efforts

to gain his friendship by means of presents, his account makes no

mention of pearls, except to refer to a statement made by some Indians

that on the coast of the South Sea there were pearls and great riches.

Hernando D’Escalante Fontaneda, who was shipwrecked on the Florida coast

about 1550, and was detained there a prisoner for seventeen years,

wrote:

“Between Abolachi [Appalachicola] and Olagale is a river which the

Indians call Guasaca-Esqui, which means Reed River. It is on the

sea-coast, and at the mouth of this river the pearls are found in

oysters and other shells; from thence they are carried into all the

provinces and villages of Florida.”[311]

The European narrators also reported great stores of pearls along the

Atlantic seaboard. Among the first of these may be mentioned David

Ingram, who is represented as traveling by land from the Gulf of Mexico

to the vicinity of Cape Breton in the years 1568 and 1569. As it

appeared in the first edition of Hakluyt’s Voyages, this relation

states:

“There is in some of those Countreys great abundance of Pearle, for

in every Cottage he founde Pearle, in some howse a quarte, in some a

pottel [half a gallon], in some a pecke, more or less, where he did

see some as great as an Acorn; and Richard Browne, one of his

Companyons, found one of these great Pearls in one of their Canoes,

or Boates, wch Pearls he gave to Mouns Campaine, whoe toke them

aboarde his shippe.”[312]

Estimation of Ingram’s wonderful relation is decreased by Purchas’s

comment:

As for David Ingram’s perambulations to the north parts, Master

Hakluyt, in his first edition printed the same; but it seemeth some

incredibilities of his reports caused him to leave him out in the

next impression; the reward of lying being, not to be believed in

truths.[313]

Even the members of Raleigh’s Roanoke Colony of 1585 reported pearls.

Hariot stated:

Sometimes in feeding on Muscles we found some Pearle: but it was our

happe to meet with ragges, or of a pide colour: not having yet

discovered those places where we heard of better and more plenty.

One of our company, a man of skill in such matters, had gathered

from among the Savage people about five thousand: of which number he

chooses so many as made a faire chaine, which for their likenesse

and uniformity in roundenesse, orientnesse, and piednesse of many

excellent colours, with equality in greatnesse, were very faire and

rare: and had therefore been presented to her Majesty, had we not by

casualty, and through extremity of a storme lost them, with many

things els in coming away from the countrey.[314]

So far as we can learn, there is no evidence to show that, during the

sixteenth or the seventeenth century, any pearls of value were received

in Europe from within the present limits of the United States, as was

the case with the resources of Venezuela, Panama and Mexico. Many of the

accounts quoted above seem wholly fictitious, some of them possibly

drawn up for the purpose of promoting exploring expeditions. It is also

probable that knowledge of the enormous collections at Venezuela and

Panama misled some of the narrators into recognizing as pearls the

spherical pieces of shell or even the cylindrical wampum which the

Indians made in large quantities and used as money.

However, it is unquestionable that pearls of value were in the

possession of some of the wealthier tribes. Biedma’s account of the 150

pounds or more of damaged pearls in the graves at Cofaciqui seems wholly

reliable, and likewise many other statements; and it is an interesting

problem to determine the source from which the Indians obtained them.

Most of the narratives refer to the pearls as coming from the coast of

the South Sea or Gulf of Mexico. The evidence of Fontaneda, who had

spent seventeen years in the country, throws some light on this. He

states that pearls were obtained at the mouth of Reed River near

Appalachicola, whence they were distributed throughout Florida. This

seems to indicate that on the west coast of Florida there might have

been extensive reefs of pearl-bearing mollusks, which have since become

extinct, although existing shell-heaps do not confirm this.

While it is possible and even probable that many of these pearls in the

possession of the Indians came from the Gulf of Mexico or even from the

Caribbean Sea, it seems much more likely that they came largely from the

Unios of the inland lakes and rivers.

The voyages of Narvaez, Ayllon, De Soto, Ribault, etc., had been so

unfortunate that for a century little exploration was made in the

territory of the southern part of the United States. When this territory

was again invaded, little was seen in the way of pearls.

Iberville, who established the French settlement near the mouth of the

Mississippi in 1699, was specially directed to look for them. His

instructions state: “Although the pearls presented to his Majesty are

not fine either in water or shape, they must nevertheless be carefully

sought, as better may be found, and his Majesty desires M. d’Iberville

to bring all he can; ascertain where the fishery is carried on, and see

it in operation.”[315] Pearls were found in the territory of the

Pascagoulas, but they were not worth the trouble of securing them. It

appears that from these the Pearl River in Mississippi derived its name.

The only reference to pearls in the seventy-one volumes of Travels and

Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, from 1610 to

1791, is a note by Father Gravier stating that he saw no choice pearls:

“It is true the chief’s wife has some small pearls; but they are neither

round nor well pierced, with the exception of seven or eight, which are

as large as small peas, and have been bought for more than they are

worth.”[316]

Daniel Coxe’s description, in 1722, of pearl resources in America, is of

special interest because of the extended experience of his father as a

trader in the country. He states:

Pearls are found to be in great abundance in this country; the

Indians put some value upon them, but not so much as on the colored

beads we bring them. On the whole coast of this province, for two

hundred leagues, there are many vast beds of oysters which breed

pearls, as has been found in divers places. But, which is very

remarkable, far from the sea, in fresh water rivers and lakes, there

is a sort of shell-fish between a mussel and a , wherein are found

abundance of pearls, and many of an unusual magnitude. The Indians,

when they take the oysters, broil them over the fire till they are

fit to eat, keeping the large pearls they find in them, which by the

heat are tarnished and lose their native lustre; but, when we have

taught them the right method, doubtless it would be a very

profitable trade. There are two places we already know within land,

in each of which there is a great pearl fishery. One about

[Illustration:

BROOCH, RENAISSANCE STYLE, SET WITH BAROQUE PEARLS, FROM AMERICAN

STREAMS

Pan-American Exposition, 1901

]

one hundred and twenty leagues up the River Meschacebe

[Mississippi], on the west side, in a lake made by the river of the

Naches, about forty miles from its mouth, where they are found in

great plenty and many very large. The other on the River Chiaha,

which runs into the Coza or Cussaw River (as our English call it),

and which comes from the northeast, and, after a course of some

hundred miles, disembogues into the Gulf of Florida, about one

hundred miles to the east of the Meschacebe.[317]

It is interesting to note that the first place mentioned by Coxe as the

location of a great pearl fishery is not far from one of the most

productive pearling regions of the last fifteen years, _viz._, the

eastern part of Arkansas. The second place noted by him appears to be

identical with the Iciaha, where, nearly two centuries before, the

Indians exhibited the methods of their fishing to De Soto and his

companions.

Excepting Coxe’s notice, for 250 years following 1600, little was heard

of the occurrence of pearls within this country. This does not indicate

necessarily that the gems were absent from the waters; but, not using

the Unios for food as did the aborigines, the residents had little

occasion to open them and in this way learn of their contents. And even

where pearls were occasionally found in mollusks opened for fish-bait,

the people were in few instances informed as to their market value, and

did not attempt to sell them, although the most attractive ones may have

been treasured as ornaments or as keepsakes. This was paralleled in the

diamond fields of South Africa, where gems worth thousands of dollars

were used as playthings by the farmers’ children. A jewel, like a

prophet, is frequently without honor in its own country until the

residents of that country learn of the great esteem in which it is held

elsewhere.

And yet, in some localities a few pearls were collected from time to

time. The Moravians—familiar with the pearls of their native streams in

Europe—gathered many from the Lehigh River near Bethlehem, Pennsylvania,

over a century ago;[318] and from Rhode Island and elsewhere a few were

obtained.

The first awakening to a realization of the value of fresh-water pearls

in America occurred fifty years ago, when several beautiful gems were

marketed from the northern part of New Jersey. The story of this find

has been frequently told. A shoemaker named David Howell, who lived on

the outskirts of Paterson, occasionally relieved the monotony of his

trade by a fishing excursion to some neighboring stream, where he would

usually collect a “mess” of mussels. Returning from one of these visits

to Notch Brook in the spring of 1857, the mussels were fried with the

usual abundance of grease and heat. After this preparation, one of them

was found to contain a large, round pearl weighing “nearly 400 grains,”

which possibly might have proven the finest of modern times, had not its

luster and beauty been destroyed by the heat and grease.[319] Had the

pearl been discovered in time, its value might have exceeded $25,000,

thus making poor Howell’s fried mussels one of the most expensive of

suppers.

Hoping to duplicate his wonderful find, Howell collected and searched

other mussels, and his example was followed by several of his neighbors.

Within a few days a magnificent pink pearl was found by a Paterson

carpenter named Jacob Quackenbush. This weighed ninety-three grains, and

was bought by the late Charles L. Tiffany for Messrs. Tiffany & Co., New

York City, for $1500. Mr. Tiffany later described with much interest the

feelings he experienced after making the purchase. Said he: “Here this

man finds a pearl within seventeen miles of our place of business! What

if thousands should be found, and many perhaps finer than this one!

However, we risked buying the pearl, and as no one in New York seemed

interested in it, we sent it to our Paris house for sale, and a French

gem dealer offered for it a very large advance on the original price,

paying 12,500 francs.” From this dealer it passed into the possession of

the young and beautiful Empress Eugénie, from whom and from its great

luster it derived the name “Queen Pearl.” Its present market value would

doubtless amount to $10,000 or more.

When news of the very large price received for Quackenbush’s find became

public, great excitement developed in the vicinity of Notch Brook.

Persons came from all directions to search in the shallow streams for

valuable pearls. Farmers of the neighborhood tried their luck, and also

mechanics and other residents of the adjacent villages and towns, and

even some from Newark, Jersey City, and New York. An old resident, who

was an eye-witness, describes the scene as one of great animation, the

crowds of people and the horses and wagons along the shore giving “an

appearance of camp-meeting time.” At least one schoolmaster in the

vicinity is said to have closed his school to give his pupils an

opportunity to engage in the hunt.

With trousers rolled up, the people waded into the shallow water and

sought for the mussels in the mud and sand on the bottom. Many pearls

were secured, but none approached in size or value the two above

noted.[320] During 1857, the New York City market received about $15,000

worth of pearls from these waters, and in addition many were sold

locally or retained as souvenirs of the hunt. At the low price of pearls

existing then, this figure would mean possibly ten times as much at

present, or $150,000.

The active search soon depleted the resources of the little stream, so

that in the following year the reported value of the yield was only a

few thousand dollars. The decrease continued until in a few years

practically every mussel was removed, and at present scarcely a single

Unio is to be found in these waters.

The interest in pearling extended far from the place of the original

find; and in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and even as far away as Texas, search

was made in the streams. In the Colorado and its tributaries, about

20,000 were found in a short while. Most of these were small and

unattractive, but a considerable number were reported “as large as

pepper-corns” and a few “the size of a small rifle ball,” the number

decreasing with the increase in size. A correspondent in the “Neue Zeit”

wrote:

Sometimes they are round, sometimes cylindrical, elliptical,

hemispherical, or of an altogether irregular shape. The finest have

a milk-white, silvery sheen; many, however, are reddish yellow,

bluish brown, or quite black; the last naturally have no value

whatever. As to their value, there is considerable uncertainty, and

it can easily be understood that those who have a great number of

them in their possession greatly overestimate them. So far they are

found principally in the Llano and the San Saba.[321]

After the resources in northern New Jersey were depleted and the

excitement had died out, little was heard of pearling in this country

until 1878, when many were found in Little Miami River in southwestern

Ohio. The fishing was carried on at low water, and principally by boys,

who would wade out in the water and feel for the mollusks with their

feet, and then bob under and pick them up with their hands. The senior

author spent a day in this fishery with a party of six boys with some

success. During 1878 about $25,000 worth of pearls were collected in the

vicinity of Waynesville on that stream. Mr. Israel H. Harris, a banker

of Waynesville, then began collecting these pearls; and by purchasing

during several years nearly every interesting specimen found in the

vicinity, he made his collection one of the largest and best known in

the country. When sold in 1888, it contained several thousand pearls,

mostly of small size, averaging in weight little more than one grain

each. A large portion of this collection was exhibited in the American

section of the Paris Exposition of 1889, and was awarded a gold medal.

Included in this exhibit was a series of ornaments in which the gems

were arranged according to color, so that in one the pearls were green,

in another purplish brown, in another pink, in another waxy white, and

in one a cream-white. It also contained a button-shaped pearl weighing

thirty-eight grains and several pink ones almost translucent. A pink

pearl of eight grains was admired by all who saw it; by reflected light

this had the color and translucency of a drop of molten silver. Many of

the pink pearls found in the Little Miami and its tributaries were of

the most beautiful rose-petal pink; pearls of this peculiar color have

never been found in any other waters.