THE ARTIST'S JAPAN
"The great characteristic of Japanese art is its intense and
extraordinary vitality, in the sense that it is no mere exotic
cultivation of the skilful, no mere graceful luxury of the rich,
but a part of the daily lives of the people themselves."
_Mortimer Menpes._
At every turn of the head the artist in Japan discerns a picture that
delights his eye--a quaint little figure dressed in bright colours
standing by a twisted tree, a fantastic gateway through which he sees a
miniature garden, or the curving roof of a temple, half hidden among the
trees.
As architecture is always more or less affected by climate, the
Japanese, in their land of earthquakes and typhoons, have put up low
wooden structures, using cedar or fir principally, because they are
plentiful. The laws require that houses shall not exceed six _kin_, or
fathoms, in height, but allow warehouses, or _godowns_, which are more
substantially built, to be carried up much higher. If by any chance a
house has two stories, the second is very low. When I asked the reason
for such a law in China, where they have a similar one, I was told the
wind gods did not like tall buildings, but I was also assured that it
was partly to keep missionaries from building high churches. In Japan, I
think it is probably on account of the danger of earthquakes.
Owing to the rainy seasons in spring and autumn, the houses have no
cellars and are set on low piles. The summers are very warm and the
winters are fairly cold, so the _shoji_, or sliding screen, without
windows, was no doubt developed for that reason. Every house can be
thrown open in summer and closed tightly in winter. As fires are
frequent, no house is expected to last many years, and therefore the
Japanese store their valuables in fire-proof _godowns_.
The "Flower of Yedo" blossomed gloriously the other night, for hundreds
of the tiny fragile houses went up in smoke, and thousands of people
were made homeless. These Flowers of Yedo are the conflagrations that
time after time spread through wide districts of the Capital with
startling rapidity and leave nothing behind. Two days after the fire,
little houses and fences of fresh new wood were springing up, for the
people have been accustomed from time immemorial to these "Blossoms of
the Flower."
In olden times the roofs were covered with thatch, but the danger from
fires is so great that this has been replaced on many houses by tiles.
In China it is said that the fashion of curving the roofs of buildings
originated in order that the devil, when sliding down over them, might
be tossed up again; in Japan, there are also curving roofs and--in the
interior of the country--upon the outer walls there are drawings of the
god Jizo, who carries a large sword in both hands to ward off
misfortune.
In Japanese dwellings the kitchen is at one side of the front door. The
rooms seldom have more than one solid wall, the others consisting of
paper screens. In this solid wall there is always a _toko-noma_, or
alcove, raised about a foot above the floor of the room and perhaps two
feet deep. It should stand opposite the entrance, and is the most
honourable place in the house. Here, where the _kakemono_--a
perpendicular, panel-shaped picture--is hung, and a rare porcelain vase
of flowers may stand, is the seat of honour. At one side of the
_toko-noma_ is a cupboard--the place for the "honourable" book--and
above this is a drawer where the writing-box is kept, also the wooden
pillow. In some houses a square hole is found under the mat, in which a
fire is built for warmth or for cooking purposes. Where there are none
of these "fire holes," prettily decorated jars of charcoal, called
_hibachi_, are used.
The _shoji_ is often adorned with paintings or made of beautiful carved
wood. The hammered brass, the lacquered and polished wood, and the
superb ceilings add much to the beauty of the homes of the rich.
[Illustration: A CARVED PANEL.]
Wood carving, both inside and out, is such a feature of the houses as
well as the temples that it deserves mention here. At the entrances to
fine places and also on the slanting roof over the doorway of the house
itself superb carvings are often seen. So many designs and colours are
introduced, especially on temple gates, that full scope is given to the
imagination and taste of the artist. The famous cat, for instance, on
one of the gates at Nikko, is so wonderfully carved and so life-like
that it is said to frighten the rats away. Bahu, the Eater of Dreams,
and the phoenix and other imaginary animals also appear in Japanese wood
carving.
Temples are built on rising ground because the people believe that the
gods are pleased with high places. The old castles and temples are finer
architecturally than other buildings, the former, which were built upon
hills or beside great rivers, being extremely picturesque. They are
many-storied, pyramidal structures, with curving roofs and gables
projecting over each story. The buildings generally stand in three
enclosures, each surrounded by a wall or moat, and cover a large extent
of ground. The innermost, chief castle, is a large, square tower, three
or four stories high, in which lived the lord in feudal times. The
gentlemen of the household dwelt within the second enclosure, and in the
outer one the soldiers and servants had their quarters.
In the erection of castles and pagodas which have stood for many
centuries, the Japanese have shown not only their skill as architects
but also their knowledge of the principles of construction. Castles and
the sides of moats are built of huge blocks of stone, some of those at
Osaka being over thirty feet long and fifteen feet high, but the walls,
slanting from base to apex, are really pyramids, which are supported
within and bound together by enormous timbers.
Among the most interesting of these old structures are the castle at
Nagoya and that at Kumamoto, in Kyushu; the castle of Himeji is the most
perfectly preserved. Kumamoto was built in its present fashion in 1607,
and in the Saigo rebellion of 1877 it held out successfully against a
large force of rebels, showing no lack of strength in its construction.
The castle at Osaka, one hundred and twenty feet high and commanding an
extensive view over the River Temma and the surrounding country, was
once the finest fortress in the East, but has since been partially
destroyed in various sieges.
[Illustration: THE CASTLE OF HIMEJI.]
Pagodas--which are really towers with a series of curving roofs--are
very striking in appearance and most artistic. Some of them have stood
for seven hundred years or more, and many of them are kept upright by an
exceedingly ingenious device. In the centre, suspended from the top by
one end, hangs an immense log, the lower part of which is surrounded by
four other logs of the same size, firmly bolted to it. The base of this
enormous structure is about an inch from the earth at the bottom of the
pagoda, so that it forms a mighty pendulum, which in case of earthquake
sways sufficiently to keep the building stable.
When we discover that in Japan every person is an artist, we wonder at
the universal deftness and skill in handiwork, until we learn that
Japanese calligraphy is itself a fine art. Every character is an
exercise in freehand drawing, each stroke of the brush, which is filled
with India ink, being made by a quick movement of the forearm without
support for the wrist.
The methods of Japanese painters are very different from those of
Western artists. They begin work with a burnt twig, often on a piece of
prepared silk, afterward using the brush with India ink and water
colours. Each one values his own special cake of India ink very highly.
They do not draw directly from the object, but study it for hours in
every detail, and then draw from memory. After a picture is well thought
out, its execution may require only five or ten minutes.
Japanese artists have conventional types of beauty, as the Greeks had. A
woman must have a forehead narrow at the top, eyebrows far above the
eyes, eyelids scarcely visible, and a small mouth. A man should have
greatly exaggerated muscles, and arms and legs placed in almost
impossible attitudes. Their pictures abound in bold, sweeping lines--the
touch of power--and perhaps for that reason, they have great admiration
for Michel Angelo's work.
Although we may know the colour prints of the Japanese better than their
paintings, it is nevertheless true that their leading painters rank
among the great artists of the world. Pictures were painted for the
aristocracy; the colour prints, which cost but a trifle, were made for
the common people. Painting was introduced into Japan by Buddhist
priests, and some of the finest masterpieces are shut up from the world
in the temples of Buddha. Many of them, however, have been reproduced in
the beautiful series of wood cuts published by the Japanese Government.
America has two collections of the original paintings which are finer
than any in Europe--that in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and the
Freer collection in Detroit.
Painting, as a fine art, has existed in Japan for twelve centuries. The
oldest picture recorded is said to have been done on the wall of a
temple at Nara in the early part of the seventh century. The ninth
century was the first great literary and artistic era of Japan, when
Kanaoka lived, who is called the greatest master in the whole history of
Japanese painting. His works included not only Buddhistic figures but
also animals, landscapes and portraits.
Tradition has it that the peasants in the neighbourhood of a certain
Buddhist temple were greatly troubled on account of the havoc wrought in
their gardens by the nightly visits of some large animal. Setting a
watch, they discovered the intruder to be a magnificent black horse,
which took refuge from his pursuers in the temple. They entered, but no
horse was there, except one superbly painted by Kanaoka. As they stood
beneath the picture, drops of sweat fell upon them--the horse was hot
and steaming! Then one of the peasants caught up a brush, and painted
into the picture a halter which fastened the horse to a post. This was
effective; he never again foraged in the peasants' gardens.
The earliest purely Japanese school was the Tosa, which originated in
the tenth century. A glorious artistic period covered the three
centuries from the eleventh to the fourteenth. It was in 1351 that the
great Cho Densu was born, who has been styled "the Fra Angelico of
Japan." By some critics he is ranked with Kanaoka himself. Although he
was a Buddhist priest he did not confine himself to religious subjects,
but was equally great in other lines.
The Kano School was founded in the fifteenth century. This was the
period of the masters of landscape painting, among whom Sesshiu is the
most famous. His landscapes are full of grandeur and dignity, but it is
said his figure paintings must be seen before his power can be
appreciated. He went to China for study, but to his disappointment could
find no artist who could teach him anything he did not already know.
Then he said, "Nature shall be my teacher; I will go to the woods, the
mountains and the streams, and learn of them." As he travelled through
the country in carrying out his purpose, he found Chinese artists came
to study with him. The Emperor of China engaged him to paint a series of
panels on the walls of the palace in Peking, and on one of them, as
testimony that the work was done by a Japanese painter, he depicted the
peerless Fuji.
In the seventeenth century arose the Ukioye, or Popular School, of which
Moronobu and Hokusai were the great artists. They are perhaps even
better known for their prints. The Naturalistic School, more like
European work than that of the earlier artists, was founded by Okio in
the eighteenth century. To this group belonged Ippo, a fine landscapist,
and Sosen, one of the famous animal painters of the world, particularly
known for his pictures of monkeys.
Yosai, who died in 1878, was the last great Japanese painter. He studied
in all the schools, and combined some of the best characteristics of
each. Since his death there have been clever painters but no great
artists.
Like many other things in Japan to-day, her art of painting is in the
transition stage. There are two schools, the conservatives, who cling to
the art of ancient days, and the progressives, who believe that they
must borrow fresh conceptions from the Western masters, and feel that
want of reality has been a defect in the old Japanese work. However, in
copying Western methods, they are introducing vulgar subjects, from
which Japanese painting has generally been free. At the art exhibitions
of 1913 there were ninety-three who entered oil paintings; this alone
shows the great change in their work. While the Japanese painters of
to-day cannot escape the influence of European art, it is to be hoped
that they will not lose the delicacy of treatment, the subtle
suggestiveness, and the grace and sweep of line that belonged to the old
masters.
To my mind the most interesting things for Europeans to collect in Japan
are the prints, which first came in vogue about 1690. The Japanese have,
in these, added a charm quite their own to every thought which they have
received from other nations. The conditions under which the artists
worked in olden times were most favourable, for they lived under the
protection of the great _daimyos_, were supplied with the necessities of
life, and were free from care.
Mr. Keane, of Yokohama, is an authority on old prints, of which he has
made several collections. "We lunched one day with him at his home in
the upper part of his office building on the Bund, in Yokohama. (When
foreign merchants first went to Japan they always lived over their
places of business.) The view over the sparkling harbour and away off to
the horizon, where little fleets of slanting-sailed sampans were working
their way up the Bay of Yedo with the sunlight striking their sails, was
really superb. Mr. Keane stores his prints in a safe, but for the
enjoyment of his guests he took them out on the day of the luncheon.
They were so much finer and more interesting than the common, every-day
prints of the dealers that they quite took our breath away.
Of American collections, that of Mr. William Spalding, in Boston, is
particularly good, including, as it does, some beautiful rare figures in
black and white by Matabei, the father of the Ukioye school of painting,
from which the art of colour printing is derived. Mr. Spalding has
hand-coloured prints by Moronobu, some of which are in orange-red and
old rose. In some cases the paper of the old prints takes on a beautiful
yellow autumn glow with age, which adds to their beauty. The colours
yellow, black, orange and green were introduced about 1765. For the
orange-red and old rose red-lead (_tan_) was used, hence the prints of
this kind were called _tan-ye_, and are of great value to-day. Moronobu
was a wonderful draughtsman, and his figures in black and white are
greatly prized.
Masanobu and Kiyonobu were prominent among the early artists, but the
perfection of technique in prints was reached under Kiyonaga.
Utamaro, who became the leading print designer of his day, lived in the
latter part of the eighteenth century, when the art of making these wood
cuts was at its best. Unfortunately his whole life was a career of
dissipation; his father disowned him, and he was finally put in prison
for libelling the Shogun. Soon after that, his health gave way, and he
died at the age of fifty-three. Toward the end of his life, however, he
was so popular and so overwhelmed with commissions that in his endeavour
to fulfill orders his later work degenerated. Utamaro's style was copied
by his pupils, and his signature was so often forged that it is
difficult to pick out his prints. His chief works were pictures of
_geishas_, in which the long lines of the kimonos are much admired. His
were the first colour prints to reach Europe through the Dutch.
Toyokuni was another master of the same period, whose favourite subjects
were actors in character. In this sort of print and in his technique he
was unsurpassed.
Hiroshige--two of whose pupils took his name--lived at the beginning of
the downfall of Japanese colour printing. He was a prolific worker, and
his wood cuts are delicate and seldom show strong contrasts. He is
especially noted for landscapes, and did views of the Inland Sea, of
snow scenes, and of mists and rains, in very delicate pastel colours.
Eight famous views of Lake Biwa, as well as several sets of the Tokaido,
were done by this artist. Heads by Sharaku with a silver background are
very striking, and have lately become the rage in Paris. They certainly
have strength and individuality, but they are hideous beyond words. He
was especially fond of doing actors, and the faces are full of
expression.
Hokusai, whom Whistler called "the greatest pictorial artist since
Vandyke," is placed by European critics at the head of all colour-print
designers, but in Japan is considered second-rate. For one reason, the
Japanese cannot forgive the vulgarity of some of his subjects. We might
well apply to him the name given to the school of art of which he is the
best example--Ukioye, "Mirror of the Passing World." He was born in
1760, and started as an engraver, but became a book-illustrator at an
early age. At eighteen he went into the studio of Shunsho as a pupil,
but his work was so original and so unlike his master's that he was soon
expelled. After that, he was so poor that he peddled in the streets of
Tokyo.
Later, Hokusai collaborated with the successful novelist Bakin for many
years. The famous set of prints of a hundred views of Fuji, the series
of the waterfalls of Japan, the noted bridges, the scenes in the Loochoo
Islands, as well as the views of the Tokaido, were all done in the
latter part of his life. Hokusai used strong colours, and produced fine
work. He was most unfortunate in having all his original studies
destroyed by fire, and as he was careless about money matters he died in
poverty. Just before his death--in 1849--he said, "If fate had given me
but five years more, I should have been able to become a true painter."
[Illustration: VIEW OF MOUNT FUJIYAMA.--PRINT BY HOKUSAI.]
Entirely green and entirely red prints, I was told, were rare. I never
saw but one wholly green print in Japan, but that sold for a small sum,
so perhaps I was misinformed as to its value. I was also told that the
prints entirely in red were made to amuse the lepers in olden days, so
were destroyed afterward, hence few exist, but as I find some collectors
never heard of this story, again I am in doubt. The triptychs are
particularly valuable to-day. The long strips--the pillar prints--were
made for the poorer classes, the _kakemono_ for the nobles. Both
paintings and prints are usually in one of two shapes, either the
_kakemono_, or long scroll, or the _makemono_, the horizontal picture.
The former are not framed, so they can easily be rolled and stowed away
when not wanted for decoration.
The blocks on which the prints were engraved were made of cherry wood,
both sides of which were used for economy's sake. The design on thin
Japanese paper was pasted on the block, face downward, then the wood was
cut by the engraver. Black ink was used in the first stages of the
reproduction. Proofs were then taken by hand-pressure and pasted on
other blocks, one for each colour. "'Each of these colour-blocks was
then cut in a manner to leave a flat surface of the correct form to
receive the pigment proper to it; and the finished print was the result
of a careful and extraordinarily skilful rubbing on all the blocks in
succession, beginning with the key block.'"[12]
[12] Quoted from Mr. Arthur Morrison, in J. F. Blacker's "The
A B C of Japanese Art."
Some of the great Japanese painters designed prints, others did not.
Often it is difficult to distinguish by whom a print was designed,
notwithstanding the signature, because artists sometimes gave their own
name to their favourite pupil. For this reason and many others, beware
of the print-dealer.
The highly developed artistic sense of the Japanese has found expression
in various ways, but their deftness and delicacy of touch has led them
especially to the production of small objects that delight the collector
of curios. There is the _netsuke_ in endless variety; the _inro_, or
small medicine chest; the ornamental sword-hilt; minute wood carvings;
besides bronzes and porcelain in shapes innumerable.
Collectors will show you with great pride their _netsuke_. These were
worn as ornaments attached to the cord of the tobacco pouch to prevent
it from slipping through the sash. The _inro_ and the pocketbook were
also worn in the same way. The oldest and most valuable _netsuke_ were
made of the heart-wood of the cherry, which becomes a rich brown colour
with age, and some were beautifully carved.
A very old wooden _netsuke_, which was presented to us, represents the
goddess Uzume-no-Mikoto, popularly known as Okame. She was so beautiful
that she could not be pictured. As it was impossible to reproduce her
charms, a face was chosen to represent her that in no way was a
likeness, but was sufficiently individual never to be mistaken. She is
made very fat in the cheeks, and sits in the shade of a mushroom.
_Netsuke_ are also found in ivory, bone and jade. Many are images of
gods and goddesses, and some are humourous figures. A beautiful ivory
one that was given us is in the form of a turtle, which signifies long
life, but on the under side is one of the seven gods of luck with his
shiny bald head.
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the _inro_ was worn as an
ornament, and no man of taste would consider himself well dressed
without it. This led many of the great artists to design them. Among the
well-known _inro_ artists were Jokasai, Iizuka and Saiihara-Ichidayu,
but there are so many others who are noted in Japan that it is
impossible to give them all here. Some of the finest specimens of their
work are found to-day in the Imperial Museum in Tokyo. Many of these are
of lacquer, minutely and exquisitely carved, those in gold lacquer and
dark red being the most valuable.
There are lacquer vases and boxes, too, but the fine old lacquers are
not easy to get nowadays. Writing-boxes, some of which are in charming
designs, are also much in demand for collectors. Some of our
writing-boxes are of deeply carved old red lacquer, depicting houses and
landscapes. One is of gold and black with tinted maple leaves, exquisite
in design. Another has a background of speckled gold, on which are dwarf
cherry trees with blossoms of enamel, and still another of gold lacquer
is inlaid with mother-of-pearl.
Sculpture, like painting, was brought to Japan by Buddhist priests, and
many of the earliest statues were figures of gods and goddesses. These
were usually of bronze or wood, not so often of stone. As early as the
seventh century fine bronzes were cast at Nara, and over a hundred
altar-pieces of that period are still in existence in Japan. To a
somewhat later age belongs the colossal Buddha of Nara, the largest
statue ever cast in bronze. The Great Buddha of Kamakura, rather smaller
but of finer workmanship than that at Nara, is believed to date from the
thirteenth century.
Old bronzes are much sought after by collectors, the best dating from
the seventeenth century. Vast numbers of gods and goddesses and mythical
animals were made of small size to be set up in houses as well as
temples. Among these some of the Buddhas and Kwannons are fine. Buddha
has many attitudes--sleeping, exhorting or meditating--and all are
interesting.
Temple-lanterns, candlesticks, bells and incense-burners were also made
of bronze in forms showing great wealth of imagination. The beautiful
old bronzes are of several kinds--gold and silver, and many shades of
green and brown. The gold bronze takes on a wonderful polish, and can be
made in different colours according to the proportions of the metals
used in the alloys, varying from a deep-blue violet to a red-yellow or a
golden green. The silver bronze has a fine silver-grey tint. These
metals are also used in combination with gold lacquers and with
mother-of-pearl and silver, or are encrusted with charming relief
designs in enamels.
In the entrance hall of our Washington house is a huge green bronze
Buddha, at least ten feet high, with tight curls upon his head,
half-shut eyes, and the big ear-lobes, which signify longevity. In the
bronze halo about his head are small figures of Kwannon, and Chinese
characters decorate his garment. With one hand uplifted, he sits serene
and imperturbable, cross-legged on his lotus flower.
Not far from the Buddha is a bronze Kwannon about five feet high, a
gracefully draped figure, standing on a large petal of the lotus. About
her neck are jewels, and behind her crown is a small image of Buddha,
typifying her ever-present thought of him.
We also have a shrine that we prize greatly--a modern shrine, perhaps
five feet in height, such as is found in a Japanese gentleman's house.
The exterior is of black lacquer, but when the folding doors are open,
the interior is seen to be golden. In the centre stands a small Buddha;
the wise men--his advisers--sit cross-legged on either side. The carving
in this shrine is slightly tinted in colours, mixed with gold, and is
indescribably fine and beautiful. A _No_ dance is depicted for the
entertainment of the Buddha, above which are palaces, people and
animals, supposed to represent scenes in heaven. On either side hang two
bronze lanterns. On the table before the shrine are the ceremonial
utensils, consisting of an incense-burner, two flower vases, and two
candelabra. Below is a gong for the devotee to strike, in order to call
the Buddha's attention, and near-by is the box containing the holy
books.
In feudal days the _samurai_ went into battle clad in breast-plate and
helmet, gauntlets and coat-of-mail, all of which were adorned by the
armourer's skill, but the most beautiful decorations were lavished upon
the sword--"the soul of the _samurai_." The _shakudo_--sword-hilt--is a
curio that people collect. The inlaying and overlaying and blending of
metals that was done on arms and armour in olden times was marvellous,
and even the metal-work of to-day is remarkably clever. Besides the
sword-hilt, there was the sword-guard, a flat piece of metal, often in
exquisite designs.
Pottery from Korea and porcelain from China, of course, had some
influence in Japan. The Japanese are considered very fine potters,
perhaps the best in the world, and their old ware is highly prized. The
handsome old pottery made in Kyoto and also that of Bizen are much
valued by Japanese collectors, and the work of such famous men as
Nomura, Ninsei, and others is highly esteemed. Old Imari and Arita wares
are considered choice, as well as Satsuma, but all of them, especially
Satsuma, are much imitated to-day.
The Arita, a blue ware, is thought very pretty, but not until after
German methods were introduced did it attain perfection. The Seto
porcelain, made in the Tokugawa Period, is very well known. Kutani is
especially popular in America, and Awada ware is also in demand in the
foreign market. The cream-white made to-day in Kyoto is particularly
attractive. Neither the ancient nor the modern Japanese porcelains,
however, compare with the old Chinese, some people even going so far as
to say that the only things in the Far East worth collecting are old
Chinese porcelains.
Incense-burners are made in porcelain and bronze, and are beautifully
modelled in the form of gods and goddesses, and of birds and other
animals. Curiously enough, besides their office in worship, they were
used in playing a game, which consisted in guessing the name of the
perfume that was burning.
There are attractive lacquer and porcelain _saké_ cups to collect, and
so many charming modern things that I will not mention any more, except
the wonderful crystal balls, so clear and mysterious that they quite
hypnotize you if you look into their depths. The legend called "The
Crystal of Buddha" seems to show that these balls were originally
introduced from China. I insert the story here in order that we may
always be reminded of the delightful mythology of Japan as well as of
the treasures of the land. In a few words it is this:
A beautiful Japanese girl became the wife of the Emperor of China.
Before she left Japan, she promised to send back three treasures to the
Temple of Kofukuji. The Chinese Emperor found her very charming and
loved her very much, and when she told him of her promise, he put before
her many curios to choose from. She finally decided upon three fairy
treasures--a musical instrument which would continue to play for ever,
an ink-stone box which was inexhaustible, and the last, in Madame
Ozaki's words, "A beautiful crystal in whose clear depths was to be seen
from whichever side you looked, an image of Buddha riding on a white
elephant. The jewel was of transcendent glory, and shone like a star,
and whoever gazed into its liquid depths and saw the blessed vision of
Buddha had peace of heart for evermore."
But alas! while the treasures were on their way to Japan, there arose a
terrible storm, during which the crystal ball was stolen by the Dragon
King of the Sea. A poor fisherwoman at last found it shining in the
depths of the ocean. While in bathing, "she suddenly became aware of the
roofs of the palace of the Sea King, a great and gorgeous building of
coral, relieved here and there with clusters of many-coloured seaweeds.
The palace was like a huge pagoda rising tier upon tier. She perceived a
bright light, more brilliant than the light of many moons. It was the
light of Buddha's crystal placed on the pinnacle of this vast abode, and
on every side of the shining jewel were guardian dragons fast asleep,
appearing to watch even in their slumber." The fisherwoman stole the
jewel, but it cost her her life. In reward for her bravery her son was
brought up as a _samurai_, so the wish she had most at heart was
gratified.