74. What is coral? What is a _fringing_ reef? What is the general
character of a _barrier_ reef? Give an example of one. What is an
_atoll_? What is the nature of coral rock? What is Mr Darwin's theory
of the formation of coral reefs?
75. What is the nature of the Atlantic ooze? In what respects may it
eventually come to resemble chalk and limestone? Mention an instance
of the abundant occurrence in the sea of animalcules with siliceous
coverings and skeletons. What is the nature of the red clay found at
great depths in the Atlantic and Southern Oceans?
76. What are some of the notions held in regard to the internal
condition of the earth? At what (average) rate does the temperature of
the earth's crust increase as we descend from the surface?
77. What is the nature of the movements to which the earth's crust is
subjected?
78. Describe the hypotheses advanced to account for earthquakes.
Mention some of the effects of earthquakes--1_st_, as regards
alterations of level; and 2_d_, as regards modifications of the
surface.
79. Mention a good example of tranquil elevation and depression of the
earth's crust. Mention some of the proofs of an elevatory movement.
Give proofs that shew depression of the land. How may certain former
changes of sea-level be accounted for without inferring any movement
of the land?
80. What effect must _depression_ have upon the strata forming the
earth's crust? What is the result of a movement of elevation? What is
the cause of _cleavage_?
81. What is the nature of the materials thrown out during volcanic
eruptions? What is the general structure of a volcanic cone? How does
molten rock make its escape from the orifice of eruption? What is the
meaning of the terms _lapillo_, _puzzolana_, and _ceneri_?
82. What is lava? Describe the general appearance and mode of
progression of a stream of lava. What effect is produced upon
fragments of rock caught up and inclosed in lava; and what changes are
caused in the pavement upon which it cools? How does a lava stream
entering a lake or the sea behave in regard to the sediment gathering
therein? To what is the basaltic structure due? How are the axes of
the prisms in a columnar igneous rock arranged? Name some of the
varieties of lava. What is the origin of the vesicular structure in
igneous rocks? What portions of a bed of lava are most frequently
scoriaceous? In what kinds of lava is the vesicular structure most
abundantly met with? How have the vesicles become flattened? In what
manner have they been filled with mineral matter? What is the origin
of the dykes of modern volcanic districts?
83. How is metamorphism on the large scale supposed to have been
induced? How may granite be at one and the same time a metamorphic and
igneous rock?
84. Mention some of the views held with regard to the origin of
mineral veins.
85. What is _denudation_? How do inclined strata prove that the strata
have been denuded? How do _faults_ afford proof of denudation? What
have been the general effects produced by denudation on the face of
the land?
86. What part have the subterranean forces acted in the formation of
mountains? To what geological action is the present aspect of these
mountains due? What has determined the direction of river valleys? How
have the valleys, dells, &c. been formed? What effect have faults had
in determining the direction of river valleys? What is supposed to be
the origin of the deep rock-basins occupied by many fresh-water lakes?
How is the waste of land by denudation compensated?
87. What are _fossils_? What is meant by _petrifaction_? In what kind
of rocks do fossils occur most abundantly, and in the best state of
preservation? and what reason can be given for this?
88. How do fossils afford proof of varied physical conditions? Give a
reason for some rocks being more barren of fossils than others.
89. State some of the characters which distinguish broadly the older
fossiliferous strata from those similar accumulations which are being
formed in our own day.
90. How may we identify formations in separate districts? How is the
interrupted and partial distribution of strata to be accounted for?
91. In what respect do the fossils in younger strata differ from those
in older strata? What general proof can be adduced to shew that
species have become gradually extinct?
92. Give an instance how fossils prove changes of climate in the past.
What is supposed to be the cause of great cosmical changes of climate?
Describe Mr Croll's theory of cosmical changes of climate.
93. What is the test of _superposition_? Mention another test of the
relative age of strata. 94. Name the four great divisions under which
the fossiliferous rocks are arranged.
95. Name the Primary or Palaeozoic formations. What are the principal
kinds of fossils found in the Old Red Sandstone? Which formation is
the chief repository of coal in Britain?
96. In what other formations do coals occur? In which formation do the
oldest known mammals occur? Name the Secondary formations.
97. Name the Tertiary formations. What kind of climate characterised
the northern hemisphere at the beginning of Pleistocene times? What
kinds of climate would appear from the evidence to have chiefly
prevailed in Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary ages? Have we any trace
of frigid conditions during these ages? What is the growing opinion
with regard to the climatic conditions during the glacial period of
Pleistocene times?