petticoats are usually lengthened simultaneously. The age at which these
important changes are made varies. For instance, if a girl has a number
of unmarried sisters older than herself, the time is often put off.
Sometimes the term "old-fashioned" is synonymous with "sensible," and
people with such ideas very often keep their girls in short frocks until
they are really grown up.
The two changes in the girls' method of dressing are not, however,
always made at the same time. In the upper classes we find a tendency
for the long dress to come first. Girls, on the other hand, who have
to go out into the world as nursemaids and kitchenmaids, may, in order
to make themselves look older and more sedate, put up their hair while
they are still in short frocks, though it must be said that the effect
is not quite pleasing if it is business-like.
In the bib of the infant we find a relative of that part of the apron or
the more voluminous pinafore which covers the chest. Although grown-up
women sometimes wear pinafores, these, like the bibs, must now be
considered as part of children's dress, though no doubt in the beginning
they were derived from the costume of grown-up people.
[Illustration: FIG. A.
THE CAP WORN BY THE SCHOLARS OF CHRIST'S HOSPITAL UNTIL THE MIDDLE OF
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
FIG. B.
A SCHOLAR OF CHRIST'S HOSPITAL.
(_By the courtesy of the Rev. A. W. Upcott, M.A., Headmaster of Christ's
Hospital._)
_PLATE IX._]
The next subject that we may appropriately consider here is that of the
characteristic costumes which are worn in certain schools. In connection
with boys, the first case which immediately comes to mind is that of the
Blue-coat boys, as the scholars of Christ's Hospital, which was founded
in 1552, have come to be called. Their blue coat is part of the ordinary
dress of the citizen of the reign of Edward VI, and the scholarly man
at this time had the skirts of his blue coat long, while in other cases
they were cut off at the knee. Instead of trunks, however, the Blue-coat
boy wears more modern knickerbockers, but he clings to his yellow
stockings. (See Plate IX, Figure B.)
The scholars of Christ's Hospital have discarded caps (see Plate IX,
Figure A), but the one which should go with their dress is flat, like
the one which came into fashion in the reign just mentioned. It was the
one afterwards called the statute cap, when Elizabeth for the good of
trade ordered that "one cap of wool, knitted thick and dressed in
England," was to be worn "by all over six years of age except such
persons as had twenty marks a year in land and their heirs and such as
have borne office of worship." A cap of the same kind was worn by
Edward VI, and is still part of the dress of Beef-eaters at the Tower
of London.
The blue coat afterwards came to be the ordinary livery of serving-men
in the sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth centuries, and blue
is still a popular colour for coachmen's liveries at the present day.
In a similar way we find that certain schools are called grey-coat or
green-coat schools, and we have blue schools--for instance, one for boys
and another for girls at Wells.
Then there is the Red Maid School, which was established in 1627 at
Bristol, and in accordance with the founder's will the girls are dressed
in red frocks, with white aprons and tippets and plain straw bonnets,
trimmed with blue ribbon. In connection with this foundation it may be
said that £50 is set on one side each year for the award of marriage
portions to girls who have left the school.
Our public schools afford us very interesting cases of special dresses.
Perhaps no other coat which a boy wears is so well known as the Eton
jacket. This is accompanied by a tall silk hat.
King's scholars who are on the foundation and live "in College" also
wear an academical gown of fairly ample proportions. The Eton jacket was
not always black, and originally the head-dress was a mortar-board, and
there was a broad lace collar or bands round the neck (see page 47).
The black coats and top hats were introduced in 1820 as mourning for
King George III, and have been worn ever since. The broad collar which
takes its name from Eton is probably a survival of lace bands, and is
worn over the jacket in the same way.
Very similar coats are also worn by the younger boys at Westminster and
at Harrow. In the latter case the jacket finishes off in a small point
at the back, whereas the jacket worn at Eton is cut straight. The older
boys at Eton wear a morning coat, a stick-up collar, and a white tie.
This white tie is also worn by the masters, whether they be clerks in
holy orders or not, and it seems to be a survival of a white choker
which was wound round and round the stick-up collar, though, on the
other hand, it may represent academical bands.
At Winchester the scholars wear bands, and this is no doubt connected
with the use of academical dress, for it is usual for the boys on the
foundation of public schools, as we have seen to be the case at Eton, to
wear gowns.
The upper boys at Harrow, on the other hand, wear dress-coats with
swallow tails; but should, however, a lower boy outgrow his short
jacket, he is given what is called "charity" tails.
When speeches are made at Eton, those who take part in the performance
wear dress-coats, knee-breeches, silk stockings, and buckled shoes.
Some costumes have probably been in existence since the foundation and
endowment of the schools, and we can find parallel cases in the dress
of some almshouses and hospitals for pensioners. Probably the idea
originally underlying the wearing of a special dress is the same as
is to be seen in modern charity schools, where all the boys or girls
are dressed alike. It must simplify the tailoring and dressmaking
arrangements, but at the same time it intentionally or unintentionally
brands the children. Nevertheless, we see that the boys at most
aristocratic and celebrated schools are in very much the same kind of
boat.
To return to Eton again, we might mention one or two fashions in the
ordinary dress which are curious. It is ordained that the lowest button
of the waistcoat should be left unbuttoned and the bottom of the
trousers should be turned up, while it is part of the performance to
thrust the hands deeply into the trouser pockets. If a boy elects to
wear an overcoat, and he does not occupy a certain definite position or
status in the school, public opinion forces him to keep the collar of
his top coat turned up. Of course, schools generally, and sometimes the
various houses in important schools, make a particular point of school
or house colours.
At Eton, on the Fourth of June, in connection with the boating there
are interesting ornamentations added to the straw hats in the shape
of flowers, and three boys who act as coxswains wear the uniform of
an admiral and carry bouquets. The Fourth of June celebrations were
instituted to take the place of the festival known as the Eton Montem.
The ceremony consisted of a procession to a little hill near Slough,
when many old and interesting costumes were worn.
The custom came to an end in the early years of Queen Victoria's reign,
and its immediate object was the collecting of money with which to send
the head boy of the year to the University. It seems, however, to have
originated in a piece of folk-lore, probably connected with the old
tree worship, but sanctioned by the early Christian authorities as a
semi-religious function. In this connection it is pleasant to think that
flowers seen in the hats on the Fourth of June are a survival of the
green branches and garlands that were once brought back each year from
the Montem expedition.
When dealing with children's dress we ought not to forget the special
costumes that have been adopted in some private girls' schools, nor how
much is being done in them towards disseminating ideas on the subject
of dress reform. For, after all, it is to the women of the future that
we must look if any alteration is to be generally made. The introduction
of exercises in the gymnasium has necessitated the adoption of a
drilling dress in very many cases, but there are schools where such a
costume is generally worn at all times, and others where it forms the
working dress, while long skirts are only put on when no active exertion
is expected.
[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Dress worn by the girls at Coombe Hill School,
Westerham. It is a modification of the Dervish Djibah.]
At Coombe Hill School, Westerham, in Kent, the dress takes the form of a
tunic with wide sleeves which come to the elbow (see Figure 126). It is
put over the head and has no fastenings. It is modelled upon the Djibah
of the Dervishes, and is made of soft woollen material of a fawn colour.
The yoke is of green embroidery and the underslip is tussore. Under the
tunic a blouse of white silk is worn, and the sleeves, of course, show
from the elbow downwards. The rest of the costume consists of cloth
knickerbockers and stockings, with sandals or shoes that are made to the
shape of the foot. This dress is worn on all occasions at school, and
the girls are very proud of it.
[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Dress worn by the girls at the Croft School,
Betley, when at work.]
At the Croft School, Betley, in school and when any basket-making,
book-binding, drilling, or Morris-dancing is going on, a special costume
is brought into use. In this case it consists of a tunic without
sleeves, of red material with a velvet yoke, and shoulder straps (see
Figure 127). As a finishing touch there is a girdle tied loosely in a
bow. It is not placed round the waist proper, but drops towards the left
knee as did the sword-belts which the knights in olden times wore over
their armour. A white silk blouse shows above the yoke round the neck
and has full sleeves. The knickerbockers in this case are made of
red knitted stockinette instead of cloth. The whole costume has been
carefully worked out, and Miss Hodgson, one of the principals of the
school, has an interesting doll which is dressed exactly like the girls.
It should be said that all the girls wear this dress whether they are
nine or nineteen years old, and as it is much appreciated by them there
is no doubt but that when they come to have girls of their own they
will support any movement in favour of the more general adoption of a
sensible costume.
XVIII
WEDDING GARMENTS
THE VEIL--BRIDESMAIDS AND BRIBERY--OLD SHOES--ORANGE BLOSSOM
Weddings are ceremonies in connection with which we may look for some
points of interest, as customs in connection with them change but
slowly. In this country, if convention be followed, the bride's dress is
of white.
The veil that is worn recalls the primitive head-dress that was bound
by a fillet, and, like that of the nun, may well be derived from the
wimple, though it is said to represent the canopy which in many
countries, and by the Jews in our own, is held over, or erected above,
the bride and bridegroom. Flowers take a part in the adornment of the
bride, and the special use of orange blossom will be dealt with when
discussing wedding crowns.
It is customary for the bridesmaids to be dressed alike, and they often
wear some ornament which has been presented to them by the bridegroom.
It may be that this is a survival like many other wedding customs of the
old marriage by capture, for in some countries the girl friends of the
bride will not allow her to be approached by the bridegroom until he
has given them presents, or in reality bribed them. Now, like tipping,
it is merely a custom that must be followed, but originally no doubt the
bridegroom and his accomplice, the best man, might have found that what
they could not do by force they might encompass by bribery.
The expression "to tie the nuptial knot" takes its origin from the fact
that, among the Babylonians, the priest who conducted the wedding used
to take a thread from the garment of the bride and another from that of
the bridegroom. These he tied together into a knot and presented to the
bride as a symbol of the binding nature of the union between her and her
husband.
There is an article of dress which often plays a part at weddings, for
old shoes are usually thrown after the newly-married pair, while boots,
with a hole in them, filled with rice, are hung from the backs of
carriages, and satin slippers have on occasion been fastened to the
carriage door handle of the railway train which speeds the pair on their
honeymoon.
We all know that the throwing of old slippers is intended to bring luck
to the bride and bridegroom, but it is not apparent what particular
form it is intended that the blessing should take, and the origin of
the custom is difficult to determine. Mr. James E. Crombie,[24] after
carefully considering the various superstitions connected with weddings
and shoes, has come to the conclusion that the intention is to ensure
that the young couple shall be blessed with children, and that old
shoes are thrown because of the idea that the essence or life of the
individual that wore them remains in them, and makes them powerful
talismans.
In this connection it may be well to consider the importance which shoes
have assumed at various times in connection with weddings and otherwise.
So long ago as the year 1291, a law in Hamburg ordered that the
bridegroom should give his bride a pair of shoes, and it is still a
custom in Transylvania for the bridegroom to make a similar present on
his wedding morning. In Greece the best man puts a new pair of boots,
supplied by the bridegroom, on to the feet of the bride when she leaves
her father's house. In Bulgaria, a money present which the bridegroom
makes to the relatives of the bride is called shoe money, and with it
the father of the family buys shoes for it. This money is said to be
a relic of the price that was paid to the clan from which a wife was
taken.
Shoes have figured as part of wages, and they were thrown over the heads
of the O'Neils by the O'Cahans when the former were chosen chiefs. This
was done to symbolize the superiority of the throwers. In Russia, the
wives as part of the wedding festivities remove their husband's boots in
order to show their subjection to him, though while the bride dutifully
takes off her lord and master's boots as a sign of subserviency, she
always hits him on the head with one of them to show that she is not one
whit inferior to him. It is said that the Hebrew word for shoe and wife
are identical, and a Bedouin form of divorce is "She is my slipper, I
have cast her off." The casting of a shoe over land, as mentioned in the
Bible, was symbolical of conquering it.
As regards fruitfulness, the Eskimo women carry a piece of an old shoe
which has once been worn by European sailors, to make them prolific
mothers. Women who are blessed with families in China present shoes to
the "Mother goddess," and those who wish for children borrow these shoes
and vow that if the desired result is effected they will present another
one to the divinity when the borrowed shoe is returned.
Mr. Crombie gives a number of instances to show that there is still a
belief that the soul of persons may live in their shoes. In the Museum
of Northern Antiquities at Copenhagen is a mummified corpse of a
woman who was intentionally drowned in a bog, and from her body, after
the murder, a shoe had been removed. During the Arran murder case at
Edinburgh, in 1889, it transpired that the boots of the murdered man had
been removed by the local constable, who had buried them on the seashore
between high and low water marks. No explanation was forthcoming, though
the man admitted that it was by the orders of his senior officer that
he put them out of sight. There is no doubt but that the idea underlying
the action was that of preventing the ghost of the murdered man from
walking.
It must not be forgotten that shoes used to be thrown after anybody
when he or she was starting on a journey, which in old days was a risky
business, and Ben Jonson wrote, "Would I had Kemp's shoes to throw
after you." This has been interpreted as meaning that Kemp was a lucky
individual, and that something of him and his good fortune remained
in his shoes. Summing up his remarks, Mr. Crombie says with regard to
throwing shoes at weddings that by doing so "we should be doing for the
young couple, in a more pleasant way, exactly the same as the relatives
of the Galla bride did for her when they anointed her from top to toe
with bullock's blood. We should be doing for them with shoes what our
Aryan ancestors did for their cattle with the sacred parna rod, and what
the herdsmen of Sweden and The Mark do to this day, when on the 1st
of May they watch on which branch of the mountain ash the sun first
strikes, and then, cutting it down, beat the yearling heifers with it on
the loins and haunches, repeating at each stroke a verse in which they
pray that as sap comes into the birch so may milk fill the cow's udder.
We should be doing with shoes what the Romans did in ancient Rome at
the festival of the Lupercalia, when the boys, armed with strips of the
skin of the slaughtered goats, used to rush through the city striking
all they met, and where women, particularly those who desired to be made
fruitful, placed themselves naked in the way, and received the blows of
the Luperci on their palms."
At a wedding sometimes the priest's vestments play a part. It is
customary in some continental countries for the priest to wrap the hands
of the bride and bridegroom in his stole, and even in some of our
English churches the contracting parties are instructed to take hold of
the stole by the officiating clergyman. We might mention that in many
countries the bridal dresses are very beautiful, and are often survivals
of very old-fashioned costumes. The Norwegian bridal dress is an
instance of this. The wearing of a bridal crown is also a custom in
Scandinavia, where it is said that every parish possesses its special
crown which is the property of the church, but the use of it is only
sanctioned when the bride bears an irreproachable character.
The wearing of orange blossom has apparently the same meaning, and it
may be mentioned that on funeral monuments or brasses the wearing of a
garland by the effigy of a girl means that she died a virgin.
XIX
MOURNING
COLOURS ASSOCIATED WITH MOURNING--WIDOWS' WEEDS--PERENNIAL MOURNING
The ceremonies connected with death and burial are no exception to the
rule which we have laid down, that on solemn and important occasions
primitive customs and costumes are most commonly to be met with. The
making of clothes from bark has come to have a special significance
in the case of races which no longer adopt this in everyday life. The
Kayans of Borneo now ordinarily wear smart foreign stuffs which they
get from traders; but when they go into mourning they discard these
garments, and return once more to the old native garment of bark
cloth. The putting on of sackcloth is no doubt a similar custom, and
dishevelling of locks is also in keeping with it.
Among the many curious customs connected with funeral rites which
survive in civilized countries, the adoption of some kind of mourning
dress is very general. Sombre black has come to be associated in our
minds with mourning, but other colours are used among other nations,
and even in this country. The drapery with which the hats of the hired
mourners at a child's funeral are veiled are white instead of black.
White ostrich feathers may appear on the horses' heads, and white adorns
their trappings. Royalty is still privileged to have a special mourning
colour--purple is used at state funerals, and grey is looked upon as
half-mourning.
In China white is the colour used instead of black, and other Oriental
nations wear yellow. In modern Egypt, at a funeral, the women, whether
relatives or servants of the deceased, are distinguished by a strip of
linen or muslin bound round the head and tied in a single knot behind.
This stuff is usually of a blue colour. The women of ancient Egypt, as
shown on the walls of tombs, wore a similar bandage round their head.
Excessive mourning is now becoming a thing of the past, and there is no
need now for such laws as were made at the end of the fifteenth century
to restrict extravagance in mourning attire. Nowadays men may follow the
custom observed by those in the army and those who wear Highland dress
of putting a black band round their arm. At the most they wear black
clothes and put a wider band round their hats. Among women it is only
widows who wear a special costume. It is not a becoming one, though
sometimes a smartness is imparted to it that is a little out of keeping
with the idea of mourning. Now a widow's dress is called weeds, though
this term at one time signified the whole of any woman's costume.
For the origin of the widow's veil we must go back to mediæval times,
when the dress of widow ladies was similar to that of the convent. It
was the custom of elderly ladies whose husbands had died to become what
is called vowesses, and to go into seclusion. A relic perhaps of the
practice is to be found in the kind of prejudice which still exists in
the minds of some people against second marriages. The white cuffs of
the widow recall those of the nurse, and similar ones are used by some
members of the legal profession as part of their mourning.
When dealing with military costume we shall find that signs of mourning,
when once adopted, have in some cases never been wholly abandoned. There
are similar vestiges like those found in the dress of public schools,
and there has been a suggestion of the same thing happening in the Navy.
In connection with the hired mourners or mutes at funerals, now so
solemnly habited in black, it may be interesting to recall that the old
Roman mimes, of whom we have seen that Punch was originally one, were
employed at funerals to imitate the language and manners of the
deceased.
XX
COSTUME CONNECTED WITH THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION
THE SURPLICE AND "THE CLOTH"--THE CIVIL ORIGIN OF
VESTMENTS--SPECIAL VESTMENTS--PROCESSIONAL VESTMENTS, SO
CALLED--NUNS' DRESS--THE CHOKER
The dress worn by clergy when conducting religious ceremonies offers
many opportunities for studying the development of garments, and
illustrates at the same time how the dress used by a special class may
evolve more slowly and on different lines from the same clothes that may
be worn by the people at large. The case is similar to that of animals
or plants which are isolated from the other members of their species,
and in course of time come to differ very markedly from their far-away
relatives who flourish in the old home.
We shall see that many of the ecclesiastical vestments can be traced to
civil dress; but for the moment we may discuss those which are in use at
the present time, and which afford additional evidence in support of our
statement that the more important the ceremonial, the more ancient the
costume. At the present day we find that the clergy of the Church of
England preach either in a white surplice or in a black gown. We can
trace the black gown to an order made by James I, but at the present day
the vestments worn by the clergy of the Presbyterian Churches are rather
professional, or academical like a barrister's gown, than properly
ecclesiastical. We have already mentioned the bands (see p. 44) which
are worn with the black gown, and here we might mention that when the
preacher ministers to a recognized congregation he wears them, though if
he is ordained but is conducting an occasional service he does not.
Charles I gave instructions that the surplice should be worn, and had an
Act passed giving him power to regulate clerical costume. But the clergy
sent in a petition that matters should be left as they were, and this
request seems to have been granted, as some of the ministers at the time
expressed the fear that His Majesty would order them to wear hoods and
bells. Mr. Macalister[25] says that the surplice was originally invented
to take the place of the albe, which was made so small that it was
difficult to put it over the cassock when the latter garment was thick
and lined with fur.