CAMPCRAFT
(In treating of camping there has been an intentional omission of the
long-term camp. This is treated extensively in the books of reference
given at the close of this chapter.)
Hiking and Over-night Camp
_By H. W. Gibson, Boys' Work Secretary,
Young Men's Christian Association
Massachusetts and Rhode Island_
Several things should be remembered when going on a hike: First, avoid
long distances. A foot-weary, muscle-tired and temper-tried, hungry
group of boys is surely not desirable. There are a lot of false
notions about courage and bravery and grit that read well in print,
but fail miserably in practice, and long hikes for boys is one of the
most glaring of these notions. Second, have a leader who will set a
good easy pace, say two or three miles an hour, prevent the boys from
excessive water drinking, and assign the duties of pitching camp, etc.
Third, observe these two rules given by an old woodsman: (1) Never
walk over anything you can walk around; (2) never step on anything
that you can step over. Every time you step on anything you lift the
weight of your body. Why lift extra weight when tramping? Fourth,
carry with you only the things absolutely needed, rolled in blankets,
poncho army style.
Before starting on a hike, study carefully the road maps, and take
them with you on the walk for frequent reference. The best maps are
those of the United States Geological Survey, costing five cents each.
The map is published in atlas sheets, each sheet representing a small,
quadrangular district. Send to the superintendent of documents at
Washington, D. C., for a list.
For tramping the boy needs the right kind of a shoe, or the trip will
be a miserable failure. A light-soled or a light-built shoe is not
suited for mountain work or even for an ordinary hike. The feet will
blister and become "road weary." The shoe must be neither too big, too
small, nor too heavy, and be amply broad to give the toes plenty of
room. The shoe should be water-tight. A medium weight, high-topped
lace shoe is about right. Bathing the feet at the springs and streams
along the road will be refreshing, if not indulged in too frequently.
{146} See Chapter on "Health and Endurance" for care of the feet and
proper way of walking.
It is well to carry a spare shirt hanging down the back with the
sleeves tied around the neck. Change when the shirt you are wearing
becomes too wet with perspiration.
The most practical and inexpensive pack is the one made for the Boy
Scouts of America. (Price 60 cents.) It is about 14 x 20 inches
square, and 6 inches thick, made of water-proof canvas with
shoulder-straps, and will easily hold everything needed for a tramping
trip.
A few simple remedies for bruises, cuts, etc., should be taken along
by the leader. You may not need them and some may poke fun at them,
but, as the old lady said, "You can't always sometimes tell." The
amount and kind of provisions must be determined by the locality and
habitation.
The Lean-to
[Illustration: Fig. 1. Frame of lean-to]
Reach the place where you are going to spend the night in plenty of
time to build your lean-to, and make your bed for {147} the night.
Select your camping spot with reference to water, wood, drainage, and
material for your lean-to. Choose a dry, level place, the ground just
sloping enough to insure the water running away from your lean-to in
case of rain. In building your lean-to look for a couple of good trees
standing from eight to ten feet apart with branches from six to eight
feet above the ground. By studying the illustration (No. 1) you will
be able to build a very serviceable shack, affording protection from
the dews and rain. While two or more boys are building the shack,
another should be gathering firewood and preparing the meal, while
another should be cutting and bringing in as many soft, thick tips of
trees as possible, for the roof of the shack and the beds.
How to thatch the lean-to is shown in illustration No. 2. If the camp
site is to be used for several days, two lean-tos may be built facing
each other, about six feet apart. This will make a very comfortable
camp, as a small fire can be built between the two thus giving warmth
and light.
[Illustration: Fig. 2. Method of thatching]
The Bed
On the floor of your lean-to lay a thick layer of the fans or branches
of a balsam or hemlock, with the convex side up, and the butts of the
stems toward the foot of the bed. Now thatch this over with more fans
by thrusting the butt ends through the first layer at a slight angle
toward the head of the bed, so that the soft tips will curve toward
the foot of the bed, and be sure to make the head of your bed away
from the opening of the lean-to and the foot toward the opening. Over
this bed spread your rubber blankets or ponchos with rubber side down,
your sleeping blanket on top, and you will be surprised how soft,
springy, and fragrant a bed you have, upon which to rest your "weary
frame" and sing with the poet:
"Then the pine boughs croon me a lullaby,
And trickle the white moonbeams
To my face on the balsam where I lie
While the owl hoots at my dreams."
--_J. George Frederick_.
{148}
Hot-Stone Wrinkle
If the night bids fair to be cold, place a number of stones about six
or eight inches in diameter near the fire, so that they will get hot.
These can then be placed at the feet, back, etc., as needed, and will
be found good "bed warmers." When a stone loses its heat, it is
replaced near the fire and a hot one taken. If too hot, wrap the stone
in a shirt or sweater or wait for it to cool off.
Boys desire adventure. This desire may be gratified by the
establishment of night watchers in relays of two boys each, every two
hours. Their imaginations will be stirred by the resistless attraction
of the camp-fire and the sound of the creatures that creep at night.
Observation Practice
Many boys have excellent eyes, but see not, and good ears but hear
not, all because they have not been trained to observe or to hear
quickly. A good method of teaching observation while on a hike or
tramp is to have each boy jot down in a small note-book or diary of
the trip, the different kinds of trees, birds, animals, tracks, nature
of roads, fences, peculiar rock formation, smells of plants, etc., and
thus be able to tell what he saw or heard to the boys upon his return
to the permanent camp or to his home.
Camera Snap Shots
One of the party should take a small folding camera. Photographs of
the trip are always of great pleasure and memory revivers. A practical
and convenient method of carrying small folding cameras represents an
ordinary belt to which a strap with a buckle has been attached, which
is run through the loops at the back of the camera case. The camera
may be pushed around the belt to the point where it will be least in
the way.
Camp Lamp
A very convenient lamp to use on a hike is the Baldwin Camp Lamp made
by John Simmons Co., 13 Franklin Street, New York City. It weighs only
five ounces when full; is charged with carbide and is but 4-3/4 inches
high. It projects a strong light 150 feet through the woods. A stiff
wind will not blow it out. It can be worn comfortably in your hat or
belt.
Handy Articles
A boy of ingenuity can make a number of convenient things. A good
drinking cup may be made from a piece of bark cut {149} in
parallelogram shape twisted into pyramid form and fastened with a
split stick. A flat piece of bark may serve as a plate. A pot lifter
may be made from a green stick about 18 inches long, allowing a few
inches of a stout branch to remain. By reversing the same kind of
stick and driving a small nail near the other end or cutting a notch
in it, it may be used to suspend a kettle over a fire. A novel
candlestick is made by opening the blade of a knife and jabbing it
into a tree; upon the other upturned blade put a candle. A green stick
having a split which will hold a piece of bread or meat makes an
excellent broiler. Don't pierce the bread or meat. Driving a
good-sized stake into the ground at an angle of 45 degrees and cutting
a notch on which may be suspended a kettle over a fire will provide a
way of boiling water quickly.
Building the Fireplace
Take two or three stones and build a fireplace, a stick first shaved
and then whittled for shavings, a lighted match, a little blaze, some
bark and dry twigs added, a few small sticks, place the griddle over
the fire and you are ready to cook the most appetizing griddle-cakes.
After the cakes are cooked, fry slices of bacon upon the griddle; in
the surplus fat fry slices of bread, then some thinly sliced raw
potatoes done to a delicious brown. Here is a breakfast capable of
making the mouth of a camper water.
Another way: Place the green logs side by side, closer together at one
end than the other. Build the fire between. On the logs over the fire
you can rest a frying-pan, kettle, etc. To start the fire have some
light, dry wood split up fine. When sticks begin to blaze, add a few
more of larger size and continue until you have a good fire. To
prevent the re-kindling of the fire after it is apparently out, pour
water over it and soak the earth for the space of two or three feet
around it. This is very important, for many forest fires have started
through failure to observe this caution.
COOKING RECEIPTS
Cooking for Hikes and Over-night Camps
The following tested receipts are given for those who go on hikes and
over-night camps:
Griddle-cakes
Beat one egg, tablespoonful of sugar, one cup diluted condensed milk
or new milk. Mix enough self-raising flour to {150} make a thick cream
batter. Grease the griddle with rind or slices of bacon for each batch
of cakes. Be sure to have the griddle hot.
Bacon
Slice bacon quite thin; remove the rind, which makes slices curl up.
Fry on griddle or put on a sharp end of a stick and hold over the hot
coals, or better yet remove the griddle, and put on a clean, flat rock
in its place. When hot lay the slices of bacon on the rock and broil.
Keep turning so as to brown on both sides.
Canned Salmon on Toast
Dip slices of stale bread into smoking hot lard. They will brown at
once. Drain them. Heat a pint of salmon, picked into flakes, season
with salt and pepper and turn in a tablespoonful of melted butter.
Heat in a pan. Stir in one egg, beaten light, with three
tablespoonfuls evaporated milk not thinned. Pour the mixture on the
fried bread.
Roast Potatoes
Wash and dry potatoes thoroughly, bury them deep in a good bed of
coals, cover them with hot coals until well done. It will take about
forty minutes for them to bake. Then pass a sharpened hard-wood sliver
through them from end to end, and let the steam escape and use
immediately as a roast potato soon becomes soggy and bitter.
Baked Fresh Fish
Clean well. Small fish should be fried whole with the back bone
severed to prevent curling up; large fish should be cut into pieces,
and ribs loosened from back bone so as to lie flat in pan. Rub the
pieces in corn meal or powdered crumbs, thinly and evenly (that browns
them), fry in plenty of hot fat to a golden brown, sprinkling lightly
with salt just as the color turns. If fish has not been wiped dry it
will absorb too much grease. If the frying fat is not very hot when
fish are put in, they will be soggy with it.
Frogs' Legs
First, after skinning, soak them an hour in cold water to which
vinegar has been added, or put them for two minutes into scalding
water that has vinegar in it. Drain, wipe dry, and cook. {151} To fry:
roll in flour, season with salt and pepper, and fry not too rapidly,
preferably in butter or oil. Water-cress is a good relish with them.
To griddle: Prepare three tablespoonsful melted butter, one half
tablespoonful salt, and a pinch or two of pepper, into which dip the
frogs' legs, then roll in fresh bread crumbs and broil for three
minutes on each side.
Eggs
Boiled: Have water to boiling point. Place eggs in carefully. Boil
steadily for three minutes if you wish them soft. If wanted hard
boiled, put them in cold water, bring to a boil, and keep it up for
twenty minutes. The yolk will then be mealy and wholesome.
Fried: Melt some butter or fat in frying-pan; when it hisses drop in
eggs carefully. Fry them three minutes.
Scrambled: First stir the eggs up and after putting some butter in the
frying-pan, stir the eggs in it after adding a little condensed milk.
Poached: First put in the frying-pan sufficient diluted condensed milk
which has been thinned with enough water to float the eggs in, and let
them simmer three or four minutes. Serve the eggs on slices of
buttered toast, pouring on enough of the milk to moisten the toast.
Coffee
For every cup of water allow a tablespoonful of ground coffee, then
add one extra. Have water come to boiling point first, add coffee,
hold it just below boiling point for five minutes, and settle with one
fourth of a cup of cold water. Serve. Some prefer to put the coffee in
a small muslin bag loosely tied.
Cocoa
Allow a teaspoonful of cocoa for every cup of boiling water. Mix the
powdered cocoa with water or boiled milk, with sugar to taste. Boil
two or three minutes.
These receipts have been tried out. Biscuit and bread making have been
purposely omitted. Take bread and crackers with you from camp.
"Amateur" biscuits are not conducive to good digestion or happiness.
Pack butter in small jar: cocoa, sugar, and coffee in small cans or
heavy paper; also salt and pepper. Wrap bread in a moist cloth to
prevent drying up; {152} bacon and dried or chipped beef in wax paper.
Pickles can be purchased put up in small bottles. Use the empty bottle
as candle-stick.
Sample Menu for an Over-night Camp and a Day Hike or Tramp
Breakfast
Griddle-Cakes, Fried Bacon and Potatoes, Bread, Coffee, Preserves
Dinner
Creamed Salmon on Toast, Baked Potatoes, Bread, Pickles, Fruit
Supper
Fried Eggs, Creamed or Chipped Beef, Cheese, Bread, Cocoa
Ration List for Six Boys, Three Meals
2 pounds bacon (sliced thin)
1 pound butter
1 dozen eggs
1/2 pound cocoa
1/2 pound coffee
1 pound sugar
3 cans salmon
24 potatoes
2 cans condensed milk
1 small package of self-raising flour
Salt and pepper
_Utensils_
Small griddle
Small stew pan
Small coffee-pot
Large spoon
Plate and cup
Matches and candle.
Dish Washing
First fill the frying-pan with water, place over the fire, and let it
boil. Pour out water and you will find the pan has practically cleaned
itself. Clean the griddle with sand and water. Greasy knives and forks
may be cleaned by jabbing {153} them into the ground. After all grease
is gotten rid of, wash in hot water and dry with cloth. Don't use the
cloth first and get it greasy.
Leadership
The most important thing about a camping party is that it should
always have the best of leadership. No group of boys should go camping
by themselves. The first thing a patrol of scouts should do when it
has determined to camp is to insist upon the scout master accompanying
the members of the patrol. The reason for this is that there is less
likely to be accidents of the kind that will break up your camp and
drive you home to the town or city. When the scout master is one of
the party, all of the boys can go in swimming when the proper time
comes for such exercise, and the scout master can stay upon the bank
or sit in the boat for the purpose of preventing accidents by
drowning. There are also a hundred and one things which will occur in
camp when the need of a man's help will show itself. A scout ought to
insist on his scout master going to camp. The scout master and patrol
leader should be present, in order to settle the many questions which
must of necessity arise, so that there may be no need of differences
or quarrels over disputed points, which would be sure to spoil the
outing.
Scout Camp Program
In a scout camp there will be a regular daily program, something
similar to the following:
6:30 A.M. Turn out, bathe, etc.
7:00 A.M. Breakfast
8:00 A.M. Air bedding in sun, if possible, and clean camp ground
9:00 A.M. Scouting games and practice
11:00 A.M. Swimming
12:00 P.M. Dinner
1:00 P.M. Talk by leader
2:00 P.M. Water games, etc.
6:00 P.M. Supper
7:30 P.M. Evening council around camp fire.
_Order of Business_
1. Opening Council
2. Roll-call
3. Record of last council
4. Reports of scouts
5. Left over business
6. Complaints
7. Honors
8. New scouts
9. New business
10. Challenges
11. Social doings, songs, dances, stories
12. Closing Council (devotional services when desired) 8:45 lights out
{154}
Water Supply
Dr. Charles E. A. Winslow, the noted biologist, is authority for the
following statement: "The source of danger in water is always human or
animal pollution. Occasionally we find water which is bad to drink on
account of passage through the ground or on account of passage through
lead pipes, but the danger is never from ordinary decomposing
vegetable matter. If you have to choose between a bright clear stream
which may be polluted at some point above and a pond full of dead
leaves and peaty matter, but which you can inspect all around and find
free from contamination, choose the pond. Even in the woods it is not
easy to find surface waters that are surely protected and streams
particularly are dangerous sources of water supply. We have not got
rid of the idea that running water purifies itself. It is standing
water which purifies itself, if anything does, for in stagnation there
is much more chance for the disease germs to die out. Better than
either a pond or stream, unless you can carry out a rather careful
exploration of their surroundings, is ground water from a well or
spring; though that again is not necessarily safe. If the well is in
good, sandy soil, with no cracks or fissures, even water that has been
polluted may be well purified and safe to drink. In a clayey or rocky
region, on the other hand, contaminating material may travel for a
considerable distance under the ground. Even if the well is protected
below, a very important point to look after is the pollution from the
surface. I believe more cases of typhoid fever from wells are due to
surface pollution than to the character of the water itself. There is
danger which can, of course, be done away with by protection of the
well from surface drainage, by seeing that the surface wash is not
allowed to drain toward it, and that it is protected by a tight
covering from the entrance of its own waste water. If good water
cannot be secured in any of these ways, it must in some way be
purified. ... Boiling will surely destroy all disease germs."
The Indians had a way of purifying water from a pond or swamp by
digging a hole about one foot across and down about six inches below
the water level, a few feet from the pond. After it was filled with
water, they bailed it out quickly, repeating the bailing process about
three times. After the third bailing the hole would fill with filtered
water. Try it.
Sanitation
A most important matter when in camp, and away from modern
conveniences is that of sanitation. This includes not {155} only care
as to personal cleanliness, but also as to the water supply and the
proper disposal of all refuse through burial or burning. Carelessness
in these matters has been the cause of serious illness to entire camps
and brought about many deaths. In many instances the loss of life in
the armies has been greater through disease in the camp than on the
battlefields.
Typhoid fever is one of the greatest dangers in camping and is caused
by unclean habits, polluted water, and contaminated milk, and food.
The armies of the world have given this disease the most careful study
with the result that flies have been found to be its greatest
spreaders. Not only should all sources of water supply be carefully
examined, an analysis obtained if possible before use, but great care
should also be taken when in the vicinity of such a supply, not to
pollute it in any way. In districts where typhoid is at all prevalent
it is advisable for each scout to be immunized before going to camp.
A scout's honor will not permit him to disobey in the slightest
particular the sanitary rules of his camp. He will do his part well.
He will do everything in his power to make his camp clean, sanitary,
and healthful from every standpoint.
General Hints
Two flannel shirts are better than two overcoats.
Don't wring out flannels or woolens.
Wash in cold water, very soapy, hang them up dripping wet, and they
will not shrink.
If you keep your head from getting hot and your feet dry there will be
little danger of sickness.
If your head gets too hot put green leaves inside of your hat.
If your throat is parched, and you cannot get water, put a pebble in
your mouth. This will start the saliva and quench the thirst.
Water Hints
If you work your hands like paddles and kick your feet, you can stay
above water for some time even with your clothes on. It requires a
little courage and enough strength not to lose your head.
[Illustration: Ready for the hike.]
{156}
Many boy swimmers make the mistake of going into the water too soon
after eating. The stomach and digestive organs are busy preparing the
food for the blood and body. Suddenly they are called upon to care for
the work of the swimmer. The change is too quick for the organs, the
process of digestion stops, congestion is apt to follow, and then
paralyzing cramps.
Indian Bathing Precaution
The Indians have a method of protecting themselves from cramps. Coming
to a bathing pool, an Indian swimmer, after stripping off, and before
entering the water, vigorously rubs the pit of the stomach with the
dry palm of his hands. This rubbing probably takes a minute, then he
dashes cold water all over his stomach and continues the rubbing for
another minute, and after that he is ready for his plunge. If the
water in which you are going to swim is cold, try this method before
plunging into the water.
Good Bathing Rule
The rule in most camps regarding entering the water is as follows: "No
one of the party shall enter the water for swimming or bathing except
at the time and place designated, and in the presence of a leader."
Laxity in the observance of this rule will result disastrously.
Clouds
Every cloud is a weather sign: Low clouds, swiftly moving, indicate
coolness and rain; hard-edged clouds, wind; rolled or jagged clouds,
strong wind; "mackerel" sky, twelve hours day.
Look out for rain when
A slack rope tightens.
Smoke beats downward.
Sun is red in the morning.
There is a pale yellow or greenish sunset.
Rains
Rain with east wind is lengthy.
A sudden shower is soon over.
A slow rain lasts long.
Rain before seven, clear before eleven.
A circle round the moon means "storm."
"The evening red, the morning gray
Sets the traveler on his way;
The evening gray, the morning red
Brings down showers upon his head."
{157}
"When the grass is dry at night
Look for rain before the light."
"When the grass is dry at morning light
Look for rain before the night."
Clear
"When the dew is on the grass
Rain will never come to pass."
A heavy morning fog generally indicates a clear day.
East wind brings rain.
West wind brings clear, bright, and cool weather.
North wind brings cold.
South wind brings heat.
Direction of the Wind
The way to find which way the wind is blowing is to throw up little
bits of dry grass, or to hold up a handful of light dust and let it
fall, or to suck your thumb, wet it all around and let the wind blow
over it, and the cold side of it will then tell you which way the wind
is blowing.
Weather Flags
The United States Weather Bureau publishes a "Classification of
Clouds" in colors, which may be had for the asking. If you are near
one of the weather signal stations, daily bulletins will be sent to
camp upon request; also the weather map.
A set of flag signals run up each day will create interest. The flags
are easily made or may be purchased.
Keep a daily record of temperature. A boy in charge of the "weather
bureau" will find it to be full of interest as well as offering an
opportunity to render the camp a real service. He will make a weather
vane, post a daily bulletin, keep a record of temperature, measure
velocity of wind, and rainfall.
How to Get Your Bearings
If you have lost your bearings, and it is a cloudy day, put the point
of your knife blade on your thumb nail, and turn the blade around
until the full shadow of the blade is on the nail. This will tell you
where the sun is, and decide in which direction the camp is.
Face the sun in the morning, spread out your arms straight {158} from
body. Before you is the east; behind you is the west; to your right is
the south; the left hand is the north. Grass turns with the sun.
Remember this when finding your way at night.
Building a Camp Fire
There are ways and ways of building a camp fire. An old Indian saying
runs, "White man heap fool, make um big fire--can't git near! Injun
make um little fire--git close! Ugh! good!"
Make it a service privilege for a tent of boys to gather wood and
build the fire. This should be done during the afternoon. Two things
are essential in the building of a fire--kindling and air. A fire
must be built systematically. First, get dry, small, dead branches,
twigs, fir branches, and other inflammable material. Place these on
the ground. Be sure that air can draw under it and upward through it.
Next place some heavier sticks and so on until you have built the camp
fire the required size. An interesting account of "How to Build a Fire
by Rubbing Sticks," by Ernest Thompson Seton, will be found in Chapter
11. In many camps it is considered an honor to light the fire.
Never build a large camp fire too near the tent or inflammable pine
trees. Better build it in the open.
Be sure and use every precaution to prevent the spreading of fire.
This may be done by building a circle of stones around the fire, or by
digging up the earth, or by wetting a space around the fire. Always
have the buckets of water near at hand. To prevent the re-kindling of
the fire after it is apparently out, pour water over it and soak the
earth for a space of two or three feet around it. This is very
important, for many forest fires have started through failure to
observe this caution.
Things to remember: First, it is criminal to leave a burning fire;
second, always put out the fire with water or earth.
"A fire is never out," says Chief Forester H. S. Graves, "until the
last spark is extinguished. Often a log or snag will smolder unnoticed
after the flames have apparently been conquered only to break out
afresh with a rising wind."
Be sure to get a copy of the laws of your state regarding forest
fires, and if a permit is necessary to build a fire, secure it, before
building the fire.
Kephart, in his book on "Camping and Woodcraft" (p. 28), says: "When
there is nothing dry to strike it on, jerk the head {160} of the match
forward through the teeth. Or, face the wind. Cup your hands back
toward the wind, remove the right hand just long enough to strike the
match on something very close by, then instantly resume former
position. Flame of match will run up stick instead of blowing away
from it."
----------------------------------------------------------------
{159}
FOREST FIRES!
The great annual destruction of forests by fire is an injury to all
persons and industries. The welfare of every community is dependent
upon a cheap and plentiful supply of timber, and a forest cover is the
most effective means of preventing floods and maintaining a regular
flow of streams used for irrigation and other useful purposes.
To prevent forest fires Congress passed the law approved May 5, 1900,
which--
Forbids setting fire to the woods, and
Forbids leaving any fires unextinguished.
This law, for offenses against which officers of the FOREST SERVICE
can arrest without warrant, provides as maximum punishment--
A fine of $5000, or imprisonment for two years, or both, if a fire
is set maliciously, and
A fine of $1000, or imprisonment for one years, or both, if a fire
is set carelessly,
It also provides that the money from such fines shall be paid to the
school fund of the county in which the offense is committed.
THE EXERCISE OF CARE WITH SMALL FIRES IS THE BEST PREVENTIVE OF LARGE
ONES. Therefore all persons are requested--
1. Not to drop matches or burning tobacco where there is inflammable
material.
2. Not to build larger camp fires than are necessary.
3. Not to build fires in leaves, rotten wood, or other places where
they are likely to spread.
4. In windy weather and in dangerous places, to dig holes or clear the
ground to confine camp fires.
5. To extinguish all fires completely before leaving them, even for a
short absence.
6. Not to build fires against large or hollow logs, where it is
difficult to extinguish them.
7. Not to build fires to clear land without informing the nearest
officer of the FOREST SERVICE, so that he may assist in controlling
them.
This notice is posted for your benefit and the good of every resident
of the region. You are requested to cooperate in preventing the
removal or defacement, which acts are punishable by law.
JAMES WILSON,
Secretary of Agriculture
----------------------------------------------------------------
_The above is a copy of one of a series of notices posted in forests
by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, directing attention to U.
S. laws on this important subject_.
{160 continued}
[Illustration: Around the camp fire.]
The Camp Fire
"I cannot conceive of a camp that does not have a big fire. Our city
houses do not have it, not even a fireplace. The fireplace is one of
the greatest schools the imagination has ever had or can ever have. It
is moral, and it always has a tremendous stimulus to the imagination,
and that is why stories and fire go together. You cannot tell a good
story unless you tell it before a fire. You cannot have a complete
fire unless you have a good story-teller along!
"There is an impalpable, invisible, softly stepping delight in the
camp fire which escapes analysis. Enumerate all its charms and still
there is something missing in your catalogue.
"Anyone who has witnessed a real camp fire and participated in its fun
as well as seriousness will never forget it. The huge fire shooting up
its tongue of flame into the darkness of the night, the perfect shower
of golden rain, the company of happy {161} boys, and the great dark
background of piny woods, the weird light over all, the singing, the
yells, the stories, the fun, and then the serious word at the close,
is a happy experience long to be remembered."
Camp-fire Stunts
The camp fire is a golden opportunity for the telling of stories--good
stories told well. Indian legends, war stories, ghost stories,
detective stories, stories of heroism, the history of life, a talk
about the stars. Don't draw out the telling of a story. Make the story
life-like.
College songs always appeal to boys. Let some leader start up a song
in a natural way, and soon you will have a chorus of unexpected melody
and harmony. As the fire dies down, let the songs be of a more quiet
type like "My Old Kentucky Home," and ballads of similar nature.
When the embers are glowing is the time for toasting marshmallows. Get
a long stick sharpened to a point, fasten a marshmallow on the end,
hold it over the embers, not in the blaze, until the marsh-mallow
expands. Oh, the deliciousness of it! Ever tasted one? Before roasting
corn on the cob, tie the end of the husk firmly with string or cord;
soak in water for about an hour; then put into the hot embers. The
water prevents the corn from burning and the firmly tied husks enable
the corn to be steamed and the real corn flavor is thus retained. In
about twenty minutes the corn may be taken from the fire and eaten.
Have a bowl of melted butter and salt at hand. Also a pastry brush to
spread the melted butter upon the corn. Try it.
Story Telling
For an example of a good story to be told around the camp fire this
excellent tale by Prof. F. M. Burr is printed by permission:
How Men Found the Great Spirit
In the olden time, when the woods covered all the earth except the
deserts and the river bottoms, and men lived on the fruits and berries
they found and the wild animals which they could shoot or snare, when
they dressed in skins and lived in caves, there was little time for
thought. But as men grew stronger and more cunning and learned how to
live together, they had more time to think and more mind to think
with.
Men had learned many things. They had learned that cold weather
followed hot; and spring, winter; and that the sun got up in the
morning and went to bed at night. They said that the great water was
kindly when the sun shone, but when the sun hid its face and the wind
blew upon it, it grew black and angry and upset their canoes. They
found that knocking flints together or rubbing dry sticks would light
the dry moss and that the {162} flames which would bring back summer in the
midst of winter and day in the midst of night were hungry and must be
fed, and when they escaped devoured the woods and only the water could
stop them.
These and many other things men learned, but no one knew why it all
was or how it came to be. Man began to wonder, and that was the
beginning of the path which led to the Great Spirit.
In the ages when men began to wonder there was born a boy whose name
was Wo, which meant in the language of his time, "Whence." As he lay
in his mother's arms she loved him and wondered: "His body is of my
body, but from whence comes the life--the spirit which is like mine
and yet not like it?" And his father seeing the wonder in the mother's
eyes, said, "Whence came he from?" And there was no one to answer, and
so they called him Wo to remind them that they knew not from whence he
came.
As Wo grew up, he was stronger and swifter of foot than any of his
tribe. He became a mighty hunter. He knew the ways of all the wild
things and could read the signs of the seasons. As he grew older they
made him a chief and listened while he spoke at the council board, but
Wo was not satisfied. His name was a question and questioning filled
his mind.
"Whence did he come? Whither was he going? Why did the sun rise and
set? Why did life burst into leaf and flower with the coming of
spring? Why did the child become a man and the man grow old and die?"
The mystery grew upon him as he pondered. In the morning he stood on a
mountain top and stretching out his hands cried, "Whence?" At night he
cried to the moon "Whither?" He listened to the soughing of the trees
and the song of the brook and tried to learn their language. He peered
eagerly into the eyes of little children and tried to read the mystery
of life. He listened at the still lips of the dead, waiting for them
to tell him whither they had gone.
He went out among his fellows silent and absorbed, always looking for
the unseen and listening for the unspoken. He sat so long silent at
the council board that the elders questioned him. To their questioning
he replied like one awakening from a dream:
"Our fathers since the beginning have trailed the beasts of the woods.
There is none so cunning as the fox, but we can trail him to his lair.
Though we are weaker than the great bear and buffalo, yet by our
wisdom we overcome them. The deer is more swift of foot, but by craft
we overtake him. We cannot fly like a bird, but we snare the winged
one with a hair. We have made ourselves many cunning inventions by
which the beasts, the trees, the wind, the water and the fire become
our servants.
"Then we speak great swelling words: 'How great and wise we are! There
is none like us in the air, in the wood, or in the water!'
"But the words are false. Our pride is like that of a partridge
drumming on his log in the wood before the fox leaps upon him. Our
sight is like that of the mole burrowing under the ground. Our wisdom
is like a drop of dew upon the grass. Our ignorance is like the great
water which no eye can measure.
"Our life is like a bird coming out of the dark, fluttering for a
heart-beat in the tepee and then going forth into the dark again. No
one can tell whence it comes or whither it goes. I have asked the wise
men and they cannot answer. I have listened to the voice of the trees
and wind and water, but I do not know their tongue; I have questioned
the sun and the moon and the stars, but they are silent.
"But to-day in the silence before the darkness gives place to light, I
seemed to hear a still small voice within my breast, saying to me,
'Wo, the {163} questioner, rise up like the stag from his lair; away,
alone, to the mountain of the sun. There thou shalt find that which
thou seekest.' I go, but if I fail by the trail another will take it
up. If I find the answer I will return."
Waiting for none, Wo left the council of his tribe and went his way
toward the mountain of the sun. For six days he made his way through
the trackless woods, guided by the sun by day and the stars by night.
On the seventh day he came to the great mountain--the mountain of the
sun, on whose top, according to the tradition of his tribe, the sun
rested each night. All day long he climbed saying to himself, "I will
sleep tonight in the teepee of the sun, and he will tell me whence I
come and whither I go."
But as he climbed the sun seemed to climb higher and higher; and, as
he neared the top, a cold cloud settled like a night bird on the
mountain. Chilled and faint with hunger and fatigue, Wo struggled on.
Just at sunset he reached the top of the mountain, but it was not the
mountain of the sun, for many days' journey to the west the sun was
sinking in the Great Water.
A bitter cry broke from Wo's parched lips. His long trail was useless.
There was no answer to his questions. The sun journeyed farther and
faster than men dreamed, and of wood and waste and water there was no
end. Overcome with misery and weakness he fell upon a bed of moss with
his back toward the sunset and the unknown.
And Wo slept, although it was unlike any sleep he had ever known
before, and as he slept he dreamed. He was alone upon the mountain
waiting for the answer. A cloud covered the mountain but all was
silent. A mighty wind rent the cloud and rushed roaring through the
crags, but there was no voice in the wind. Thunder pealed, lightning
flashed, but he whom Wo sought was not there.
In the hush that followed up the storm Wo heard a voice, low and
quiet, but in it all the sounds of earth and sky seemed to mingle--the
song of the bird, the whispering of the trees, and the murmuring of
the brook.
"Wo, I am he whom thou seekest, I am the Great Spirit. I am the All
Father. Ever since I made man of the dust of the earth, and so child
of the earth and brother to all living, and breathed into his nostrils
the breath of life, thus making him my son, I have waited for a seeker
who should find me. In the fullness of time thou hast come, Wo the
questioner, to the answerer.
"Thy body is of the earth and to earth returns; thy spirit is mine; it
is given thee for a space to make according to thy will; then it
returns to me better or worse for thy making.
"Thou hast found me because thy heart was pure, and thy search for me
tireless. Go back to thy tribe and be to them the voice of the Great
Spirit. From henceforth I will speak to thee, and the seekers that
come after thee in a thousand voices and appear in a thousand shapes.
I will speak in the voices of the woods and streams and of those you
love. I will appear to you in the sun by day and the stars by night.
When thy people and mine are in need and wish for the will of the
Great Spirit, then shall my spirit brood over thine and the words that
thou shalt speak shall be my words."
And Wo awoke, facing the east and the rising sun. His body was warmed
by its rays. A great gladness filled his soul. He had sought and found
and prayer came to him like the song to the bird.
"O Great Spirit, father of my spirit, the sun is thy messenger, but
thou art brighter than the sun. Drive thou the darkness before me. Be
thou the light of my spirit." As Wo went down the mountain and took
the journey back to the home of his people, his face shone, and the
light never seemed to leave it, so that men called him "He of the
shining face."
{164}
When Wo came back to his tribe, all who saw his face knew that he had
found the answer, and they gathered again about the council fire to
hear. As Wo stood up and looked into the eager faces in the circle of
the fire, he remembered that the Great Spirit had given him no message
and for a moment he was dumb. Then the words of the Great Spirit came
to him again. "When thy people and mine shall need to know my will, my
spirit shall brood over thine and the words that thou shalt speak
shall be my words." Looking into the eager faces of longing and
questioning, his Spirit moved within him and he spoke:
"I went, I sought, I found the Great Spirit who dwells in the earth as
your spirits dwell in your bodies. It is from Him the spirit comes. We
are His children. He cares for us more than a mother for the child on
her breast, or the father for the son that is his pride. His love is
like the air we breathe: it is about us; it is within us.
"The sun is the sign of His brightness, the sky of His greatness and
mother-love and father-love, and the love of man and woman are the
signs of His love. We are but His children; we cannot enter into the
council of the Great Chief until we have been proved, but this is His
will, that we love one another as He loves us; that we bury forever
the hatchet of hate, that no man shall take what is not his own and
the strong shall help the weak."
The chiefs did not wholly understand the words of Wo, but they took a
hatchet and buried it by the fire saying, "Thus bury we hate between
man and his brother," and they took an acorn and put it in the earth
saying, "Thus plant we the love of the strong for the weak." And it
became the custom of the tribe that the great council in the spring
should bury the hatchet and plant the acorn. Every morning the tribe
gathered to greet the rising sun, and with right hand raised and left
upon their hearts prayed: "Great Spirit hear us; guide us to-day; make
our wills Thy will, our ways Thy way."
And the tribe grew stronger and greater and wiser than all the other
tribes--but that is another story.
Tent Making Made Easy
_By H. J. Holden_
(Reprinted from Recreation. Apr. 1, 1911. by permission of the Editor.)
The accompanying sketches show a few of the many different tents which
may be made from any available piece of cloth or canvas. The material
need not be cut, nor its usefulness for other purposes impaired,
except that rings or tapes are attached at various points as
indicated. For each tent the sketches show a front elevation, with a
ground plan, or a side view; also a view of the material laid flat,
with dotted lines to indicate where creases or folds will occur.
Models may be made from stiff paper and will prove as interesting to
the kindergartner in geometry as to the old campaigner in camping. In
most of the tents a ring for suspension is fastened at the centre of
one side. This may be supported by a pole or hung by means {165} of a
rope from any convenient fastening; both methods are shown in the
sketches. Guy ropes are required for a few of the different models,
but most of them are pegged down to the ground.
After making paper models, find a stack cover, a tarpaulin, a tent
fly, an awning, or buy some wide cotton cloth, say 90-inch. All the
shapes may be repeatedly made from the same piece of material, if the
rings for changes are left attached. In Nos. 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, a
portion of the canvas is not used and may be turned under to serve as
sod-cloth, or rolled up out of the way. If your material is a large
piece, more pegs and guy lines will be required than is indicated in
the sketches. The suspension ring, 1-1/2 inches or 2 inches in
diameter, should be well fastened, with sufficient reinforcement to
prevent tearing out; 1-inch rings fastened with liberal lengths of
tape are large enough for the pegs and guy lines. Also reinforce along
the lines of the strain from peg to pole.
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 1.--A square of material hung by one corner, from any convenient
support, in a manner to make a comfortable shelter; it will shed rain
and reflect heat. This square makes a good fly or a good ground cloth
for any of the tents.
[Illustration: Fig. 1. Tent from a square of canvas. A 7 x 7 sheet is
ample for a one-man shelter; 9 x 9 will house two.]
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 2.--A rectangle equal to two squares. A shelter roomy and warm,
with part of one side open toward the fire.
[Illustration: Fig. 2. Rectangle tent.]
--------------------------------------------------------------------
{166}
Fig. 3.--Here the rectangle is folded to make a "lean-to" shelter,
with the roof front suspended from a rope or from a horizontal pole by
means of cords. The two corners not in use are folded under, making a
partial ground cloth. A square open front is presented toward the camp
fire.
[Illustration: Fig. 3. Baker, or lean-to.]
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 4.--Same in plan as No.3, but has a triangular front and only one
point of suspension.
[Illustration: Fig. 4. Same plan as No.3.]
--------------------------------------------------------------------
{167}
Fig 5.--Uses all the cloth, has a triangular ground plan, a square
front opening, plenty of head room at the back and requires two or
more guy lines. This shelter resembles a "toque."
[Illustration: Fig. 5. The toque tent.]
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 6.--Square or "miner's" tent. Two corners are turned under. This
tent is enclosed on all sides, with a door in front.
[Illustration: Fig. 6. Miner's tent.]
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 7.--Conical tent or "wigwam," entirely enclosed, with door in
front. Two corners of the canvas are turned under.
[Illustration: Fig. 7. Conical tent, or wigwam/]
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 8.--Has a wall on one side and is called a "canoe tent" in some
catalogues. It requires two or more guy lines and is shown with a pole
support. The front has a triangular opening.
[Illustration: Fig. 8. So-called canoe tent. Requires three guy lines,
and can be supported by a rope instead of a pole.]
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 9.--A combination of No. 8, with No. 1 in use as an awning or
fly. This sketch shows both tent and fly suspended by means of a rope.
The "awning" may be swung around to any angle.
[Illustration: Fig. 9. Canoe tent with fly.]
{168}
Fig. 10.--Combination of Nos. 1 and 2; they may be fastened together
by a coarse seam or tied with tapes. The ground plan is an equal-sided
triangle, with a door opening on one side, as shown. There is no waste
cloth.
[Illustration: Fig. 10. Combination of Nos. 1 and 2.]
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 11.--No. 10 changed to a conical shape and suspended as a canopy.
The circular shape is secured by the use of small-size gas pipe or
limber poles bent into a large hoop. Of course guy lines may be used,
but would probably be in the way. Notice that a little more material
for making a wall would transform the canopy into a "Sibley" tent.
[Illustration: Fig. 11. Sibley awning.]
--------------------------------------------------------------------
There are other shapes and combinations, but perhaps these sketches
are enough in the line of suggestion.
The diagram Fig. 12 shows a method for laying out, on your cloth, the
location of all the rings to make the tents and shelters. No
dimensions are given and none is required. The diagram is good for any
size. Most of the fastenings are found on radial lines, which are
spaced to divide a semi-circle into eight equal {169} angles, 22-1/2
degrees each; these intersect other construction lines and locate the
necessary loops and rings. Figures are given at each ring which refer
back to the sketch numbers.
[Illustration: Fig. 12. Showing how ten different tents can be made
with but one piece of canvas.]
Suppose the material at hand is the widest unbleached cotton cloth, 90
inches wide, 5 yards long, or 7-1/2 feet by 15 feet. The accompanying
table will give the dimensions for the various shapes from Fig. 1 to
Fig. 11.
If in doubt about the location of rings on your canvas, suspend the
tent by the centre ring and fasten the loops temporarily by means of
safety pins, draw the tent into shape and shift the fastenings as
required. The guy lines should have hooks or snaps at one end for
ready attachment and removal; the other end should be provided with
the usual slides for "take up." The edge of the cloth where the large
ring for suspension is fastened should be bound with tape or have a
double hem, for it is the edge of the door in most of the tents shown.
TABLE OF DIMENSIONS, 90 IN. MATERIAL
Size Area, Height Remarks
Sq. Ft. Ft.
1 7-1/2 ft. triangle 25 6-1/4 One side open
2 6-1/2 X 15 ft. 65 6-1/4 One side open
3 6 x 7-1/2 ft. 45 4-1/2 One side open
4 7-1/2 x 8 ft. 60 5-1/2 One side open
5 7-1/2 ft. triangle 25 7-1/2 One side open
6 6-1/4 x 6-1/4 ft. 39 7 Enclosed
7 7-1/2 ft. diam. 44 6-1/2 Enclosed
8 5 x 7-1/2 ft. 37-1/2 6-1/2 2-1/2 ft. wall
9 7-1/2 x 8 ft. 60 6-1/2 No.8, with fly
10 15 ft. triangle 97 6-1/4 Enclosed
11 11-1/4 ft. circle 108 5 Canopy, no sides
{170}
Waterproofing a Tent
Dissolve half a pound of alum in two quarts of boiling water; then add
two gallons of pure cold water. In this solution place the material
and let it remain for a day. Dissolve a quarter of a pound of sugar of
lead in two quarts boiling water, then add two gallons of cold water.
Take the material from the alum solution, wring it lightly, place in
the second solution and leave for five or six hours; then wring out
again lightly and allow it to dry.
[Transcriber's note: Sugar of Lead (Lead Acetate) is toxic.]
If you want to avoid trouble with a leaky tent, the following solution
is a "sure cure;" Take a gallon or two gallons of turpentine and one
or two cakes of paraffin, drug store size. Chip the paraffin fairly
fine; dump it into the turpentine. Place the turpentine in a pail and
set same in a larger pail or a tub of hot water. The hot water will
heat the turpentine, and the turpentine will melt the paraffin. Stir
thoroughly, and renew your supply of hot water if necessary. Then pile
your tent into a tub and pour in the turpentine and paraffin mixture.
Work the tent all over thoroughly with your hands, so that every fiber
gets well saturated. You must work fast, however, as the paraffin
begins to thicken as it cools; and work out of doors, in a breeze if
possible, as the fumes of the turpentine will surely make you sick if
you try it indoors. When you have the tent thoroughly saturated, hang
it up to dry. It is not necessary to wring the tent out when you hang
it up. Just let it drip. If you use too much paraffin the tent may
look a little dirty after it dries, but it will be all right after you
have used it once or twice.
An Open Outing Tent
_By Warren H. Miller, Editor "Field and Stream."_
To make an open outing tent, get thirteen yards of 8 oz. duck canvas,
which can be bought at any department store or dry goods store for
seventeen or eighteen cents a yard. This makes your total expense
$2.21 for your tent. Layout the strip of canvas on the floor and cut
one end square; measure up 8 inches along the edge and draw a line to
the other corner. {171} From this corner layoff 7 ft. 8 in. along the
edge and on the opposite side, layoff 5 ft. 9 in. beginning at the end
of your 8-in. measurement. Now take a ruler and draw another diagonal
across the canvas at the ends of these measurements and you have the
first gore of your tent. Cut it across, turn the gore over, lay it
down on the strip so as to measure off another one exactly like it.
This is the corresponding gore for the other side of the tent. To make
the second pair of gores, layoff 5 ft. 9 in. along one side of the
remaining strip of canvas beginning at the pointed end, and 3 ft. 10
in. on the other side. Join these points with a diagonal and you have
a second gore, a duplicate of which is then cut by using it as a
pattern, reversing and laying it down on the strip of canvas. To make
the third gore, layoff 3 ft. 10 in, on one edge of your strip
beginning at the point, and 1 ft. 11 in. on the other side. Draw a
diagonal across and you have the third gore.
[Illustration: How to cut up your strip of canvas.]
[Illustration: Forester tent pattern.]
[Illustration: Forester tent with hood.]
You have now used up all but two yards of your canvas, plus a little
left-over piece of about two feet long. Out of this little left-over
piece make a triangle 1 ft. 11 in. on the side, which will form the
back triangle of your tent. Now pin your three gores together to make
the side of your tent, just as in the illustrations, and pin the two
sides together along the ridge. Then sew this tent up. Sew in the
little back triangle and hem all around the edges. Leave a hole at the
peak of the little triangle through which the ridge pole must go.
{172}
To set it up, cut three small saplings, one of which should be twelve
feet long and the other two, ten feet long. Tie these two together at
the ends making what the sailors call a "shears." Take the twelve-foot
pole and run it down the ridge inside the tent, and out through the
hole in the back. Now raise the ridge pole with one end stuck in the
ground and the front end resting on the two shear poles and tie all
three of them together. At the end of each seam along the hem you must
work in a little eyelet hole for a short piece of twine to tie to the
tent pegs. Stretch out the back triangle, pegging it down at the two
corners on the ground, and then peg out each hole along the foot until
the entire tent stretches out taut as in our illustrations. Three feet
from the peak along the front edge you must have another eyelet hole
with a little piece of twine and you tie this out to the shear pole on
each side which gives the tent the peculiar gambrel roof which it has,
and which has the advantage of giving you lots more room inside than
the straight tent would. You now have what is known as the "open"
forester tent.
[Illustration: Forester tent with hood.]
If a thunder storm comes up with a driving rain it will surely rain in
at the front unless you turn the tent around by moving the poles one
at a time. If you don't want to do this you can make a hood for the
front out of the two yards of canvas you have left. Simply draw a
diagonal from one corner to the other of this {173} two-yard piece of
duck and cut it down the diagonal, making two thin triangles which are
sewed to the front edges of the open forester tent, making a hood of
the shape shown in our picture. This prevents the rain beating in the
opening of your tent but still lets the heat of your fire strike in
and at the same time it keeps the heat in the tent as it will not flow
out along the ridge pole as it does in the open type.
This tent weighs six pounds and packs into a little package fourteen
inches long by seven inches wide by six: inches thick, and can be
carried as a shoulder strap or put in a back pack or any way you wish
to take it. It will sleep three boys, or two men and a boy, very
comfortably indeed. While it really does not need to be water-proofed,
as it immediately shrinks tight after the first rain, you can
water-proof it if you wish by making a solution of ten ounces of quick
lime with four ounces of alum in ten quarts of water. Stir
occasionally until the lime has slackened. Put the tent in another
pail and pour the solution over it, letting it stand twelve hours.
Take out and hang it on the clothes-line to dry. It will then be
entirely waterproof.
To make a good night fire in front of the tent, drive two stout stakes
three feet long in the ground about three feet from the mouth of the
tent; pile four logs one on top of the other against these stakes or
take a large flat stone and rest it against it. Make two log andirons
for each side of the fire and build your fire in the space between
them. It will give you a fine cheerful fire and all the heat will be
reflected by the back logs into the tent, making it warm and cheerful.
Inside you can put your browse bags stuffed with balsam browse; or
pile up a mountain of dry leaves over which you can stretch your
blankets. Pile all the duffle way back in the peak against the little
back triangle where it will surely keep dry and will form a sort of
back for your pillows. You will find the forester tent lighter and
warmer than the ordinary lean-to, as it reflects the heat better.
After a couple of weeks in it you will come home with your lungs so
full of ozone that it will be impossible to sleep in an ordinary room
without feeling smothered.
Canoeing, Rowing and Sailing
(Prepared with the cooperation of Mr. Arthur A. Carey, Scout Master,
Boy Scout ship Pioneer; Mr. Carleton E. Sholl, Captain Lakanoo Boat
Club Crew; Mr. Frederick K. Vreeland, Camp-Fire Club of America. and
Mr. R. F. Tims, Vice-Commodore, American Canoe Association.)
The birch-bark canoe is the boat of the North American Indians, and
our modern canvas canoes are made, with some {174} variations, on the
Indian model. With the possible exception of the Venetian gondola, the
motion of a canoe is more graceful than that of any other boat
propelled by hand; it should be continuous and gliding, and so silent
that it may be brought up in the night to an animal or enemy, Indian
fashion, without making any sound, and so take them by surprise.
[Illustration: Canoeing stroke (a)]
175 Campcraft
Many accidents happen in canoes--not because they are unsafe when
properly handled, but because they are unsafe when improperly
handled--and many people do not take the trouble even to find out the
proper way of managing a canoe. Many canoes have seats almost on a
level with the gunwale, whereas, properly speaking, the only place to
sit in a canoe is on the bottom; for a seat raises the body too high
above the centre of gravity and makes the canoe unsteady and likely to
upset. It is, however, difficult to paddle while sitting in the bottom
of a canoe, and the best position for paddling is that of kneeling and
at the same time resting back against one of the thwarts. The size of
the single-blade paddle should be in proportion to the size of the boy
who uses it--long enough to reach from the ground to the tip of his
nose. The bow paddle may be a little shorter. The canoeman should
learn to paddle equally well on either side of a canoe. When paddling
on the {175} left side the top of the paddle should be held by the
right hand, and the left hand should be placed a few inches above the
beginning of the blade. The old Indian stroke, which is the most
approved modern method for all-round canoeing, whether racing or
cruising, is made with the arms almost straight--but not stiff--the
arm at the top of the paddle bending only slightly at the elbow. This
stroke is really a swing from the shoulder, in which there is little
or no push or pull with the arm. When paddling on the left side of the
canoe the right shoulder swings forward and the whole force of the
body is used to push the blade of the paddle through the water, the
left hand acting as a fulcrum. While the right shoulder is swung
forward, the right hand is at the same time twisted at the wrist so
that the thumb goes down; this motion of the wrist has the effect of
turning the paddle around in the left hand--the left wrist being
allowed to bend freely--so that, at the end of the stroke, the blade
slides out of the water almost horizontally. If you should twist the
paddle in the opposite direction it would force the head of the canoe
around so that it would travel in a circle. At the recovery of the
stroke the right shoulder swings back and the paddle is brought
forward in a horizontal position, with the blade almost parallel to
the water. It is swung forward until the paddle is at right angles
across the canoe, then the blade is dipped edgewise with a slicing
motion and a new stroke begins. In paddling on the right side of the
canoe the position of the two hands and the motion of the two
shoulders are reversed.
[Illustration: Canoeing stroke (b)]
Something should also be said about double paddles--that is, paddles
with two blades--one at each end--as their use is becoming more
general every year. With the double paddle a novice can handle a
canoe, head on to a stiff wind, a feat which {176} requires skill and
experience with a single blade. The doubles give greater safety and
more speed and they develop chest, arm and shoulder muscles not
brought into play with a single blade. The double paddle is not to be
recommended to the exclusion of the single blade, but there are many
times when there is an advantage in its use.
[Illustration: Canoeing stroke (c)]
In getting in or out of a canoe it is especially necessary to step in
the very centre of the boat; and be careful never to lean on any
object--such as the edge of a wharf--outside of the boat, for this
disturbs your balance and may capsize the canoe. Especially in getting
out, put down your paddle first, and then, grasping the gunwale firmly
in each hand, rise by putting your weight equally on both sides of the
canoe. If your canoe should drift away sideways from the
landing-place, when you are trying to land, place the blade of your
paddle flat upon the water in the direction of the wharf and gently
draw the canoe up to the landing-place with a slight sculling motion.
When it is necessary to cross the waves in rough water, always try to
cross them "quartering," i. e. at an oblique angle, but not at right
angles. Crossing big waves at right angles {177} is difficult and apt
to strain a canoe, and getting lengthwise between the waves is
dangerous. Always have more weight aft than in the bow; but, when
there is only one person in the canoe, it may be convenient to place a
weight forward as a balance; but it should always be lighter than the
weight aft. A skillful canoeman will paddle a light canoe even in a
strong wind by kneeling at a point about one third of the length from
the stern.
For the purpose of sailing in a canoe the Lateen rig is the safest,
most easily handled, and the best all-round sailing outfit. For a
seventeen-foot canoe a sail having forty square feet of surface is to
be recommended, and, in all except very high winds, this can be
handled by one man.
[Illustration: Canoe with sail.]
The Lateen sail is made in the form of an equilateral triangle, and
two sides are fastened to spars which are connected at one end by a
hinge or jaw. The mast--which should be set well forward--should be so
long that, when the sail is spread and the slanting upper spar is
swung from the top of the mast, the lower spar will swing level about
six to eight inches above the gunwale and hang clear above all parts
of the boat in going about. The sail is hoisted by a halyard attached
at, or a little above, the centre of the upper spar, then drawn
through a block attached to the brace which holds the mast in
position, {178} and thus to the cleats--within easy reach of the
sailor. The sheet line is fastened to the lower spar, about two feet
from the outer end; and, when not held in the hand, may be fastened to
another cleat. Both halyard and sheet should at all times be kept
clear, so as to run easily, and with knots about the cleats that can
be instantly slipped.
The leeboard is a necessary attachment to the sailing outfit. It is
made with two blades--about three feet long and ten inches wide would
furnish a good-sized surface in the water--one dropping on each side
of the canoe and firmly supported by a bar fastened to the gunwale.
The blades should be so rigged that, when striking an object in the
water, they will quickly release, causing no strain on the canoe. The
leeboard, like a centre board, is of course intended to keep the canoe
from sliding off when trying to beat up into the wind. When running
free before the wind the board should be raised. The general rules for
sailing larger craft apply to the canoe.
The paddle is used as a rudder and may be held by the sailor, but a
better plan is to have two paddles, one over each side, made fast to
the gunwale or the brace. The sailor can then grasp either one as he
goes about and there is no danger of losing the paddles overboard. In
sailing, the sailor sits on the bottom, on the opposite side from the
sail, except in a high wind, when he sits on the gunwale where he can
the better balance the sail with his weight. The combination of sail,
leeboards, and the balancing weight of the sailor, will render the
canoe stiff and safe, with proper care, in any wind less than a gale.
A crew may consist of two or three in a seventeen foot canoe.
The spars and mast of a sailing outfit should be of spruce or some
other light but strong wood, while cedar or some non-splitting wood is
best for the leeboards. Young canoeists will enjoy making their own
sailing outfits; or a complete Lateen rig as made by various canoe
manufacturers can be purchased either directly from them or through
almost any dealer.
In case of an upset the greatest mistake is to leave the boat. A
capsized canoe will support at least four persons as long as they have
strength to cling to it. A single man or boy, in case of upsetting
beyond swimming distance to land, should stretch himself flat upon the
bottom of the canoe, with arms and legs spread down over the
tumblehome toward the submerged gunwales. He can thus lie in safety
for hours till help arrives. When two persons are upset, they should
range themselves one {179} on each side of the overturned boat; and,
with one hand grasping each other's wrists across the boat, use the
other hand to cling to the keel or the gunwale. If the canoe should
swamp, {180} fill with water, and begin to sink, it should be turned
over in the water. It is the air remaining under the inverted hull
that gives the craft sufficient buoyancy to support weight.
Never overload a canoe. In one of the ordinary size--about seventeen
feet in length--three persons should be the maximum number at
anytime, and remember never to change seats in a canoe when out of
your depth.
{179}
[Illustration: This diagram illustrates some of the angles formed by
the boom and the keel line of the boat in different positions.]
Running free, or before the wind
Wind abeam Port tack
Wind abeam Starboard tack
Pointing into the wind Port tack
Pointing into the wind Starboard tack.
{180 continued}
Row-boats
There is a certain caution in the use of boats which you will always
find among sailors and fishermen and all persons who are using them
constantly. Such a person instinctively steps into the middle of the
boat when getting in, and always sits in the middle of the thwart or
seat. This is a matter of instinct with seafaring people, and so is
the habit of never fooling in a boat. Only landlubbers will try to
stand up in a small boat while in motion; and, as for the man who
rocks a boat "for fun," he is like the man "who didn't know the gun
was loaded."
Rowing
Row-boats are propelled either by rowing or by sculling; and rowing is
either "pulling" or "backing water." The usual way of rowing is to
"pull" and to do so, you sit with your back to the bow and propel the
boat by pulling the handles toward your body and so pressing the
blades of the oars against the water toward the stern, while pushing
with your feet against a brace. In backing water you reverse the
action of the oars, pushing the handles away from your body and
pressing the blades of the oars against the water toward the bow.
Turning
To turn your boat to the right, when pulling, you row only with the
left oar; or, if you wish to make a sharp turn "pull" with the left
oar and "back water" with the right. To turn your boat to the left the
action of the oars is reversed.
Feathering
To prevent the momentum of the boat from being checked by the wind
blowing on the blades of the oars, the blades must be turned into a
horizontal position as they leave the water. In "pulling" this is done
by turning the hands backward at {181} the wrist, and in backing water
it is done by turning the hands forward at the wrist.
Sculling
To scull is to propel a boat by a single oar at the stern. The boat
must be provided with rowlock or a semicircular scoop in the stern,
and the boat is propelled by working the oar at the stem, obliquely
from side to side. This is a convenient way of doing when you are
working among boats in the water, and have to go short distances
without the necessity of speed.
Steering
When rowing a boat without the use of a rudder, instead of constantly
turning the head around to see where you are going, it is convenient
to fix upon some object in the landscape on an imaginary line with the
middle of the stern and the middle of the bow; you can then keep your
boat approximately in the right position, without the trouble of
turning your head, by keeping the object selected on a line with the
middle of the stern board.
Coming Alongside
When coming alongside of a boat or wharf always approach on the
leeward side or that opposite from which the wind is blowing, and come
up so that the boat will be headed into the wind and waves. Stop
rowing at a convenient distance from the landing-place and come up
with gentle headway; then take in the oar nearest the landing, and, if
necessary, back water with the other oar.
Keeping Stroke
When two or more are rowing together the length and speed of the
stroke are set by the man sitting nearest the stern.
Rough Weather
Always try to row as nearly as possible into the waves at right
angles. In this way you are likely to ship less water and to avoid
capsizing.
Going Ashore
When going ashore always leave your oars lying flat on the thwarts on
either side of your boat.
The Salute
To salute a passing vessel or boat, hold the oars up at right angles
with the water.
{182}
Every row-boat should be provided with a rough sponge and a tin
dipper to be used in bailing out the water. Always bail out the water
after a rain and keep your boat clean and tidy.
Sailing in Small Boats
The most convenient kind of a boat to learn to sail in is a cat-boat,
which is a boat with a single fore and aft sail held in place by a
boom at the bottom and a gaff at the top.
To understand the principle of sailing we must realize that a
sail-boat, without the use of a rudder, acts in the water and wind
very much the way a weather vane acts in the air. The bow of the boat
naturally turns toward the wind, thus relieving the sail of all
pressure and keeping it shaking. But if by keeping the main sheet in
your hand you hold the sail in a fixed position, and, at the same
time, draw the tiller away from the sail, it will gradually fill with
air beginning at the hoist or mast end of the sail and impel the boat
in the direction in which you are steering. Given a certain direction
in which you want to travel, the problem is, by letting out or hauling
in your main-sheet, to keep the sail as nearly as possible at right
angles with the direction of the wind. We must remember, also, that,
while the sail must be kept full, it should not be kept more than
full; that is, its position must be such that, by the least push of
the tiller toward the sail, the sail will begin to shake at the hoist.
It is even desirable in a strong wind, and especially for beginners,
to always let the sail, close to the mast, shake a little without
losing too much pressure. When you are sailing with the wind coming
over the boat from its port side you are sailing on the port tack, and
when you are sailing with the wind coming across the boat on its
starboard side you are sailing on the starboard tack. The port side of
the boat is the left hand side as you face the bow while standing on
board, and the starboard side is the right hand side. An easy way of
remembering this is by recalling the sentence, "Jack left port."
Direction of Wind
Of course, you will see that, if you should forget which way the wind
is blowing, you could not possibly know the right position for your
sail; and this is one of the first requirements for a beginner. It is
quite easy to become confused with regard to the direction of the
wind, and therefore every boat should be provided with a small flag or
fly at its mast-head and you should keep watching it at every turn of
the boat until the habit {183} has become instinctive. It is
convenient to remember that the fly should always point as nearly as
possible to the end of the gaff, except when you are sailing free or
before the wind.
Close to Wind
Sailing with the boat pointing as nearly as possible against the wind
is called sailing close to the wind; when you have turned your bow to
the right or left so that the wind strikes both boat and sail at right
angles you are sailing with the wind abeam; as you let out your sheet
so that the boom makes a larger angle with an imaginary line running
from the mast to the middle of the stern you are sailing off the wind;
and, when your sail stands at right angles to this same line, you are
sailing free or before the wind.
Before the Wind
Sailing free, or before the wind, is the extreme opposite of sailing
close hauled or on the wind, and the wind is blowing behind your back
instead of approaching the sail from the direction of the mast. If you
are sailing free on the port tack, with the boom at right angles to
the mast on the starboard side, and you should steer your boat
sufficiently to starboard, the wind would strike the sail at its outer
edge or leech and throw the sail and boom violently over to the port
side of the mast. This is called jibing and is a very dangerous thing;
it should be carefully guarded against whenever sailing before the
wind.
Reefing
If you find that the wind is too strong for your boat, and that you
are carrying too much sail, you can let her come up into the wind and
take in one or two reefs. This is done by letting out both the throat
and peak halliards enough to give sufficient slack of sail, then by
hauling the sail out toward the end of the boom, and afterward by
rolling the sail up and tying the points under and around it, but not
around the boom. Always use a square or reef knot in tying your reef
points. In case of a squall or a strong puff of wind, remember that
you can always ease the pressure on your sail by turning the bow into
the wind, and if for any reason you wish to shorten suddenly you can
drop your peak by loosening the peak halliards.
Ready About
Before "going about," or turning your bow so that the wind will strike
the other side of the sail at its mast end, the man {184} at the helm
should always give warning by singing out the words, "ready about."
"Going about" is just the opposite of jibbing.
Right of Way
When two boats approach each other in opposite directions, close
hauled, the boat on the starboard tack has the right of way and should
continue her course. The responsibility of avoiding a collision rests
with the boat sailing on the port tack. But a boat running before the
wind must always give way to a boat close hauled.
When sailing through high waves, always try as far as possible to head
into them directly at right angles. Always steer as steadily as
possible. If you are careful to keep the boat on her course and do not
let your mind wander, only a slight motion of the tiller from side to
side will be necessary.
Flying the Flag
While the "fly" or "pennant" is carried at the top of the mast, the
flag is carried at the peak or upper corner of the sail at the end of
the gaff. The salute consists of tipping or slightly lowering the flag
and raising it again into position.
{185}
Notes
{186}
Notes
{187}