THE HERITAGE OF DRESS
[Illustration: VERY EARLY MAN IN JAVA. (_Chapter II._)
_PLATE I._]
THE HERITAGE
OF DRESS
BEING NOTES ON THE HISTORY
AND EVOLUTION OF CLOTHES
BY
WILFRED MARK WEBB
FELLOW OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON
CURATOR OF ETON COLLEGE MUSEUM
WITH ELEVEN PLATES
AND ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-NINE FIGURES IN THE TEXT
LONDON
E. GRANT RICHARDS
1907
TO MY WIFE
HILDA E. WEBB
PREFACE
It would be difficult to find a subject of more universal interest than
that of dress, and hosts of books have been written which deal with the
attire that has been adopted at different times and by various nations
or social classes. The ornamental and artistic sides of the question
have also received much consideration, but the volumes that have
appeared serve chiefly as works of reference. The present book aims at
being of more immediate interest and usefulness; it starts with things
as they are, and is really a popular contribution to the natural history
of man.
On all sides the advantages of observation and the need for the
nature-study method in education are being rightly urged, but there is
a tendency to narrow the purview. Anything in our environment is worthy
of notice, and though attention is well directed towards that which is
least artificial, we should not leave man and his works altogether on
one side. There is material for observation, research, and deduction,
even in a bowler hat and a cut-away coat.
One of the pleasantest features in connection with the making of this
book has been the kind and ready help which I have received from all
sides. Here and there throughout the text the names of friends and
correspondents who have given their assistance have been mentioned. To
these I offer my hearty thanks, as well as to the following, who with
suggestions, information, or with material for illustrations, have
contributed in no small way to the interest of the book: Messrs. Fownes
Brothers & Company, Mr. Allan A. Hooke, Mr. W. S. Ward, Mr. Karl, of
Messrs. Nathan & Company, Messrs. Tress & Company, Messrs. Lincoln &
Bennett, Mr. M. D. Hill, the Rev. A. W. Upcott, Head Master of Christ's
Hospital, Miss Clark, Miss Hodgson, the Rev. R. Ashington Bullen, Mr.
Henry Miller, of the Church Association, Mr. Ravenscroft, of Messrs. Ede
Sons & Ravenscroft, Mr. Paley Baildon, Mr. George Hertslet, of the Lord
Chamberlain's Office, Messrs. Wilkinson & Company, Mr. C. M. Mühlberg,
Mr. W. S. Parker, of Messrs. Debenhams, Ltd., Capt. H. Trench, Major
J. W. Mallet, of the _Army and Navy Gazette_, Mr. Basil White, of
Messrs. Hawkes & Company, Mr. W. H. Jesson, Messrs. Souter & Company,
Mr. William Lawrence, Mr. Heather Bigg, Dr. J. Cantlie, and the Rt. Hon.
Viscountess Harberton.
A glance at the bibliography, which is given on pages 363-7, will show
the principal books and papers to which reference has been made.
In connection with the illustrations, special thanks must be given to
Monsieur Maurice Sand, the Editor of the _Review of the University of
Brussels_, for his kind permission to reproduce a number of the figures
used to illustrate a translation of Sir George Darwin's article. These
are Figures 14, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 30, 31, 33, 46, 48, 62,
63, and 82. Acknowledgments are due to Mr. St. John Hope for Figures
86-8, to Messrs. A. & C. Black for Figures 123 and 124 and 132 and 133,
and to Messrs. Prewett & Co. for Figures 111 and 112.
For the original of Plate II, I am indebted to the kindness of Captain
R. Ford, of Plate III to Mr. Henry Stevens; Plate IV has been taken from
a brass rubbing in Rugby School Museum, through the kind offices of Mr.
J. M. Hardwich. I have to thank Mr. R. Bamber for the original of Plate
VIII, which was obtained through his instrumentality. Figure B of Plate
IX was kindly contributed by the Rev. A. W. Upcott, Head Master of
Christ's Hospital, and Figures B and C on Plate X were copied from
Moseley's "Voyage of the 'Challenger,'" by the kind permission of Mr.
John Murray, while Figure D is due to the courtesy of General Robley.
Plate XI is reprinted from _The Reliquary_, by the kind permission of
Messrs. Bemrose and Sons, and the source of other illustrations is
acknowledged beneath them, while the classic collection of pictures
which were brought together by the late Mr. F. W. Fairholt to illustrate
his "Costume in England" has proved, as will be seen, of the utmost
service.
In conclusion, I have much pleasure in calling attention to the time and
care which Mr. W. J. Webb has expended upon the figures, which are a
feature of the book; and I must mention the willing help which I have
been afforded in a number of details by Miss Amy Astbury and Mr. Bernard
Weaver.
WILFRED MARK WEBB.
ODSTOCK, HANWELL,
_November, 1907_.
CONTENTS
I
THE THRALL OF DRESS PAGE
The principles of evolution applied to clothes 1
II
THE ORIGIN OF DRESS 6
III
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN COAT
The ancestral shawl--Problematical buttons 15
IV
BUTTONS AS CHRONICLES
Episodes in the later history of the coat and cuffs 25
V
COLLARS AND BANDS
Nicks in coat lapels--The why and wherefore of the white shirt
front 41
VI
VESTIGES IN THE HAT
How hats were evolved--Why plumes are on the left side--The
growth of the busby--Helmets and cocked hats 49
VII
SHOES AND STOCKINGS
Early foot-gear--The origin of the clock--A modern imitation of
tattooing--Gaily coloured garters 62
VIII
PETTICOATS AND TROUSERS
The belted plaid and kilt--Early skirts--The antiquity of
trousers--Trouser stripes 72
IX
COATS OF ARMS
Signet rings--Armorial bearings--Escutcheons--Crests--Badges 83
X
GLOVES AND MITTENS
Origin of the baby's glove--Fourchettes--The "points" on the
backs of gloves 94
XI
TAGS, PINS, AND BALDRICS
Laces--The evolution and vagaries of the safety-pin--Primitive
methods of carrying burdens as illustrated by muff-chains,
baldrics, and yokes 100
XII
ORNAMENTS
Primitive necklaces--Finger rings--The origin of the hair
comb--Buttons--Studs--Flowers--Feathers--Amulets 111
XIII
HAIR DRESSING
Head shaving--Wigs that are still worn--Roman curls and fringes 126
XIV
SPECIAL DRESSES
Fashions kept up by ceremonies--Survivals in special
costume--Flowing garments 135
XV
SERVANTS' DRESS
The prototypes of liveries--Reminiscences of George II and
George III--Origin of the page-boy's buttons--The jockey
cap--Aprons 139
XVI
COCKADES
The cockade a degenerated chaperon--The varieties of the
cockade--Cockade wearers 152
XVII
CHILDREN'S DRESS
Survivals in children's dress--Special school costumes--The
blue-coat boy--Public school boys--Adoption of special dress
at girls' schools 162
XVIII
WEDDING GARMENTS
The veil--Bridesmaids and bribery--Old shoes--Orange blossom 175
XIX
MOURNING
Colours associated with mourning--Widows' weeds--Perennial
mourning 181
XX
COSTUME CONNECTED WITH RELIGION
The surplice and "the cloth"--The civil origin of
vestments--Fine vestments--Processional vestments, so
called--Nuns' dress--The choker 184
XXI
SUNDAY CLOTHES
The significance of Sunday clothes--The wearing of hats in
church by ladies 205
XXII
ACADEMICAL DRESS
Gowns and hanging sleeves--The forerunner of the hood--The
origin of the doctor's hat--The evolution of the mortar-board 208
XXIII
LEGAL DRESS
Vestiges of the coif--Hoods and gowns--Signs of mourning 215
XXIV
STATE AND COURT ATTIRE
Coronation dress--Parliamentary robes--Mistakes in Court
dress--Vestiges of the wig and of the chaperon--Court cards 221
XXV
SURVIVALS IN MILITARY UNIFORMS
Armour--Prickers for flint locks--Forage cords--Reminiscences
of gallantry--Regimental badges--Courtship colours 233
XXVI
NAVAL UNIFORM
Supposed survivals--Petticoats and wide breeches 251
XXVII
THE COSTUME OF PUPPETS
Punch and Judy--Fashion dolls--Dolls in swaddling clothes--The
Egyptian "shabbies" 253
XXVIII
THE CLOWN AND PAINTING THE BODY
The clown's dress--Savage painting and survivals of
it--Tattooing--Patches and false complexions--Masks 269
XXIX
STAGE COSTUMES
The harlequin, pantaloon, columbine, and acrobat 282
XXX
NIGHTDRESS
Bands on nightgowns--Nightcaps--Night attire worn in the
streets 287
XXXI
THE DRESS OF ANIMALS
Natural representatives of clothes--Horse trappings--Amulets on
harness--Dogs' disguises--Fashions in the form of animals 291
XXXII
COLOUR
Importance of colour--Instinctive love of bright
hues--Desirability of coloured clothes and gay scenes--Colour
and complexion 305
XXXIII
PATTERNS
Ancient designs--Checks and tartans--Parti-coloured
clothes--Evolution of ornamentation 311
XXXIV
IMPRESSIONS TO BE GAINED FROM DRESS
Clues from clothes--Individuality not disguised by them--Modern
dress of other countries--Significance of clothes 315
XXXV
THE EFFECT OF CLOTHES UPON THE INDIVIDUAL
The origin of stays--Tight lacing no new thing--Its
effects--Mr. Heather Bigg on the need for support--The ideal
foot--Skull deformities--Padding 322
XXXVI
FURTHER EFFECTS OF CLOTHES ON THE INDIVIDUAL
Mental effects of different clothes--Preferences of girls for
certain articles of dress--Movements that depend upon the
presence or absence of clothes 339
XXXVII
THE RISE AND FALL OF FASHIONS
Reason why fashions are followed--Gay clothes seen when periods
of depression are over--Condemnation of fashions by the
clergy--Quakers--Sumptuary laws--The killing of fashions 343
XXXVIII
DRESS REFORM
Clothes to be avoided--Need for warmer garments--"Rational"
dress for women 354
CONCLUSION 362
BIBLIOGRAPHY 363
INDEX 369
LIST OF PLATES
PLATE FACING PAGE
I. Very early man in Java. Illustrating the remarks in Chapter
II, pages 6 and 7 _Frontispiece_
II. A woman and a witch-doctor of Central Africa, showing the
part that ornaments may play even when clothing is of
the scantiest. (From a photograph by Captain Ford) 9
III. The silk vest worn by Charles I on the scaffold.
Illustrating the sleeved tunic opening for a short
distance down the front. (From a photograph by Mr.
Henry Stevens) 18
IV. Reproduction of a brass to John Brandon and his two wives
in the Church of St. Mary, King's Lynn. Date, 1364. On
the male figure, continuous rows of buttons run from
the wrist to the elbow of the under-vest. The women
wear the wimple and gorget or throat cloth 38
V. A Siamese Princess wearing trousers 81
VI. Two Padaung women, showing the numerous metal collars
which they wear round their necks 114
VII. Methods of hairdressing, illustrated by Romano-Egyptian
portrait models in the Myers Collection, Eton College
Museum. (From photographs by Wilfred Mark Webb) 129
VIII. A barge girl, showing the costume worn on the canals.
(From a photograph by Wakefield Brentford) 150
IX. Fig. A. The cap worn by the scholars of Christ's Hospital
until the middle of the nineteenth century.
Fig. B. A scholar of Christ's Hospital. (By the courtesy
of the Rev. A. W. Upcott, M.A., Head Master of Christ's
Hospital) 167
X. Fig. A. The head of a clown, showing the painted face, the
ruff, and the Elizabethan method of doing the hair.
Fig. B. The face of a Japanese actor (after Moseley, by
the courtesy of Mr. John Murray).
Fig. C. The painted face of a paper figure which is burned
at Chinese funerals (after Moseley, by the courtesy of
Mr. John Murray).
Fig. D. The tattooed head of a Moorish chief. (By the
courtesy of General Robley) 270
XI. Wooden stay busks. These incidentally show survivals of
primitive ornament. From _The Reliquary_, by kind
permission of Messrs. Bemrose & Sons, Ltd. 326
LIST OF FIGURES
FIG. PAGE
1. Drawing of a woman engraved by a cave man 9
2. Sketch showing the development of the tunic. In this stage
it has no arms 17
3. Diagram showing the way in which a sleeved tunic is derived
from the shawl 18
4. A smock frock 19
5. Jacket of a woman, made in one piece. Bronze stage of
culture (after Worsaae) 19
6. Man's dress showing buttons on the right side 20
7. Woman's dress showing buttons on the left side 21
8. Diagram showing how a man does up a button. First stage 23
9. Diagram showing how a man does up a button. Second stage 23
10. Diagram showing how a woman does up a button. First stage 23
11. Diagram showing how a woman does up a button. Second stage 23
12. The buttons on the back of a policeman's great-coat 26
13. The buttons that close the slit up the back of an ulster 27
14. A back view of a seventeenth-century coat showing the
buttons and buttonholes 28
15. The tab and buttons on the back of a soldier's great-coat
which make a temporary waist 29
16. The buttons and tab on a tramway driver's coat 31
17. An eighteenth-century coat with side buttons and tab 31
18. Side tabs and buttons at the back (after Racinet) 31
19. A coat worn at the end of the seventeenth century (after H.
Bonnart) 32
20. A modern coat with side pockets 32
21. A footman's coat, modern, with vestigial pocket flaps 33
22. Coat skirts buttoned back (after Hogarth) 33
23. A coat with the skirts buttoned back and showing the lining 34
24. A dress coat with skirts cut away 34
25. A modern coat cuff with buttons 35
26. Turned-back cuff, end of seventeenth century (after
Bonnart) 35
27. A coat sleeve (after Hogarth) with horizontal row of
buttons 36
28. Sleeve of a coat of the seventeenth century, reputed to
have been worn by Charles I 36
29. The turned-back cuff of an overcoat, modern 37
30. A sleeve with vertical buttons and a turned-back cuff as
well (from a uniform, after Hogarth) 37
31. The uniform of a coastguard officer of 1775 (after Racinet) 39
32. The nicks in the coat and waistcoat 41
33. A stage when the nick was useful (Lucien Bonaparte, after
Paul Lacroix) 42
34. The "toothpick" on a dress coat 43
35. Modern bands 45
36. A blue-coat boy's bands 45
37. A chorister of Jesus College, Cambridge, showing the collar
worn until recently. (From a photograph, by the courtesy
of Mr. H. Austin Wheaton) 45
38. A stage in the reduction of bands (portrait of Jan Steen
from the _Illustrated Magazine of Art_) 46
39. Full-sized bands (portrait of John Pym from the
_Illustrated Magazine of Art_) 46
40. A modern bandbox, now used for hats 47
41. Bands that survive at the present day 47
42. The turban of a Jewish priest (after Kitto) compared with
the dome of the Mosque of Omar 50
43. A Siamese head-dress and a Pra Pang or votive spire (after
P. A. Thompson) 51
44. A Gothic spire (St. Stephens, Caen) compared with the
hennin (the latter after Fairholt) 51
45. Band with streamers fastening on the head-dress of an
Egyptian woman. From a figure of the Sixth Dynasty,
3500 B.C. 52
46. A lady's head-dress confined with a fillet, fourteenth
century (after Viollet le Duc) 52
47. A sailor hat with band and streamers 53
48. A twelfth-century head-dress with streamers, from a MS.
(after Viollet le Duc) 53
49. A modern Scotch cap with streamers 54
50. A mitre of the See of Durham showing the strings (after
Millington) 54
51. Small vestigial bow of ribbon in a modern hat 55
52. A hat with the remains of lacing 55
53. A hunting hat with complete lacing inside 56
54. A disc of leather 57
55. The disc perforated and the lace inserted 57
56. The lace tightened to form a crown 57
57. The ends of the lace tied as a bow inside 57
58. A bow fastened to the lining of a lady's hat 58
59. Plumes on the left side 58
60. The red Hungarian cap, which was the forerunner of the
busby 59
61. A busby (of the Hon. Artillery Company) in which the cap is
a vestige only 59
62. A fireman's helmet (of the ancient Greek type) 60
63. Buttons so arranged that the broad brim of a hat can be
fastened to the crown, thus forming a temporary "cock"
(Hudibras, after Hogarth) 60
64. A modern boot decorated with perforations made in the
leather 63
65. An ornamented Roman shoe, of two thicknesses 63
66. A Roman shoe of open-work leather 63
67. A hide shoe of pre-Roman type from Ireland (after Fairholt) 64
68. The original top boot with the upper part temporarily
turned down 65
69. The modern top boot in which the upper part can no longer
be turned up 66
70. Puttees 66
71. Leg bandages of a royal personage at the end of the tenth
century (after Fairholt) 67
72. A stocking with clocks 68
73. An embroidered stocking showing the further evolution of
the clock (date 1900) 69
74. An open-work stocking of 1905 69
75. A shawl used as a kilt by a chieftain of Denmark in the
bronze stage of culture (after Worsaae) 73
76. A simple dress in the form of a petticoat from an Egyptian
figure of the Sixth Dynasty (3500 B.C.), from the Myers
collection in Eton College Museum 74
77. A Korean servant (after Hough) 75
78. A short kilt 76
79. A barbarian soldier wearing characteristic trousers (from a
diptych of St. Paul, after Marriott) 78
80. A Saxon military man wearing wide trousers (from the
Harleian MS., No. 603, after Fairholt) 79
81. A peasant woman of Champéry wearing trousers 80
82. A German Hussar of 1808 81
83. The crest on a modern signet ring 85
84. Sir Geoffrey Loutterell and the ladies of his family,
showing the extent to which armorial bearings were worn
in the middle of the fourteenth century. From a psalter,
made for Sir Geoffrey (after Fairholt) 85
85. The crest and surcoat of Henry, first Duke of Lancaster,
A.D. 1347. From the brass to Sir Hugh Hasting at Elsyng,
Norfolk (after Charles Boutell) 86
86. The helmet and crest of the Black Prince. From "Vetusta
Monumenta" (after St. John Hope) 88
87. The shield of the Black Prince. From "Vetusta Monumenta"
(after St. John Hope) 89
88. The surcoat or jupon of the Black Prince. From "Vetusta
Monumenta" (after St. John Hope) 89
89. The postilion of a Lord Mayor of London, wearing a crest
upon his cap, and a coat of arms upon his sleeve (copied
by permission from a plate published by the John
Williamson Co., Ltd.) 92
90. A baby's glove without separate fingers 95
91. The back of a woollen glove showing the three vestiges
known as "points" 96
92. A modern kid glove showing the fourchettes or pieces
between the fingers, which form three pointed V's 97
93. Queen Elizabeth's coronation glove, showing the stitching
carried down on to the back. (From a photograph by the
courtesy of Messrs. Fownes Brothers and Co.) 97
94. The glove of Anne, Queen Consort of James I, showing the
embroidery on the fingers, which is the ancestor of the
modern "points." (From a photograph, by the courtesy of
Messrs. Fownes Brothers and Co.) 99
95. A silk lace with simple metal tags 101
96. Ornamental metal tags on a velvet neck ribbon 101
97. A simple safety-pin 102
98. An Etruscan brooch or fibula, resembling a safety-pin. (In
the collection of Major W. J. Myers in Eton College
Museum) 103
99. The safety-pin in the waistband 103
100. The safety-pin grown larger and used for fastening on a
hat 104
101. A muff-chain 105
102. A hawker, illustrating the primitive way of carrying a
burden 107
103. A courier-bag supported by a baldric 107
104. An ornamental baldric of the early fifteenth century.
(Royal MS. 15, D. 5, after Fairholt) 108
105. A lady's dress, showing the part which is called a yoke,
and recalls a primitive method of carrying burdens 109
106. A loom comb found in the Glastonbury lake dwellings (after
Boyd Dawkins) 118
107. A modern comb for the hair 118
108. Two studs of bronze, seen from above and from the side,
later Bronze Age (after Worsaae) 119
109. The "flash" of five black ribbons on the collar of the
Welsh Fusiliers. A survival from the days of the pigtail 134
110. The modern groom, showing the belt to which ladies clung
when riding on a pillion 140
111. A footman in plush breeches and with powdered hair. His
"pouter" coat dates from the reign of George III. By the
courtesy of Messrs. F. T. Prewett and Co. 141
112. A sheriff's coachman with the full-skirted coat of the
time of George II. By the courtesy of Messrs. Prewett and
Co. 142
113. The wig-bag (a survival of the bag-wig) now seen on the
back of the collar of the Lord Mayor's coachman 143
114. A modern page-boy's livery 145
115. The Dutch skeleton dress, fashionable for boys in 1826 145
116. The cockade known as the "large treble," representing a
survival of the chaperon 152
117. A "treble cockade" covered with black cloth for mourning.
The concentric circles would appear to represent the
twisted liripipe of the chaperon 154
118. Treble cockade used by Chelsea pensioners 155
119. The Regent cockade 155
120. Royal cockade for state occasions 155
121. Ordinary Royal cockade 155
122.{Two stages in the evolution of the chaperon. Combined
{ hood and cape 156
{
123.{Enlargement of the peak of the hood to form the liripipe.
{ (After Calthrop, by kind permission of Messrs. A. and
{ C. Black) 156
124.{Further development of the chaperon. Cape and liripipe
{ made into a head-dress that can be altered at will 157
{
125.{A chaperon ready made up, in order to save trouble.
{ (After Calthrop, by kind permission of Messrs. A. and
{ C. Black) 157
126. Dress worn by the girls at Coombe Hill School, Westerham.
It is a modification of the Dervish Djibah 172
127. Dress worn by the girls at the Croft School, Betley, when
at work 173
128. St. Gregory the Great with his father Gordianus, who was a
senator, on his right, and his mother Sylvia on his left.
This shows the similarity between ecclesiastical and
civil costume in early times. From an authentic picture
(after Marriott) 188
129. A priest in the vestments now worn at the celebration of
the Eucharist 194
130. The coat of arms of Thomas à Becket, showing an
archbishop's pall 198
131. The head-dress of a nun showing the veil and breast-cloth
derived from the wimple, the cap which represents the
chin-cloth, together with the frontal and the hood 203
132. The head-dress of a lady of the time of Henry II. The
wimple is shown covering the chin and head-bands (after
Calthrop) 203
133. The chin-band and forehead strap after the wimple has been
removed (after Calthrop) 203
134. Hanging sleeve of the fifteenth century 209
135. The hanging sleeve of a Chancellor of Oxford University 211
136. A college cap or trencher 214
137. Cranmer's hat, illustrating a stage in the evolution of a
mortar-board (after Fairholt) 214
138. The hat of a bishop of the Stuart Period showing a stage
at which the stiffening now seen in the mortar-board was
becoming necessary (after Fairholt) 214
139. The wig of a modern judge 216
140. The vestige of the coif from the wig of a serjeant-at-law 217
141. A barrister's gown showing the vestigial hood and its
streamer. The buttons and braid which once temporarily
looped up the sleeves now fix it permanently 219
142. A Yeoman of the Guard of the present reign 224
143. The wig-bag or "flash" from a Court suit, showing the
rosette held away and displaying the black silk bag. At
the lower corners of the latter loops are seen, which are
probably the remains of those through which a ribbon was
passed, which went round the neck and fastened on the
breast by a brooch 229
144. The hood from the mantle of a Knight of the Garter,
showing the survival of the chaperon and its liripipe 230
145. Relic of chain mail on the shoulder of an Imperial Yeoman 233
146. Chain mail illustrated by the brass of Sir Richard de
Trumpington, A.D. 1289 234
147. A reversion in military equipment. One of Cromwell's
Ironsides (1679), from a print. A Cavalryman sketched at
Aldershot in 1901. Copied, by permission, from the _Daily
Mail_ 237
148. The prickers on the shoulder-belt of a Hussar, which
survive from the time of flint-lock muskets 239
149. The Oscan Pulicinella of 1731, without a long nose. The
dress is very similar to that figured in 1630 (after
Riccoboni) 256
150. The Calabrian Giangurgolo of 1731, with the long nose. The
dress is very similar to that figured in 1630 (after
Riccoboni) 257
151. An ancient bronze statuette with the face and features of
Punch (after Ficorroni) 258
152. A fourteenth-century puppet-show (from the MS. of the
"Roman d'Alexandre") 259
153. Punch, from the Punch and Judy Show, showing the ruff and
other details of Elizabethan costume 263
154. Judy, from the Punch and Judy Show, with ruff, mob cap,
and apron 263
155. The Beadle, from the Punch and Judy Show 264
156. The Doctor, from the Punch and Judy Show, with wig and
white tie 264
157. A clown, showing a survival of an Elizabethan costume 270
158. The dress of a modern harlequin 284
159. A pantaloon, showing an Elizabethan costume of which
Venetian breeches form part 285
160. The bands that survive on a lady's nightdress 289
161. A woman's nightcap, still worn in Wiltshire 289
162. A man's nightcap, from Oxfordshire 290
163. An English horse amulet in the form of a crescent. The
flat places near the tips of the horns are evidence that
the form is derived from two boars' tusks 294
164. An English horse amulet showing both the heart and the sun 296
165. The cowry-shell ornaments on the head of an officer's
charger of the 10th Hussars. The pendant recalls that on
mules in Palestine 298
166. Cowry shells on an Eastern mule, hanging like the pendant
of the 10th Hussars 299
167. Cowry shells on the head-stall of a camel from Palestine 299
168. A Merveilleuse (after A. Robida) 345
169. A modern family, consisting of the average-sized mother,
the taller daughter, and the puny boy (from a drawing by
Miss Audrey Watson in "Physical Efficiency," by Dr.
Cantlie, by kind permission of Messrs. Putnam's Sons) 357
I
THE THRALL OF DRESS
THE PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTION APPLIED TO CLOTHES
_The numbers in the text refer to a bibliography at the end of the book_
Unluckily, perhaps, we are born naked and helpless, but no sooner do we
come into the world than we are provided with body-guards in the shape
of clothes. In consequence, our social position is made manifest. Our
vanity is flattered at the same time that our modesty is assured. On the
other hand, however, our skin may be chafed, our hair worn away, and,
should our equipment strictly follow the dictates of the Goddess
Fashion, our bodies may even be deformed and our lives shortened.
Moreover, there are other penalties to be paid; we are kept warm in
summer as well as in winter, the purchase of our attire may entail
the spending of much money, while the mere donning and doffing of our
clothes gives rise to a prodigious waste of time.
Even tramps have at intervals to replace the rags which cover them, and
while, for all practical purposes, every one else takes off his clothes
when going to bed and puts them on again when getting up, many of those
who are at work in the daytime "dress for dinner" in the evening.
Moreover, Society may demand a further expenditure of time on the part
of its members, and the rule may be laid down that the higher the
standing of a civilized individual, the more often does he change his
garments. In fact, more than one monarch, from the way in which he
appears in different uniforms at various functions which follow one
another in quick succession, has been likened to the now familiar
"lightning change artist" of the music-hall stage.
It is thus quite clear that all of us are more or less under the thrall
of dress. Those, therefore, who find the position irksome, will gain
solace from the interesting investigations which can be made into the
origin and development of costume. Others, again, whose clothes already
find favour in their eyes, will enjoy looking at them from a different
point of view.
As a matter of fact, our artificial coverings have become so much a part
of our life that one may perhaps be allowed to apply the methods of the
naturalist to their consideration, and deal with them as if they were
part and parcel of the creature which wears them.
Darwin established beyond a doubt[1] that the plants and animals of
to-day are the direct descendants of older and often very different
forms, and it is the task and delight of the naturalist to trace their
genealogies. Most useful suggestions may be obtained from the small
vestiges that remain in the bodies of present-day creatures, of
structures which in early times were important and useful organs.
For instance, if the skin be lifted from the head of a "slow worm" we
find a third eye, which tells us that once its ancestors, like the giant
Cyclops, were able to look out from the middle of their faces.
Again, to take a case which applies to ourselves, and has a melancholy
interest for us, one might mention the vermiform appendix. This is a
remnant of a great sac which once was useful when our ancestors were
vegetarians; now it is worse than useless, for it is very liable to
become irritated and give rise to what is known as appendicitis.
So long as a quarter of a century ago Sir George Darwin pointed out[2]
that the great theory of evolution established by his father could be
applied with much advantage to the study of dress, and it will be seen
as we proceed that not the least fascinating part of the subject are
vestiges similar to those which we have just described, and which have
often survived solely for ornamental reasons.
Many of these are so familiar, that in running the eye in the ordinary
way over a man's usual costume, attention would not be drawn to them.
There is the band round the outside of his hat and the little bow
inside; the nick in the collar of his coat and the more or less useless
buttons on his sleeves and back; while we must not forget the curious
ornamentation on the toes of his boots, nor the crest on his signet
ring.
When, however, an indication is given of the times and peoples to which
these trivialities can be made to carry us back, interest is aroused to
a remarkable degree. It can also be well maintained, for other clothes
present similar quaint survivals for investigation, while the evolution
of many individual garments is worth following, and special costumes
have been handed down to the present day, practically unchanged.
Fortunately, the student of dress is in a much better position than
the naturalist proper. The evidence available when the history of an
organism in past ages is being unravelled, is very scanty in many cases.
Sometimes the fossil remains recovered from the earth are very perfect
and follow one another in unbroken succession, but they usually consist
merely of the hard parts of the creatures. The individual development of
an organism is also a help, but when the changes which have taken untold
ages to perfect, are repeated, as in the case of the chicken in the egg,
within the space of a few short weeks, it is not surprising that much is
left out and obscured.
Man has existed in a civilized condition for a comparatively short time,
and there remain all kinds of records and illustrations, not to mention
actual clothes themselves, which can be consulted or examined.
Moreover, primitive men in almost every stage of culture are, or were
till quite lately, to be found somewhere in the world, and much can be
gleaned from them as to the origin and uses of costume.
There is a point that may be borne in mind when seeking for curiosities
of clothing, and it is that the more special or ceremonial the occasion,
the more ancient or more primitive the costume which is worn. In this
connection also it may be mentioned that the dress of the master of one
generation may survive as that of the servant in another.
II
THE ORIGIN OF DRESS
Both he and his people were black as sloes
For the region they lived in was torrid,
And their principal clothes were a ring through the nose
And a patch of red paint on the forehead.
THOMAS HOOD THE YOUNGER.
In seeking the origin of dress we necessarily assume that once upon
a time our primitive ancestors did not wear any clothes at all. Even
nowadays, in our own country, at sports, in the ball-room, and on the
stage, the garments worn, or some of them, may be reduced to the minimum
that the rules of Society appear to demand. There are, moreover, two
reasons why very early man did not trouble to dress: first of all, he
was covered with hair like the majority of mammals; and, secondly, it is
more than probable that his home was within the tropics. (See Plate I.,
Frontispiece.) The two ideas are quite compatible, for all the great
apes--chimpanzee, orang-utan, and gorilla--which are the nearest
relatives of man, have been found in the warmer regions of the world,
and are well supplied with hair.
It has long been thought that the cradle of mankind is to be looked for
in the south of Asia, and it is a striking fact that of recent years the
bones of the earliest known creature that can with certainty be called
a man (_Pithecanthropus erectus_) were discovered in Java.[3] At the
same time it appears that _Pithecanthropus_, although it walked erect,
approximated more closely to the apes than does any more recent human
being, and in making a restoration of the type in question, one would
feel bound to endow it with a coat of hair. This has since been lost,
and, according to Darwin, owing to æsthetic reasons, the members of one
sex having chosen as mates those of the other who were the least hairy.
Man also has found his way into most parts of the globe, but he has not
always acted with regard to dress in the same way in similar climates.
The problem, therefore, which we have set ourselves to solve, proves to
be less simple than it appeared at the outset, for great use may be made
of clothes in one cold country and not in another, while they may be
unknown in certain parts of the tropics, and adopted elsewhere within
their radius.
Very often when it is sought to explain a matter, it is found that this
can be done in two or three different ways, and it is quite possible
that all of them may be correct. This fact may with advantage be borne
in mind when seeking for the reasons which lead to the adoption of
dress, for the first time, by any particular race.
Perhaps it will help us if we pause for a moment to consider why clothes
are worn at the present day. There is no doubt but that in the case of
many garments their ornamental character, real or supposed, is the first
consideration. Others are chosen chiefly for protection and warmth,
while, as already indicated, the rest suffice to satisfy the claims of
modesty. Although the three reasons are now intimately combined, it is
practically certain that any one of them is sufficient to have led to
the adoption of clothes in the first place, and as if these were not
enough there may be other contributing, if not actual causes.
We may now consider these matters in detail. It would seem from the
study of modern peoples, who are still in a very simple state of
civilization, as well as from one of the earliest drawings scratched
by the cave-men who were contemporary with the mammoth in France, that
ornaments are the most primitive part of dress. (See Figure 1 and Plate
II.)
[Illustration: A WOMAN AND A WITCH DOCTOR OF CENTRAL AFRICA, SHEWING THE
PART THAT ORNAMENTS MAY PLAY EVEN WHEN CLOTHING IS OF THE SCANTIEST.
(_From a photograph by Captain Ford._)
_PLATE II._]
Generally speaking, the more simple the race, the greater is its love of
ornament. The cave-man's sketch shows a woman who is devoid of clothing,
but who wears bracelets, while it is said that in the original a
necklace can be traced, though owing to an injury to the fragment of
bone on which the drawing was made, the head of the figure has been
lost.
On the West Coast of Africa, where clothes are not a necessity owing
to the heat, bracelets are worn in such numbers by the native belles as
to cover a large part of the forearm, while anklets rise in succession
nearly to the knee. (See Plate II.) Again, in New Guinea the women of
some tribes who do not indulge in a single scrap of clothing, still wear
ornaments on their heads and round their necks.
[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--Drawing of a woman engraved by a cave-man.
(Modified from Wilson.)]
There is, however, something to be advanced on behalf of savages that
cannot be said for white people who bedizen themselves with jewellery,
or bedeck themselves with the feathers of rare and beautiful birds.
Uncivilized people have no pockets nor safes in which to keep their
valuables, and it comes about that these take a form which permits them
to be worn on the person, so that many of the objects which take the
place of ornaments--such as teeth, shells, and beads--serve as the
currencies of their owners. Even now there are individuals of whom it is
said that they "put all their money on their backs," but, unfortunately
for them, it depreciates sadly in value, and cannot be turned to account
at a moment's notice. Furthermore, one naked warrior is very much like
another, and chiefs, in order that they may easily be identified, have
come to wear certain ornaments just as at the other extreme with regard
to covering, knights in full armour carried crests on their helmets and
other devices on their surcoats and shields.
Clothes proper are of later origin, and, as we have already mentioned,
would only be adopted for protective purposes after man had lost the
greater part of his hairy covering.
It is probable that this had happened before the earliest settlers
arrived in this country, although the cave-men made their drawings of
themselves in the nude, and it is contended that the marks on their
bodies are similar to those in the drawings of animals and are not mere
attempts at shading, but indicate the presence of hair.
In the first place, man was a hunter pure and simple, and his clothes
were made from the hairy skins of his quarry. At the present time the
Eskimos are clothed in this way, and there is little doubt but that they
are the descendants of the cave-men, who made the striking drawings to
which we have already alluded. Their implements, stature, and so forth,
all point this way, and the fact that their clothes are merely adopted
as a protection against the weather, is shown by the fact that they
remove them altogether when in their huts.
We have already said that it does not always follow that even when
the climate is cold, complete dress is brought into use. When H.M.S.
_Beagle_ visited South America, some of the Tierra del Fuegians
wore only an otter skin or some small scrap about as large as a
pocket-handkerchief. It was laced across the breast by strings, and
was shifted from side to side according to the direction of the wind.
Others, both men and women, wore nothing. One of the latter, who was
suckling a recently born child, came alongside the vessel in a canoe,
and stayed there, out of pure curiosity, while the sleet fell and thawed
on her naked bosom and on the bare body of her baby.[4]
Some races can make very passable clothes by hammering the fibres from
the bark of trees into a kind of cloth, while when men took to husbandry
and cultivated plants that produce fibres, they learned also to spin and
weave materials from which to make their garments. The use of furs has
always survived to a greater or less extent, but it is interesting to
note that motoring has caused a return to primitive dress as regards
external garments, for in order to withstand the air which is met when
the car is in rapid movement, fur clothes and leather suits have been
introduced, the latter of course being not quite so old in type as the
former. It must not be forgotten at this point that climate is not the
only enemy that man has had to face, and that armour was a development
of dress, intended to preserve him from the onslaughts of his own
species.
We have now noticed two ways in which clothes must have been brought
into use, namely, as adornments and for protection. We have still to
consider the third of the obvious reasons. Modesty is a habit, or one
might perhaps call it equally well a fashion, which is so widespread
that some have characterized it as being an instinct, and have stated
quite wrongly that it is universal. The most curious point with regard
to the matter is that very different ideas of modesty prevail in various
regions of the world, one part of the body being covered by some people
and another by others. Besides, it by no means follows that a naked race
is less chaste than one which is clothed.
Although at the present day races exist where only the men cover
themselves, it is very likely that clothes worthy of the name were first
worn by women, for keen observers have pointed out that men dependent on
their skill and speed in the chase would hardly encumber themselves with
clothes, though having comely wives they might deem it advisable for
them to be protected from the public gaze. This idea is still carried
out in Eastern countries, where women cover even the greater part of
their faces, and are usually secluded in a harem. As bearing out,
however, what we have just said with regard to modesty, it may be
mentioned that the peasant women in Egypt are perfectly happy so long
as their faces and the backs of their heads are covered, and it is
considered even more shameful to expose the latter than the former. The
objection made not long ago to the appearance of English women in church
without hats may be remembered in this connection.
Painting may often replace clothing, and members of races accustomed to
decorate their bodies in this way, are much ashamed if they are seen
unpainted. Tattooing also does away to a great extent with bareness, and
it is obvious that unclothed black men and women never present such a
naked appearance as do lighter-coloured races. In fact, a white man
who bathed with a number of coloured people likened himself and his
companions to an artificial, blanched, and sickly plant among its
healthy dark green fellows.
Doubtless the hair of original man was coloured so as to match his
surroundings, and it seems likely that the tint of his skin was reddish.
We have now no need for protective colouration (except in war time), and
as we do not live in the tropics, we should gain no advantage from being
black; therefore pigment is but little developed in our skins, and it
has been suggested that clothes sometimes have been adopted by white
races for æsthetic reasons apart from their development from ordinary
ornaments.
It seems possible, too, that man, upon realizing that he differed from
other animals in having no natural covering, set about to provide
himself with one.
There is, however, another contributing cause which may have led to the
adoption of dress, and this depends on the action of women themselves.
They may put on clothes for reasons of coquetry just as on occasion they
may modify or discard them. For instance, fashion at a moment's notice
may obscure one part of the body that hitherto was obvious, and at the
same time emphasize the natural outlines of others which before were
hidden. Again, the bare necks and arms displayed in our ball-rooms
afford another case in point.
III
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN COAT
THE ANCESTRAL SHAWL--PROBLEMATICAL BUTTONS
Now that we have considered the origin of dress as a whole, we may turn
with advantage to the evolution of individual garments. People are very
often pleased to allude to what are called the vagaries of fashion, but
it is curious to notice how little real change is made in costume at the
present time. The really useful characters are always retained, and our
modern clothes can be reduced to a very few types. A skirt is a skirt
whether it falls naturally, is held out all round with a hoop, or
crinoline, or is only supported behind by what at one time was known as
an "improver." And in the same way it may be said that trousers remain
trousers whether they have bell bottoms or are peg tops.
Even types which we recognize as being quite distinct, are often so
closely related as to cause surprise when their family history is made
known. Although it constantly alters as regards details, which from a
constructional point of view are quite unimportant, woman's dress does
not seem to have varied to any very great extent. Consequently, there
are not quite so many curious features to be seen as in the ordinary
clothes or uniforms of men. On the other hand, however, we may with
greater reason hope to find that some primitive characters have survived
until the present day.
No article of clothing could well be simpler than the shawl, and though
there is an art in its arrangement, the only point in its structure that
would appear to invite attention is the presence of a fringe on only two
sides. This seems to be a small matter, but it takes us straight back
to the time when men had ceased to be hunters merely, and having become
agriculturists had learned, as we have already indicated, to weave
fibres with the help of simple looms. From the cloth thus made clothes
were constructed, though skins continued to be used as outer mantles.
When the stuff was taken from these early looms, the threads of the warp
were left hanging from two opposite edges, and the fringe that we have
now on our shawls is a direct survival of this accidental occurrence.
There seems not the slightest doubt but that we can trace the coat from
the shawl. A simple improvement in the latter is to join two edges of
the shawl together and make a tunic. Such a tubular garment was used in
Greece, and, with some slight modifications, is worn by Egyptian women
to-day. It came up to the armpits, was gathered up on to each shoulder
and fastened with two brooches. (Figure 2.)
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Sketch showing the development of the tunic. In
this stage it has no arms.]
The next stage in development would be a sleeved tunic, and how easily
this could be derived from a shawl can be seen by putting a narrow one
over the shoulders and lifting up the arms as shown in Figure 3. The
material has only to be sewn together under the arms, and if necessary
cut into shape.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram showing the way in which a sleeved tunic
is derived from the shawl.]
If the front be not sewn up, we get the coat as we know it; if the edges
be joined along half their length or more, then we have a sleeved tunic,
a shirt, or vest (see Plate III). The smock-frock (see Figure 4) and
gown are more voluminous, while the jersey is short again, and has only
a small opening at the neck. An interesting garment is found among the
costumes of the Bronze Age chieftains of Denmark and their wives,
which have been preserved in the oak coffins of these people, owing to
the action of tannin from the wood which has preserved the woven
material.[5] The article in question belonged to one of the women,
and though the front edges are joined for a short distance, it is
practically a jacket. The sleeves are made all in one piece, and the
garment is very nearly as highly evolved as the Cardigan jacket, which
it very much resembles. (See Figure 5.)
[Illustration: THE SILK VEST WORN BY CHARLES I ON THE SCAFFOLD.
ILLUSTRATING THE SLEEVED TUNIC OPENING FOR A SHORT DISTANCE DOWN THE
FRONT.
(_From a photograph by Mr. Henry Stevens._)
_PLATE III._]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--A smock frock.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Jacket of a woman, made in one piece. Bronze
stage of culture (after Worsaae).]
It is by this time clear, that several important garments are the
descendants of the shawl, which is still used by men in the British
Isles under the title of the plaid, or maud.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Man's dress showing buttons on the right side.]
Though differing, of course, in detail, the upper garments of men and
women agree in general construction. One of the points alluded to is
worthy of mention, namely, that the buttons on a man's coat are on
the right side and the buttonholes on his left, while in the case of
women's attire the exact opposite is found--at least, so far as one can
ascertain--in European countries. In the East, the little knobs which
are passed through loops and take the place of buttons, may in the
women's dress be on the right side, and in other Asiatic costumes the
same thing holds good. In connection with this peculiarity, it may be
pointed out that men and women have different ways of doing up buttons.
The man takes hold of the button with his right hand, puts his left
thumb into the buttonhole and pushes the button against it. Then he
pulls the stuff over with his right forefinger and pushes the button
through with his right thumb while he guides it with his left.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Woman's dress showing buttons on the left side.]
The woman, on the other hand, puts her right thumb through the
buttonhole, takes hold of the button with the fingers of the same hand,
and finally, if the other hand is at liberty, brings it up to finish the
process. (See Figures 6 to 11.)