THE DABISTÁN,
OR
SCHOOL OF MANNERS.
PARIS.――PRINTED BY M^{me} V^{e} DONDEY-DUPRÉ,
PRINTER TO THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,
46, rue Saint-Louis, au Marais.
THE
DABISTÁN,
OR
SCHOOL OF MANNERS,
TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL PERSIAN,
WITH NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,
BY
DAVID SHEA,
OF THE ORIENTAL DEPARTMENT IN THE HONORABLE EAST INDIA COMPANY’S
COLLEGE;
AND
ANTHONY TROYER,
MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETIES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, OF
CALCUTTA AND PARIS, AND OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS;
EDITED, WITH A PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE, BY THE LATTER.
VOLUME III.
PARIS:
PRINTED FOR THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
SOLD BY
BENJAMIN DUPRAT, BOOKSELLER TO THE BIBLIOTHÈQUE ROYALE, 7, RUE DU
CLOITRE SAINT-BENOIT.
AND ALLEN AND CO., LEADENHALL-STREET, LONDON.
1843.
THE DABISTÁN,
OR
SCHOOL OF MANNERS.
CHAPTER VII.
OF THE RELIGION OF THE SA DIKÍAHS.[1]
These sectaries are followers of _Musaylima_. The people of _Islam_,
“the true faith,” qualify _Musaylima_ as “the Liar.”[2] These
sectaries call themselves also _Rahmáníah_; as they gave to Musaylima
the title of _Rihm_, “commiserator;” they assert, that the words:
_Bismilla hírrehma nirrehím_, “in the name of the bountiful and
merciful God,” relate to him, that is: a God is the merciful
Musaylima. Muhammed Kulí, the man so named, contracted friendship with
the author of this work in the year of the Hejira 1053 (A. D. 1643) at
the holy sepulchre.[3] After some friendly intercourse, he said: “To a
true believer, it is necessary to acknowledge Musaylima as the bringer
of the true intelligence and a prophet; and if one does not so, his
faith is not the true.” For a confirmation of this assertion, he
adduced as evidence some verses of the Koran, and said: “Musaylima was
in the divine mission a partner of the dignity of the prophetic
asylum, Muhammed, in the same manner as Harun was with Moses.” He
further maintained: “Two prophets are required as being witnesses, and
evidence wants two persons, and if there be more, so much the better.”
He then highly extolled his virtues and miracles, such as his calling
the moon until she came down and before the eyes of his companions sat
down on his lap;[4] as his going to dry trees, and praying so, that
they all became green; as having, when a newborn child, given
testimony of his prophetic gift, so that a class of noble persons
professed their faith in his divine mission. That man besides said,
that the Koran is Muhammed’s miracle, by which he bound the tongue of
emulation to all the eloquent men of Arabia; and in like manner the
Almighty God sent to Musaylima a book, which they call the first
_Fárúk_, “separator;” this also became a binder of tongues to the
eloquent; and no man, except Muhammed and Musaylima, is capable of
understanding these two books, the reading of which affords salvation
in this and in the other world; but to expound them is a great crime.
The Almighty God bestowed upon Musaylima the favor of another
necessary and venerable book, entitled “the second Fárúk” to the
commands of which it is indispensable to conform our actions. What
Muhammed had revealed is all truth, and Musaylima, too, chose his way
in that direction; if some precepts of the latter and his celestial
book are contrary to the statements of Muhammed, it is because
Musaylima survived Muhammed[5] (upon whom be peace!), and cancelled
some of them by the command of God, as in like manner, during
Mohammed’s life, some of his precepts have been obliterated. The man
quoted from the heavenly book of Musaylima the following words: “Adopt
the belief (O men!) that our God is the God of the world, and know,
that he is the Creator of the universe and of its inhabitants; that he
is above the creatures, none of whom is like him; say not, that he has
no body; for it may be that he has a body, although not one like a
body of his creatures: hand, eye, and ear of God are mentioned in the
Furkán[6] which came from Muhammed; and what is stated in the first
Fárúk, which is the book of Musaylima, is all truth; but the hand, the
eye, and the ear of God are not like the hand and foot, and eye and
ear of the creatures. Thus faith is required for an intercourse with
God, and contemplation of the Creator; yet, whatever was found
existing can be seen, but the vision of the eye, and the want of it,
ought not to be taken in a confined sense, as faith is to be
entertained that God shows himself to his servants in whatever manner
he wills.” The man further proceeded to say: “Avoid discussions about
antiquity, tradition, and duration, and the evanescence or destruction
of the world, because the world is the creation of God, and as to the
last judgment and resurrection after death, attach your faith to them,
and be confident that you shall be raised to life, and in that fix
your thoughts, that it will be with the same or another body, in this
or in another house, to heaven or to hell, to beatitude and repose, to
recompense or punishment; attach your faith to this, and avoid diving
too deep into it, whether it will be in this or in another habitation;
believe in the angels of God, but say not that they have wings and
feathers, or that, although this form be not essential to them, they
nevertheless show themselves in this form, and know that good and bad,
fine and ugly, are existing; but do not say, that this is good and
that bad; for that which you call bad may be good, and inversely: but
whatever is commanded, that do.” The man proceeded to say: “In the
time of Muhammed no Kiblah was fixed: men turned their faces sometimes
towards Jerusalem, sometimes towards the Kâbah of _Mecca_, and
sometimes towards any other place. After Muhammed, his companions
established by force that Kâbah should be the Kiblah. After Muhammed
it was ordered by Musaylima, that turning the face towards the great
altar, or any determined object, is impiety, and a sign of infidelity,
because as no figure of whatever likeness from among living beings
ought to be made a Kiblah, why should it be permitted to make a Kiblah
of a house? Further, at the time of prayer, one may turn his face to
whatever side he chooses, provided it be with this intention: I
address myself to thee, who hath neither side nor figure.” At the
three daily prayers which Musaylima has prescribed, the worshipper
turns his face to no particular side; so if he turned himself at
midday-prayer to the east, before sunset he prays towards the west;
never towards a fixed place, nor to a fixed house, because this is
infidelity. These sectaries do not call the Kâbah “the house of God,”
as the Almighty God has no house, otherwise he would have a body. They
do not use the prayers of the Sunnites, as prayer with them is that
which God has prescribed, and not that which the prophet likes. When
they feel a desire to worship God, they read the divine words, and
then reassume their work; but in their prayer, they never pronounce
the name of the prophet; because it is contrary to sound doctrine to
mix the veneration of a creature with the service of God, and in the
prayer nothing comes upon their tongue but the word of God, not even
the sayings of the prophet. Moreover, this sect prays three times a
day; for, of the five prayers _ordered by Muhammed_, Musaylima, by
God’s command, dispensed with the evening and morning prayer to
_Saháh,[7] his wife_, who was a prophetess, and sent to the people as
the reward of an excellent genius: this was one of the suitable favors
of the Lord to Musaylima, who himself was a prophet, and his mate,
also a prophetess.
As to what is said, that God commanded Iblis to adore Adam, and that,
because he disobeyed, Iblis was expelled from the celestial
court[8]――this tale is impious; because God does not command
prostration before another object, nor induce any body to undue
worship, as he did not create Iblis for the purpose of throwing men
into error. In the second Fárúk, it is stated that Iblis does not
exist; the Almighty God gave man free choice, and the faculty of
acting well or ill: wherefore he takes account of his good and bad
conduct.
This sect also maintains that, for marriage, neither witnesses nor
ceremonies are required; acquiescence and agreement of two persons in
a retired place are sufficient. Further, although in the time of
Muhammed (the blessing and peace of God be upon him!) it was permitted
to ask in marriage the daughter of relations, such as that of a
paternal or maternal uncle, yet, after Muhammed, it was prohibited;
likewise, connexion between consanguineous individuals, which was wont
of old, became forbidden in Muhammed’s time. By Musaylima came the
command of God to take to wife the daughter of one, between whom and
the suitor not the least relationship is known. To contract marriage
with more than one woman is not legal, but if any one wishes more, he
may take another on the condition of temporary cohabitation.
To purify before prayer with sand or dust, when water cannot be had,
is not right.
When one possesses a slave, male or female, who is an unbeliever, this
slave, adopting the true faith, becomes free without requiring the
leave of his master.
Whatever animal feeds upon filth which pollutes, this to eat is not
allowable. Domestic fowls are not to be eaten, because they are winged
pigs.
Musaylima forbade to keep the fast of Ramezan, but instead of this he
prescribed the fast at night, in such a manner that, from sunset to
sunrise, nothing may be eat nor drunk; and also abstinence from sexual
intercourse.
Moreover, he abolished circumcision, for avoiding resemblance with the
Jews. He prohibited all intoxicating liquors, such as those produced
from the palm-tree, opium, nuts, and the like.
Muhammed Kulî used to read much in the second Fárúk, the book of
Musaylima, which, having collected, he recited, and said: this
doctrine came to me from my father and my ancestors, who enjoyed the
noble society of Musaylima. He said and enjoined that, after the birth
of a son, the first observance is not to approach one’s wife; the
woman and man ought to turn their mind to God, and if one cannot
effect it, he ought at least not to see his wife but once a day.
According to the second Fárúk, it is allowable to have intercourse
with another woman, inasmuch as it is another sort of contract.
Muhammed Kuli said: “I saw Musaylima repeatedly in dreams, in which he
disclosed what was unknown to me, and said: When by orders of
Abu-bekr, Musaylima underwent the death of a martyr, and other Khalifs
were movers of this event, therefore the Almighty God made them suffer
the curse of mankind; in the same manner as he threw the Jews, on
account of the murder of Jesus, into error and perdition.
“The murderers of Musaylima are liars and villains, and so are the
murderers of Sáíd Al Shahái Hamzah.”[9]
[1] In the before quoted Memoir of H. T. Colebrooke (_As.
Res._, vol. VII p. 342), we read, as taken from the account
of Núrukah of Shúster, what follows: “The _Sadikíyahs_ are a
tribe of the faithful in Hindustan; pious men, and disciples
of _Sayyad Cabíru ’ddin_, who derived his descent from
Ismâil, son of Imám Jáfer. This tribe is denominated
_Sadikíyahs_, by reason of the ‘sincere’ (sádik) call of
that Sayyad. Although that appellation have, according to
received notions, a seeming relation to Abú bekr, whose
partisans give him this title; yet it is probable that the
sect assumed that appellation for the sake of concealment.
However no advantage ever accrues to them from it: on the
contrary, the arrogant inhabitants of _Hind_, who are
_Hinduis_, being retainers of the son of the impious _Hind_
(meaning Hinda, the mother of Mâviyeh), have discovered
their attachment to the sect of Shiahs, and have revived
against them the calumnies which, five hundred years before,
they broached against the Ismâilahs. They maliciously charge
them with impiety. Such is indeed their ancient
practice.…――In short, nearly thirty thousand persons of this
sect are settled in provinces of Hindustan, such as Multan,
Lahóre, Délhi, and Gujrát. Most of them subsist by commerce;
they pay the fifth part of their gains to the descendants of
_Sayyad Cabír_, who are their priests: and both preceptor
and pupil, priest and layman, all are zealous Shiáhs.…”
It will be evident that the author of the Dabistán speaks of
a sect which bears the same name, but which owns another
founder and another Koran, although possessing some tenets
common to other sects.
[2] Musaylima once professed the creed of Muhammed, before
whom he appeared as one of the deputies sent by the tribe
Henaifa, when they offered their submission to the prophet.
But in A. D., 631 Musaylima declared himself a prophet in
the country of Yamáma, and gained a great number of
followers; he dared even offer himself in a letter to
Muhammed, as a partner of his prophetic mission, but
received a refusal, with this address: “From Muhammed, the
Apostle of God, to Musaylima, the Liar.”
[3] مشهد, _Mashhad_, signifies properly any place where a
martyr has been buried, and is particularly applied to the
burying places of Imáms, such as that of Kerbela, near Kufa,
before mentioned. But the town of Tús, in Khorassan, has
almost exchanged its proper name for that of _Mashhad_,
“sepulchre,” because the Imám Risa, son of Mussa al Khadem,
was buried near that place. Is it that which is meant above?
Although the author says (Vol. II. p. 364), that he was in
1053 (1643) in Lahore, which is about 1200 miles distant
from Tús, his visiting, the same year, both towns, is far
from impossible. In the same year, we find him in Kirtpúr,
in the mountainous part of the Panjab (_ibid._, p. 416), and
in Kabul, which is on the road from Lahore to Tus.
[4] The moon acts a conspicuous part in the prestigious
exhibitions of magicians. There appeared during the reign of
Muhammed Mahadi, the third khalif of the Abbasides, from the
year of the Hejira 158 to 169 (A. D. 774-785), in the town
of Nekhshab, in Khorassan, an impostor, called _Hakem ben
Hasham_, whose surname was _Sazindah mah_, “moon-maker.”
Having but one eye, he used to hide his deformity under a
silver veil, or mask, whence he was called _al Mokanna_,
“covered by a veil.” So concealed, he pretended nobody could
bear the effulgence of his face, like that of God himself.
At the head of a numerous party, he was not without
difficulty reduced by the ruling Khalif. Hakem’s particular
mode of suicide will be adverted to in a note at the end of
chapter VIII.
[5] Muhammed died on the 8th June, A. D. 632; Musaylima did
not long survive him. He was killed, with ten thousand of
his soldiers, under the reign of Abu-bekr, in A. D. 632, in
a battle against Khaled, the son of Valid, who was sent with
an army against him. Although the party of the new prophet
appeared then crushed, yet we see by the account of the
Dabistán, that its doctrine maintained itself as late as the
seventeenth century of our era.
[6] _Furkán_, separating, discriminating, is another name
for the Koran; and signifies any sacred book discriminating
the right from wrong.
[7] Thomas Erpenius, the translator of Elmacin, calls her
Thegjazis (_Hist. Saracenica_, p. 19); her true name was
_Sijah_, the daughter of Haret, of the tribe of the
Tamimites, or Taalabites, according to Elmacin (loco
citato). She declared herself a prophetess, and gained
ascendancy in the country of Bahrein, along the
south-western shores of the Persian gulf, and in almost the
whole tract between Mecca and Bassora. She offered herself
as wife to the new prophet, in Yamáma, who married her, but
she soon abandoned him.――(See _Abulfeda_, vol. I. pp. 208,
209.)
[8] We find in the Koran, chap. II. v. 28, the following
passage: “When thy Lord said unto the angels: I am going to
place a substitute on earth, they said: Wilt thou place
there one that will do evil therein, and shed blood? but we
celebrate thy praise, and sanctify thee. God answered:
Verily, I know that which ye know not.――29. And he taught
Adam the names of all things, and then proposed them to the
angels, and said: Declare unto me the names of these things,
if ye say truth.――30. They answered: Praise be unto thee; we
have no knowledge but what thou teachest us, for thou art
knowing and wise.――31. God said: O, Adam! tell them their
names. God said: Did I not tell you that I know the secrets
of heaven and earth; and know that what ye discover, and
that which ye conceal?――32. And when he said unto the
angels: Worship Adam; they all worshipped him, except Iblis,
who refused, and was puffed up with pride, and became of the
number of unbelievers.――In Chapter VII. v. 11. God said unto
him: What hindered thee from worshipping Adam, since I
commanded thee? He answered: I am more excellent than he;
thou hast created me of fire, and hast created him of
clay.――12. God said: Get thee down therefore from paradise:
for it is not fit that thou behave thyself proudly therein;
get thee hence; thou shalt be one of the contemptible.――13.
He answered: Give me respite until the day of
resurrection.――V. 14. God said: Verily, thou shalt be one of
those who are respited.――15. The devil said: Because thou
hast degraded me, I will wait for men in thy strait
way.――16. Then I will come upon them from before and from
behind, and from their right hand and from their left, and
thou shalt not find the greater part of them thankful.――17.
God said unto him: Get thee hence, despised, and driven far
away; verily, whoever of them shall follow thee, I will
surely fill hell with you all, etc., etc.
(_Sale’s Translation._)
[9] Hamzah was an uncle of Muhammed, and one of the first
abettors of the prophet; he was killed by a servant of the
Habeshi race, called Vahshi, in the battle of Bedr fought by
Muhammed against the Koreish, in the third year of the
Hejira (A. D. 624); the same Vahshi killed Musaylima with
the same spear with which he had pierced Hamza.――(_Abulfeda_,
vol. I. pp. 93, 213).
CHAPTER VIII.
OF THE RELIGION OF THE VÁHADIÁH AND IMANÁ,
IN FOUR SECTIONS.
SECTION I. Of the appearance of the individual Vahed, and an account
of his person.
SECTION II. Upon some of the tenets of Vahed.
SECTION III. Upon some of the sayings of Vahed.
SECTION IV. Upon certain customs, forms of speech, and traditions of
this sect.
SECTION I.――Of the appearance of the individual Váhed, and an account
of his person.
* * * * *
Váhed Mahmúd was born in Masjuan, a village in the country of
Gilán.[10] He was learned, active, abstinent, austere, and eloquent;
he appeared in the year of the Hejira 600 (A. D. 1203-4).[11] It is
said that when Muhammed’s body had attained a greater perfection, from
it _Mahmúd_ arose:
“We shall resuscitate thee in a place _Mahmúd_ ‘praiseworthy.’”
The meaning of it is this: When in an elemental matter, the energy
conjoins in such a manner that by it an exuberance results in the
composition of the mineral form; then it may happen that it assumes
such a superior aptness as to invest itself with a vegetable guise;
when its faculty and fitness gains a further increase, then the animal
vest adapts itself to a suitable shape, and becomes worthy, that the
elemental matter, fitted for the dignity of a human constitution,
converges to such an excellence as to manifest itself in the
perfection of mankind. In this manner, the parts of the human body
from the appearance of Adam were progressing in purity, until they
attained the dignity of a Muhammed, who is the top of the ladder. In
this time, as the perfection and purity advanced, _Mahmúd_ appeared.
On that account it was said:
“From Muhammed is the flight to Mahmúd:
As in the former there is less, and in the latter more
(perfection).”
And the words which the lord of the prophetic asylum, Mohammed,
addressed to Alî:
“I and Ali proceed from one light; thy flesh is my
flesh, and thy body is my body.”
have this meaning: that the purity and energy of the bodily parts were
collected in the prophets and the saints; and from them the bodies of
Mohammed and Ali were kneaded, in such a manner that the chosen parts
of Mohammed’s and Ali’s bodies being conjoined and mixed together, the
person of _Mahmúd_ was formed.
[10] A country between the Caspian and Euxine seas.
[11] Herbelot mentions (under the article Giogathai Khan, p.
363) a _Mahmud_, surnamed _Tarabi_, from his native place
_Tarab_, near Bokhara, as an impostor, who by tricks and
false miracles gained so many followers as to be able to
seize upon the town of Bokhara, and to make war upon the
Moghuls, in the year of the Hejira 630 (A. D. 1232). This
date makes him a contemporary with the Mahmúd of our text,
in which, however, nothing more is to be found for enabling
us to identify the one with the other. Such was the terror
which the name of Mahmùd Tarabi inspired, that the Tartars,
being led against his camp, were seized by a panic, and took
to flight, in which many thousands of them were slaughtered
by the pursuing soldiers of Mahmúd, whilst he himself had
been killed in his camp, by a random shot of an arrow from
the Tartarian army. But his death remained concealed, and
his friends spread the rumor of his voluntary but temporary
disappearance. His brothers, Muhammed and Ali, were put at
the head of the party, which was soon after overthrown by
the Moghuls.
* * * * *
SECTION II.――AN ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THEIR TENETS.――The author of this
book heard from a person who was one of the _safá_, “pure” Durvishes,
from the Durvish Bakáí Váhed, from the Durvish Ismâíl, and from Mizza
Takí, from Shaikh Látef illa, and Shaikh Shaháb, who belonged to the
Imaná, what follows: Any single person is a being which longs after
earth; but other elements also exist with an abhorrence of earth.
These sectaries consider the sun as the spirit of fire, and call it
the Kâbah of worship, the fire-temple of obedience to the holy being.
Hakím Khákani says:
“O Kâbah of the traveller of heaven,
O zemzem,[12] sacred well of fire to the world.”
They hold the heaven to be air, and the moon to be the spirit of
water. They agree upon transmigration in the following manner: when a
man dies and is buried, the component parts of his body manifest
themselves in the shape of minerals or vegetables, until the latter
become the food of animals, or serve as aliment to mankind. These
sectaries subjoin: in the food may reside intelligence and action; for
the dispersed ingredients of a body are in the food; intelligence and
action collect all in one place, where * they experience no
dispersion, although the conformation of the body may be disjoined;
whether in the producing of a mineral, a vegetable, an animal, or a
man. *[13] They do not agree upon the existence of a rational
unsubstantial soul. They know of no heaven without the elements, and
believe the necessary original principle to be a point of earth.
Instead of _Bísmilla hirrehma nirrehím_, “in the name of the bountiful
and merciful God,” they write _Isteâín ba ne fseg illazi la illah hú_,
“I assist myself of thy essence which alone is God;” and instead of
_láysa kamsillah shaya_, “nothing is like it;” they say _Ana merkeb
almabin_, “I am the vehicle of him who explains the truth.”
[12] _Zemzem_ is the name of a famous well at Mecca.
According to the Muhammedans, it was formed from the source
which God made appear in favor of Ismâil and Hagar, his
mother, whom Abraham drove from his house, and obliged to
retire to Arabia. When afterwards the patriarch came to
visit his banished son Ismâil, and built the square temple,
called Kâbah, he bestowed upon him the possession of it and
the surrounding country, since called Mecca. This place
became an object of contest between Ismâil’s posterity and
the Arabian tribe of Jorhamides. The latter, after having
possessed themselves of it, were attacked by the former, but
before yielding it, they threw the sacred black stone, with
the two gazelles of massive gold which an Arabian king had
presented to the temple, into the well, and then completely
filled it up. So it remained until the time of an ancestor
of Muhammed, called Abdal mothleb; he was admonished by an
heavenly voice to clear the well, the situation of which was
at the same time indicated to him. This was near the idols
Assat and Neilah, which were first to be removed, in spite
of their adorers, the Koráishites. The latter, having ceded
the well, claimed to share the treasure which Abdal mothleb
had found in it. The new contest was to be decided by Ebn
Sáid, a famous prophet, who lived on the confines of Syria.
Upon the way to him, through a desert, when both parties
were dying of thirst, a fountain which sprung up beneath the
foot of Abdal mothleb’s camel brought about a reconciliation
between them; the well was cleared; the treasure found was
consecrated to the temple, which in after times gained so
much celebrity.――(_Herbelot after Khondemir._)
[13] In the translation of this obscure passage between the
two asterisks (edit. of Calcutta, p. 375, l. 17, 18) I
followed the manuscript of Oude, which reads a little
differently: وپر اکندہ نکردند اکرچہ ترکیب كالبد کشادہ شود
خواہ درنشاء جمادی خواہ نباتی خواہ حیوانى یا نشانی
SECTION III.――UPON SOME OF THE SAYINGS OF VáHED.――The _Mizán_,
“balance,” is a book which Váhed composed with many others; it is
distinguished by the word _naskh_ and “treatise;” and each naskh and
treatise has a particular name. In the Mízán, which is reputed among
the naskhs, it is stated, that the materials of the world existed from
the very beginning, which signifies from the first appearance of
_afrád_, “rudimental units (monades?),” which are primordial, that is
to say, the root of the before-said state, until the time when these
rudimental units, tempered together, became vegetables; thence rose
animals, which are called _dabtah ul ares_, “the reptiles of the
world.” Thus it existed until man was formed. The first mentioned
state might have extended to sixteen thousand years; so that eight
thousand years of the said number may be the period of Arabia, which
is the superior, and eight thousand years the period of Ajem (Persia),
which is the inferior period. In the sequel, when the said world,
which is the era of the first mentioned rudimental units, had been so
constituted as to admit the formation of man; then the duration of
life, comprising the period of man, was to be also sixteen thousand
years; of which eight thousand years should revolve for eight perfect
prophets of Arabia, and other eight thousand years for eight perfect
teachers of Ajem. Further, when the cycle of the two formations shall
be completed, then the turn of the fundamental units is to reappear.
After twice the said eight thousand, that is, sixteen thousand years,
according to simple computation, when a perfect cycle of mankind and
the world, in sixty-four thousand years,[14] on conditions exterior
and interior, manifest and hidden, shall have been completed, then an
entire period shall have received the seal.
[14] The period of rudimental units, vegetables,
and reptiles 16,000 years.
The period of mankind 16,000 ――
――――――
Both periods 32,000 ――
Multiplied by 2 ――
――――――
Total 64,000 years.
SECTION IV. ON CERTAIN CUSTOMS, FORMS OF SPEECH, AND TRADITIONS OF
THIS SECT.――Mahmúd has treatises and rules conformable to the law of
the prophet; but he interpreted the Koran according to his own creed.
Of his established customs are the following: One living in solitude
is called _váhed_, “recluse.”[15] Praises are due to the man devoted
to this state, whose whole life is spent in holiness, poverty, and
retirement; who feels no inclination for connexion; takes little, and
no more than necessary, food; such a man will rise to perfection, and
become a “váhed,” attaining the divine dignity which leads to that of
a “teacher.” If the pious person feels himself inclined to connexion
with a woman, let him enjoy her once in his whole life; if he cannot
otherwise, once in one year; if he requires more, once in forty days;
if this be not enough, once in a month; if still more, once in a week.
A váhed is reported to have given the following information: When one
descends from the state of a man to the state of an irrational animal,
or from that to a vegetable, or from a vegetable becomes a mineral; in
this manner, by reaction of impressions and dispositions, he receives
in each state a mark (_mahs_), which he bears from formation to
formation:
“Fear the intelligence of the believer, because he sees
by the light of God.”
_Mahs_[16] in the dictionary is interpreted “a computer,” but in the
idiom of this tribe it signifies (as just said) that every individual,
in his disposition and action, bears a vestige of the disposition of a
former state. It is a part of their persuasion, that, when an
individual enters for the first time in a society, the name of
whatever in the three kingdoms of nature he first brings upon his
tongue, is supposed to be the _ihśa_, or “mark,” that in a former
state he had been the very thing the name of which had fallen from his
tongue.
These sectaries hold, that pilgrims exercise the profession of cheats,
wearing a garment marked with stripes, which they call the vest of
Kerbála; and that they practise but hypocrisy and deceit. When,
according to their low disposition, they descend to the state of
brutes, they become animals, which the Hindus call _Galharí_,
“squirrel;” and when transformed into vegetables, they become striped
pumpkins, or weak jujube-trees; when they undergo the transformation
into minerals, they are onyxes. In this sense this sect interprets the
_mahs_, or “mark.” Lawyers and governors, who wash hands and mouth,
friends of white garments, become geese, which at every moment plunge
their head into water; in the state of vegetables, they assume the
form of sticks for rubbing teeth, of reading-sticks, and of mats to
cover the place of prayer; and in the state of minerals, they figure
as hard stones, stones of sepulchres, and magnets. The glow-worms are
torch-bearers, who, descending by degrees, came to take this shape. A
dog, having been in his former state a Turk of the tribe
_Kazelbásh_,[17] and his crooked sword having become his tail, betrays
his Turkish origin by coming forth at the call _khach_: which in
Turkish means “forth.” These sectaries further say, that the iron by
which a prophet or a saint has been killed, is that which acquires
excellence.
“Saints, when they desire the voyage to the eternal kingdom,
Desire from the edge of thy blade the _takbír_,[18]
‘magnifying exclamation,’ of death.”
They also hold, that the Imám Hossain from state to state descended
from Moses, and that Yezíd (his murderer) descended from Pharaoh.
Moses, in his time, drowned Pharaoh in the waters of the Nile, and
obtained the victory over him; but in the latter state Moses, having
become Hossain, and Pharaoh, Yezíd, the latter did not give to Hossain
the water of the _Ferát_, “Euphrates,” but with the water of the sharp
steel, deprived his body of life.
These men further assert that, whatever sorts of minerals, vegetables,
and animals are black, were formerly black-faced men, and whatever are
white, were men with a white skin.
These sectaries all venerate the sun, and profess that he is the
Kíblah; and the door of the Kâbah facing the sun refers to this
meaning, that the sun is the true Kíblah; they have a prayer which
they chant with their face turned towards the sun.
They maintain that, when the period of Ajem takes place, men will
direct their road to God, and they venerate these men, and hold human
nature to be divine. Their salutation is: _Alla, alla_. When the
period of Ajem is completed, men will remain, and they think that the
men whom we venerate were superior in rank to those who now exist; on
which account the latter continue to form idols similar to men, and
worship them. The worship of idols will prevail, until the period of
Ajem returns, and this will be its mode of continuance.
Mahmúd called himself a _Váhed_, and declared himself to be the
_Mahdy_ promised, whose appearance was predicted by the prophet; he
said, that the religion of Muhammed is cancelled, and that now the
true faith is that of _Mahmúd_: as was said:
“The time is come; the accomplishment of sayings is Mahmúd:
Whatever reproach the Arab threw upon Ajem, it is over.”
His disciples are dispersed in the four quarters the world, and in the
whole country of Iran a great number of them resides, but they dare
not make themselves known, because the King, now the inhabitant of
heaven, Shah Abás, son of Shah Khodábendah Sáfaví, put many of them to
death. The belief of the Mahmúdíán is, that Shah Abás, when he had met
Taráb and Kamál, who were perfect Váhadis, and taken information from
them, wanted to publish them as his own, and on that account killed
them both. They subjoin that, although he had great pretensions, yet
he never attained perfection; because, on account of the world and
ostentation, he had destroyed the perfect. The author of this work
heard from an Amín: “Shah Abás was a perfect Amín, and killed whomever
he did not find well founded in this creed. Thus, he admitted me to
his society, and desired me to remain in Iśfahán; when I did not
consent to it, he granted me the expenses of my journey to India.” It
is said, that in these times Shah Abás came on foot to visit the place
of _Hossein’s_ martyrdom, _that is, Kerhála_, where he said to Taráb:
“I feel pain from my foot journey.” Taráb answered: “This is owing to
the inconsistency of thy natural intellect; for if the Imám for whose
sake thou hast performed the journey joined God, why seekest thou the
nether place of his martyrdom; and if he has not joined God, what hast
thou to hope from him? Find thou a living Imám.” The Shah asked: “Who
is the living Imám?” The saint answered: “I.” The king replied: “Well,
I shall fire a ball from a gun upon thee; if it takes no effect, I
will follow thee.” Taráb gave this answer: “Your Imám, Rizá, died by
the grain of a grape; how shall I resist the ball of a gun?” At last
the Shah fired upon and killed him. As Kamál openly professed the
creed of Taráb, the king associated him with the latter.[19]
It is reported, that one of the Imanás came to Hosséin Khan, of Shám,
and having converted him to his creed, he heard the following speech
from him: “One day, when during the Maheram they read the history of
the martyrdom _of Hossein_, and he too (Hossein Khan) was weeping,
Shah Abás said: ‘You, why do you cry, as if it were the _Shámlús_
(that is to say, the natives of Shám) who did the action?’ The answer
was: ‘We do not cry on account of Hossein: but because from our number
also fine youths were killed.’”
“With the same eyes with which you look on us,
With the same eyes is it, that we look on you.”
The _Duníahs_, a particular sect, so called in the language of the
Imanahs, think slightly of Hossein. On account of their meanness, they
made no progress in the religion of Mahmúd. Azízí, one of the
Muselmans of Shiráz, told the author of this book in Lahore: “I once
reviled Mahmúd; at night I saw him in a dream; he approached me with a
lightning-flashing face, and said: ‘Hast thou perused my works?’ I
answered, ‘I have.’ He subjoined: ‘Why dost thou speak abusively of
me? If thou perseverest in this manner, I will chastise thee.’”
It is reported by the Váhadís, that Khajah Háfiz of Shíráz professed
also this creed. As Mahmúd dwelt a long time upon the border of the
river Rúdáres, the Khájah said:
“O zephir! when thou passest over the border of Rúdáres,
Imprint kisses upon the ground of that river, and perfume the
air with musk.”
A person called Fakher eddin, who was one of this sect, gave the
information that, according to the report of the Duníah, Mahmud threw
himself into aqua fortis;[20] but this rumor is false, and proceeded
from rancor. A great number of learned and pious persons, who were
contemporaries of the founder of this sect, or lived soon after him,
followed and professed his doctrine.
[15] It is not clear whether above is meant a _hermit_, or a
_monk_ of a distinct order. Monachism is not sanctioned by
the strict rule of Islam, but it appears to be the natural
spontaneous growth of Asia. In the first year of the Hejira
(A. D. 622) forty-five citizens of Mecca associated with
forty-five inhabitants of Medina in a sort of confraternity,
and pledged themselves to community of property, and to a
regular daily performance of religious practices in a spirit
of penitence and mortification: they were called _Sufis_, of
whom hereafter. Abu bekr and Alí formed and presided over
similar congregations. The latter conferred the presidency
of it, under the mysterious name of _Khiláfet_, upon _Hassan
Baśrí_ (mentioned in vol. II. p. 389, note 1). Some of their
successors deviated from the rules of this first
establishment, and, in the course of time, a multitude of
monastic orders were founded, each headed by a chief called
_Pir_ or _Shaikh_. One of the most celebrated orders was
that founded in the year of the Hejira 37 (A. D. 657) by
_Uweis Karní_, a native of _Karn_, in Yemen. The most
distinguished in the Ottoman empire are thirty-two in
number, founded between the years of the Hejira 149 and 1164
(A. D. 776 and 1750). Three of them descend from the
congregation of Abu bekr, and the rest from that of
Alí.――(See _Tableau général de l’Empire othoman_, tome
IV^{me}, 1^{re} partie, par _d’Ohsson_, p. 617 et. seq.)
[16] محص _mahs_ and احصا _ihśa_, are derived from the same
root, حص _haś_, “making an impression;” _ihśa_ is
interpreted in Richardson’s Dict., new edit., “numbering,
computing.”
[17] This Turkish word signifies “red head,” and is applied
by the Turks to the Persians, who, since the time of Ismâíl
Sofi, the founder of the present dynasty of Persia, wear a
red turban with twelve folds around it, in honor of the
twelve Imáms.
[18] This consists in exclaiming “God is greatest.”
[19] Shah Abbas I. has been already mentioned in a note
(vol. II. p. 146), where, according to sir John Malcolm’s
History of Persia, the duration of his reign is stated to
have been forty-three years; his age seventy; and the date
of his death A. D. 1628; somewhat differently from Herbelot,
who makes his reign forty-five, his age sixty-three, and the
date of his death A. D. 1629. Abbas I., called the Great, on
account of his magnificent buildings, and his skilful
interior policy, was very much attached to the religion of
Ali, which was always, until our days, dominant in Persia;
his taking possession of Baghdád, Nudjef, Kerbelah, Kásmín,
and Sámerah, where the remains of Ali and his descendants
are buried, was more agreeable to the Persians than the
whole of his other conquests; dressed with the mantle of the
saints of Arbeli, that is of Sofi and Haidar, ancestors of
the present Persian kings, Abbas was almost adored by his
subjects. This renders the recital above, respecting his
religious zeal, very probable. It will be remembered that
this Shah sent sir George Shirley as his ambassador to
England; and that king James I. dispatched sir Drodmore
Cotton on an embassy to Persia, in 1626.
[20] This was the manner of death chosen by Mokanna, in the
year of the Hejira 563 (A. D. 776). This upstart prophet
(see note 1, p. 3), being pent up in a mountain-castle by
the forces of the khalif Mohadi, without hope of escape,
poisoned the garrison and his family, and then plunged into
a vessel full of aqua fortis, which consumed every part of
his body except his hair; he hoped that, from his
disappearance, he should be supposed to have been taken up
to heaven. One of his concubines, who by concealment had
escaped destruction, and had seen every thing, revealed what
had taken place; but many of his followers continued to
believe in his divinity and future reappearance.
I shall here remark, that destroying human bodies by means
of aqua fortis is an ancient practice, mentioned in the
Desátir (Engl. transl., p. 29), and accounts for the fact of
so many funeral urns being found in Asia without ashes in
them.
CHAPTER IX.
OF THE RELIGION OF THE ROSHENIAN: IN THREE SECTIONS.
SECT. I.――Of the appearance of Miyan Bayezid, and some of his
sayings.
SECT. II.――Some account of his proceedings.
SECT. III.――Account of his sons.
SECTION I.――Of the appearance of the lord Míyán Báyezid.
In the Hálnámeh, a true work from Báyezid’s pen, it is stated that the
lord _Míyán Báyezíd Ansári_ was the son of Shaikh _Abdullah_, who
descended in the seventh generation from Shaikh _Siráj-eddin Ansári_,
and that, in the latter time of the dominion of the Afghans, he was
born in the town of Jalendher in the Panjab.[21] A year after this
event, the blessed lord _Zahír-eddin Báber Pádsháh_, having obtained a
victory over the Afghans, conquered Hind. In the history of the
Moghúls it is recorded that, in the year of the Hejira 932 (A. D.
1525)[22] the blessed lord Báber Pádshah defeated _Ibráhím Khán
Afghán_. In the before-said Hálnámeh is to be found that the mother of
Míyán Báyezíd was called _Bánin_, and that the father of Banín and the
grandfather of Abd ullah were brothers, and had their residence in the
town of Jalendher. Míyán Báyezíd was born in this place. The father of
Abdullah asked Banin, the daughter of Mohammed Amin, in marriage for
his son Abd ullah. The father of Báyezíd Abd ullah resided at
Kánígaram, which is situated in Kóhistan (the hilly country) of the
Afghans.[23] When the conquests of the Moghúls began to extend, Banín
also came with Báyezid to Kánígaram. Abd ullah had no liking for
Banin, on which account he repudiated her; and Míyán Báyezíd
experienced many sufferings from the enmity of another wife of Abd
ullah, and from the son of the wife of Yâkub, besides the carelessness
of his father.
It was the custom of Míyán Bayezíd that, whenever he went to tend his
own field, he took care also of the fields of others, and guarded
them. From his infancy he felt a disposition towards the first cause,
so as to investigate――“the heavens and the earth are here; but where
is God?” When Khájah Ismâîl was blessed in a dream by a revelation, he
devoted himself to austere practices of piety, and many persons who
partook in his exercises, derived benefit from them. Báyezíd wished to
become his disciple; but Abd ullah forbade it, saying: “It is a
disgrace to me that thou shouldst be the disciple of the meanest of
our relations; go to the sons of Shaikh _Bahá-eddín Zakaríá_.”[24]
Báyezíd replied: “The character of a Shaikh is no inheritance.”
Finally, Báyezíd was called by a mysterious influence to sanctity, and
passed through the gradations of _sheríât_, “external law;” _hakíket_,
“reality;” _mârifet_, “true knowledge;” _kurbet_, “proximity;”
_vâsalet_, “union;” and _sekúnat_, “dwelling in God.” Many men joined
him, at which the envious were vexed, and he invited to him the crowd
which had not attained the same degree. With Báyezíd lineage obtained
no respect, but only knowledge and virtue were valued, as
“Paradise belongs to the servants of God, let them
Be _habshís_, ‘negroes,’ and hell is for the depraved,
Let them be _sáids_ of Koresh extraction.”
He saw God manifest:
“Peradventure you may see your God made manifest.”
And the order was given to Báyezíd to say:
“I have seen thee by thee; I have heard thee from thee.”
God said to him further:
“The disgrace of this world is lighter than the disgrace
Of thy future world; haste towards what is good; be slow
Towards what is bad.”
And the Lord God announced to him:
“I have established as duties the exterior and the
interior worship: the exterior worship as a duty for
acquiring knowledge, and the interior worship as a
perpetual duty.”
Báyezíd was perplexed: “If I offer prayers I am an idolator, and if I
neglect them I am an infidel; for it is said:
“‘The offering of prayers is idolatry, and the neglect of them
infidelity.’”
Then the command arrived: “Perform the prayers of the prophet;” he
asked: “What prayers are these?” The Almighty God said: “The praise of
the Divinity.” Afterwards he chose this prayer, as it is said:
“The worship of those who are attached to the unity of
God is, before men, like the worship of worshippers;
but before God, it participates in the object of
worship itself.”
Báyezíd devoted himself so much more to secret practices of piety,
about which the prophet has said:
“The best remembrance of God is secret remembrance, and
the best food is that which is sufficient.”
And again:
“Remember your God morning and evening; and be not one
of the negligent.”
His friends saw in a night dream, and he himself heard the voice, that
Báyezíd should be called _Míyán Róshen_, and he obtained eternal life,
according to the words of God:
“Say not of him who is slain in the way of the Lord,
that he is dead, but that he is alive; but you cannot
distinguish the deaf, the dumb, and the blind; nor can
they reply to you; for they are deaf in hearing the
truth, dumb in speaking the truth, and blind in seeing
the truth.”
He made himself free of the crowd of such description; and frequently
divine inspiration came upon him. Now, according to the prophetic
saying:
“Inspiration is a light which descends into the heart,
and displays the real nature of the things according as
they are.”
And Jabríl also descended to him; we read in the Korán:
“I send down angels and the spirit, at my pleasure, on
whomsoever I please among my servants.”
God Almighty elected him also for an apostle, and conferred upon him
the gift of prophecy:
“I have sent none before thee, excepting those persons
who have received revelation.”
The lord Míyan Róshen, that is, Báyezíd, was extremely righteous in
his conduct, as it is said:
“When God intends the good of one of his creatures, he
gives him an admonisher in his spirit, and a restrainer
in his heart; so that, of his own accord, he admonishes
and restrains himself.”
Míyán Róshen, that is, Báyezíd, said to the learned: “What says the
confession of the faith?” The reply was: “We bear testimony that there
is no god but God;” that is: we testify that there is no god worthy to
be worshipped but God Almighty. Míyán Báyezíd said: “If one is not
acquainted with Lord Almighty, and says: ‘I am acquainted with him,’
he is a liar; as it is said:
“He who sees not God, knows not God.”
Móuláná Zakaríá said to Míyán Báyazíd: “Thou sayest that thou art
acquainted with the heart, and thou proclaimest thyself the master of
opening the hearts; give me information of my heart, and if this
proves to be true, I shall then place my confidence in thee.” Míyán
Róshen Báyazíd replied: “I am the master of opening the hearts; but
there is no heart in thee; if thou hadst possessed a heart, I should
have given thee information about it.” Then Móulána Zikeríá declared
(to those about him): “Kill me first; if a heart comes forth from my
body, then put Báyazíd to death, and if none appear, then let him be
safe.” Míyán Báyazid said: “The heart which thou mentionest will come
forth if a calf, a kid, or a dog be killed; but that lump of flesh is
not the heart. The Arabian prophet says:
“The heart of the faithful is more elevated than the
ninth or empyrean heaven; and more spacious than the
extent of the ninth heaven (the throne of God).”
“And again:
“Hearts bear witness of hearts.”
Móulána Zakaríá said to him: “Thou takest thyself for a master of
opening the tombs; let us go together to a burying ground, that the
dead may converse with thee.” Míyán Báyezíd replied: “If thou didst
listen to the voice of the dead, I should not call thee an infidel.”
The author of this work observed to Míyan, who was attached to the
Roshinian persuasion: “If, instead of these words, the lord Míyan had
said: When I hear your voice, it is the voice of the dead, and
proceeds from the tomb of the corporeal members, it would have been
better.” Being pleased with this observation, the Míyán wrote down
upon the margin of the Hálnámeh, that this also is the speech of the
lord Míyán. The Mobed says:
“Between our friends we saw and we gave
To the searchers of the road a mark without a mark.”
Then the learned said to Míyán Báyezíd: “By what word or deed of thine
shall men believe in thee?” Míyán Róshen Báyazíd replied: “Let there
be one of your number, the best and ablest, who applies to science and
practises devotion; let him join me, and according to my direction
perform exercises of worship and piety; if he find a superior
advantage, then believe in me.”
A person named Malik Mirzá said: “O Báyezíd, beware of arrogant
speech, and call not men detestable; whoever likes, may follow thy
path, but if he does not like it, let him remain away from it.” Míyán
Róshen Báyezíd answered: “I will propose a simile: if in a house which
should have but one door, a great number of persons had fallen asleep,
and in that house fire had broken out; if by accident one person
should be awake, ought he to awake the others, or not?” His
adversaries said: “O Báyezíd, since God Almighty has charged thee with
his orders, declare, ‘Jabriyil descended to me, and I am the Mahdi;’
but call not the people infidels and detestable.”
Míyán Róshen Bayazíd did not think it right to eat of the flesh of an
animal killed by a person whom he did not know, and who did not adhere
to the rule of the unity of God. Báyezíd knew that:
“A _worldly_ wise man, before man, is living, but before
God, dead; his form is like the form of a man, but his
qualities like the qualities of beasts; whilst a man,
knowing God, is living before God; his form is like the
form of a man, and his qualities are like the qualities
of the merciful God.”
Báyezíd said to his father Abd ullah: “The Arabian prophet has
declared:
“_Sheríát_, ‘the law,’ is like night; _Taríkat_,
‘religious rule,’ is like the stars; _Hakiket_, ‘the
truth,’ is like the moon; and _Mârifet_, ‘the true
knowledge,’ like the sun; and nothing is superior to the
sun.”
Míyán Báyezíd Róshen said: “The matter of the law rests upon the five
fundamental principles of the Muselmans.[25]
Pronouncing the words of the faith, and joining to the words the
belief in their truth; these are the actions of the law. The _tasbíh_,
“rosary;” the _tahlíl_, “praise of God;” the being constantly employed
in the verbal commemoration of the _attributes of God_; the guarding
of the heart from temptation: this is the business of _taríkat_,
“religious rule.”
To keep the fast of the month Ramazan, and to abstain from eating,
drinking, and sexual intercourse; this is the business of _sheríât_,
“the law.” Fasting beyond the demands of duty; not filling the belly,
but training it to a scanty diet; and restraining the body from what
is bad: this is the business of _taríkat_.
The _Zacat_, “stated alms,” and the giving of the tithe, is the
business of _sheríât_; but the distribution of food and raiment to the
fakírs and performers of fasts, and the taking by the hand the
distressed, is the business of _taríkat_.
To perform the circuit around the house of the friend of God,[26] and
to be free from wickedness, and crime, and warring, is the business of
the _sheríât_; but to perform the circuit of the house of the friend
of God, to wit the heart,[27] to combat bodily propensities, and to
worship the angels, is the business of _taríkat_.
To meditate constantly on the Almighty God, to place confidence in the
instructions received, to discard from the heart the exterior veil,
and to fix the view on the perfection of the celestial object of our
affection: this is the business of _hakíkat_, “truth.”
To view the nature of God with the eye of the heart, and to see him
face to face in every mansion and on every side, with the light of the
intellect, and to cause no injury to the creatures of the All-Just:
this is the business of _mârifat_, “true knowledge.”
To know the All-Just, and to perceive and comprehend the sound of the
_tasbíh_, “rosary:” this is the business of _kurbet_, “proximity to
God.”
To choose self-abnegation, to perform every thing in the essence of
the All-Nourisher, to practise renunciation of all superfluities, and
to carry in one’s self the proof of the true sense of the divine
union: this is _váśalet_, “union with God.”
To annihilate one’s self before Deity absolute, and _in God_ to be
eternal and absolute; to become one with the unity, and to beware of
evil: this is the business of _touhíd_, “coalescence with God.”[28]
To become an inmate and resident, to assume the attributes of God
absolute, to divorce from one’s own attributes: this is the business
of _sacúnat_, “in-dwelling in God,” and there is no superior station
beyond _sacúnat_.
The terms _kurbat_, _váśalet_, _vahed_, and _sacúnat_ are peculiar to
the style of the lord Miyán Róshen Báyezíd, who places them higher
than _sheríât_, _térikat_, and _mârifat_.
At that time it was the custom, when friends had been separated and
met again, on meeting, their first inquiries were about the health,
wealth, and children of each other. But the friends of Miyán Róshen
Báyezid first inquired about each other’s faith, religious thoughts,
zeal, love, and knowledge of the All-Just, and afterwards about their
health and welfare. When they made inquiry about any other person, it
was in the following manner: “How is he with respect to religion and
faith? does he keep the affection of the friends of God?” and in these
things they rejoiced. The words of the prophet are:
“Verily, God does not regard your forms nor your wealth,
But he regards your hearts and your actions.”
Miyán Báyezíd, in his early years, used to conform to the five
fundamental principles of the Muselman faith, such as the confession
of faith, to say prayers five times a-day, and to keep the fasts; but
as he was not possessor of a sufficient estate, it was not necessary
for him to give the stated alms. He was desirous to perform the
pilgrimage, but he was then too young for it, so it was postponed
until he attained the truth of his religion. The words of God Almighty
are:
“Verily, I am near to mankind, nearer than their own
necks; there is no separation between me and mankind;
and I am one with mankind; but mankind know it not: nor
can a man attain the knowledge of me, unless by the
means of the assiduous perusal of the sacred volume,
and not by much travel of the feet; but he may attain
the knowledge of me by ardent meditation, and, by
obedience, a man becomes perfect.”
Thus far from the Hál-námeh of Miyán Báyazid.
[21] _Anśar_ signifies “protectors, defenders,” and is a
word particularly applied to the citizens of Madína who
assisted Muhammed when he was obliged to fly from Mecca.
Herbelot mentions as one of the most illustrious who bore
this surname _Abul Abbas Ahmed ben Abdallah_, without the
date of his birth or death, a Spaniard who wrote a
Commentary upon the _Moâllakat_, or poems suspended in the
temple of Mecca; another who wrote upon physiognomy; and a
third who composed a treatise upon coffee. The last was,
according to Silvestre de Sacy (see _Chrestom. ar._, t. I.
p. 441), originally from Madina, a native of Jejireh, and
wrote in the year of the Hejira 966 or 996 (A. D. 1558 or
1587). The family and native place of the above-mentioned
_Anśari_, were in the Panjab, although his ancestors might
have come from Arabia.
[22] This was in 1526.――See vol. II. p. 249.)
[23] The district of Kanigaram is on the borders of
Kandahar.
[24] This Shaikh was born A. D. 1169, in Kot-Karor, a town
in Multan. After having travelled, and acquired celebrity as
a saint, he returned to Multan, where he made a great number
of disciples. His posterity preserved the fame of their
ancestor to the times of Bayazid.――(See _Mémoire sur la
Religion muselmane dans l’Inde_, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p.
98.)
[25] These are: 1. the profession of the faith; 2. the
stated prayers; 3. religious fasting; 4. _Haj_, “the
pilgrimage;” 5. _Zacat_, “the stated alms.”
[26] Abraham, the supposed builder of the Kâbah.
[27] We find in the fifth sermon of Sádi: “He who travels to
the Kâbah on foot makes the circuit of the Kâbah; but he who
makes the pilgrimage of the Kábah, in his heart, is
encircled by the Kâbáh.――(_Transact. of Lit. Soc. of
Bombay_, vol. I. p. 151.)
[28] We see here the fundamental ideas of that mysticism
which was formed into a particular system by the Sufis, of
whom hereafter.
SECTION II.: AN ACCOUNT OF THE HISTORY OF THE LORD MÍÝAN RÓSHEN
BÁYAZÍD.
Báyazid felt himself a prophet, and invited mankind to religious
austerity; he caused them to say prayers, but indicated them no
determined quarter to which they ought to turn, as the sacred text
says:
“Wherever you turn, you turn towards God.”
He said, religious bathing in water is not necessary; for, as soon as
the wind blows upon us, the body is purified; inasmuch as the four
elements are equally pure. He said, whoever knows not himself and God,
is not a man; and if he be hurtful, he may be accounted to have the
nature of a wolf, tiger, serpent, or scorpion. The Arabian prophet has
said:
“Kill a harmful creature before it causes harm.”
If such a person is well-behaved, and says prayers, he has the
disposition of an ox, or sheep, and to kill him is lawful. On that
account he ordered his self-conceited adversaries to be killed, as
they were to be regarded as brute beasts; thus it is stated in the
Koran:
“They are like brute beasts, nay worse.”
He said: whoever does not know himself, and has no notion of eternal
life, and everlasting existence, is dead, and the property of a dead
man, whose heirs are also as the dead, reverts to the living. On that
account he ordered also the killing of the ignorant. When he found a
Hindu knowing himself, he valued him higher than a Muselman. He and
his sons practised for some time highway robbery. Of the wealth which
he took from the Muselmans and others, he deposited the fifth part in
a store-house, and when it was wanted, he distributed it among the
most deserving people. He and his sons kept themselves all remote from
adultery, lewdness, and unbecoming actions, as well as from despoiling
the unitarians of their property, and refrained from using violence
towards those who saw but one God.
He composed a great number of works in the Arabic, Persian, Hindi, and
Afgháni,[29] languages. The _Makśúd al Múmenín_, “the desire of the
right “believers,” is in Arabic. They say, that the All-just God
conversed with him without the intervention of Jabril.[30] He composed
also a book entitled _Kháir-al-bíán_, “the good news, or the gospel,”
and this in four languages: the first in Arabic, the second in
Persian, the third in Hindi, and the fourth in _Pashtú_, that is, the
Afgháni language: the same purport is conveyed in the four languages.
The address is from the All-just All-mighty God to the lord Báyezíd,
and this they believe a work of divine inspiration. He is also the
author of the _Hálnámeh_, in which he has given an account of himself.
The most astonishing circumstance therein is, that he was an
illiterate man, and yet expounded the Koran, and uttered speeches full
of truth, so that learned men were astonished at them.
It is said that Báyezid received the divine command for the
destruction of those who know no God. Three times the all-just God had
given him the order, and he put not his hand to the sword; but when it
was repeated, unable to resist, he girt himself for the war against
the infidels.
Báyezid was contemporary with the lord Mirzá Muhammed Hakim, the son
of the lord Humáyún Pádshah. The author of this book has heard from
Mirza sháh Muhammed, surnamed Ghazni Khán, the following account: “It
was in the year of the Hejira 949 (A. D. 1542-3), that Miyàn Róshen
gained strength and established his sect. My father, _Sháh Baighkán_
Arghún, surnamed Khán-Dourán, said, he saw Míyán Báyezíd before his
rising in rebellion, when he was brought to the court of Mirzá
Muhammed Hakím, and the learned were confounded in the dispute with
him, wherefore they let him take his departure on equitable
terms.”[31] In the beginning of the year of the Hejira 994 (A. D.
1585-6) the intelligence of the death of the lord Mirzá Muhammed Hakim
reached from Kabul, the ear of the Lord, dwelling in the ninth heaven.
The sepulchre of Báyezid is at Bhatakpùr, in the hilly country of the
Afghans.
[29] Bayezid Ansari is said to have been the first author
who wrote in the _Pashtu_, or Afghan language.
[30] بی میانجی جبریل It is by mistake, it appears, that we
find in Doctor Leyden’s translation: “The All-just addressed
him _through_ “_Miyanji Jabrayil_:” and the note referring
to this passage is not applicable to it.
[31] Bayezid, after having obtained the adherence of several
tribes of the Afghans, established himself in _Hashtanagar_,
“eight townships,” in the middle of _Pokhtanga_, or
Afghanistan, perhaps the country of the ancient _Aspagani_,
mentioned by Pliny, and took his residence at _Kaleder_, in
the district of Omazei, where he founded a city. From
thence, under the title of _Pír roshán_, “master of light,”
he issued proclamations to increase the number of his
followers. Having become formidable to the government of the
Moghuls, _Mahsan khan ghazí_, a chief of great merit, by a
sudden irruption into Hashtanagar, seized the person of
Bayezid, and carried him to Kabul, where, although at first
subject to insult, he owed his release to the intercession
of some influential persons, favorably disposed towards him.
He then retired to the mountains of _Totee_, and further to
those of _Tirah_, perhaps the district of the ancient
_Thiræi_, mentioned by Arrian. Such was soon the new
increase of his forces, that he dared proclaim his project
to overthrow the power of the emperor Akbar. He descended
into the plains of _Ningarhar_, sacked and burnt the
country, but was overtaken by _Mahsan Khan_, and his army
routed; he himself escaped with great difficulty, and died
soon after, from the fatigues of his flight: he was buried
at Hashtanagar.――(See on the Rosheniah sect and its founder,
_Asiat. Res._, vol. XI. p. 387 et seq., by J. Leyden, M.D.)
SECTION III.: UPON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SONS OF THE LORD MÍÝAN
BAYEZÍD.
Omár Shaikh Kamál eddin, Nur eddin and Jelál eddin were the sons of
Báyezid,[32] and he had a daughter, Kamál Khátún. After the lord Miyán
Jelál eddin succeeded to his father’s dignity, and acquired a very
great power; he never deviated from the precepts of the lord Miyán; he
was just, and an adherer to rule, and girt with energy and activity.
In the year of the Hejira 989 (A. D. 1581-2), when the standards of
majesty of the lord (now an inhabitant of the ninth heaven), that is,
of _Acbar Pádsháh_, returned from Kabul to the firm seat of government
(Delhi), he (Jelal-eddin) came to his presence, but after some days he
took to flight. In the year of the Hejira 1000 (A. D. 1591-2), _Jâfer
Baig Kazvíní Bakhshí_, who was honored with the title of Aśfakháni,
was deputed for the destruction of Jelál eddin Róshni, whom the
blessed _Jelál eddin Muhammed Akbar_ called _Jelálah_, and in the same
year the emperor’s chieftains, having taken prisoners the whole family
of Jelál eddin by the agency of a person called _Vahdit Ali_, brought
them to the foot of the throne, the seat of the deputy of God. In the
year of the Hejira 1007 (A. D. 1598-9), during the reign of the lord,
now inhabiting heaven, Jelál eddin Acbar Pádshah, Miyan Jelál eddin
took Ghizni, and cruelly ravaged this province, but could not maintain
himself in that position. Meanwhile, at the coming up of the
_Hazárah_[33] and the Afghans upon Miyan, a great conflict took place,
in which Miyàn Jelál eddin was wounded by the hand of _Shádmán
Hazárah_, and fled to the mountains of Rabáth, where _Merad Baikh_ and
some of the followers of _Sherif Khan Atcah_ attacked him and made an
end of his affairs.
After him, _Míyán Ahdad_, the son of _Omar Shaikh_, the son of
_Báyezíd_, who is known among the illustrious persons by the name of
_Ahdád_, sat on the throne of authority. He was just, and an adherer
to rule; he kept himself thoroughly firm in the precepts of his august
predecessor; he never intended to amass wealth, but gave every one the
due reward of his labor; the fifth part of the wealth which was
collected from the wars against the infidels he deposited in the
public storehouse, and it served to reward the meritorious warriors.
In the year of the Hejira 1035 (A. D. 1625-6), under the reign of the
lord, now an inhabitant of heaven, _Nur-eddin Jehán-gír Pádshah_, he
was reduced to great straits by _Ahsan Ulla_, surnamed _Zafer Khan_,
the son of _Khájah Abu-’l Hassan Tabrízí_, and by the chieftains of
the Pádshah, and besieged in the fort _Navágher_, where, hit by a
musket shot during an attack on the fortress, he reached the term of
his life. It is said that, before the day of his death, which these
sectaries call “the day of union,” Miyán Ahdád opened the book _Kháir
al Bíán_, and, having read in it, said to his friends: “To-morrow is
my day of union:” and it happened as he had said. The author of this
book saw a pious person from Cabul, who told him: “On the day of
Ahdad’s death I rejoiced, and spoke of him in bad terms; at night I
saw in a dream my master, who forbade me to do so, and said the sacred
text: ‘_declare that God is one_,’ applies to Ahdád.” And his
disciples name him _Ahdád_, “the one.”
It is reported that after the “uníon” of Ahdád, the Afghans, having
taken up _Abd ul Khader_, the son of Ahdád, betook themselves to the
mountains; and the Padshah’s army, who had not expected to obtain
possession of the fort, entered it. The daughter of Ahdad, who had not
found an opportunity of escaping, was wandering about the fortress;
one of the soldiers attempted to seize her; the maiden, having thrown
her veil over her eyes, precipitated herself from the wall of the
fort, and met her death: every one was astonished at the deed.
After Miyan Ahdad, his son, Abd-ul Kader, sat upon the throne of
religious supremacy. Having found a favorable opportunity, he attacked
_Zafer Khán_, who fled with the greatest precipitation; all his
baggage, with the women of his secret apartments, fell into the hands
of the Afghans; but the wife of Zafer khan, named _Buzerg Khánam_,
alone was preserved from violence by the efforts of the chieftains,
such as Navab Sâid Khan, the son of Ahmed Baig Khan Tarkhan. The
author of this work himself heard _Perí Sultan_, a person from nature
possessed of vigor and worth, who has now received the title of _Zú-’l
Fakár khán_, say: “When, by order of Sâid Khan, I went to invite
Abd-ul Khader to submit, I brought with me a great variety of victuals
and liquors, that he might be seduced by their effect. One day, an
aged Afghan, after having tasted some sweetmeats, rose on his legs and
said: ‘O Abd-ul Khader, from the time of thy honored ancestors to this
day, never the foot of a Moghúl reached this place; he who is now come
intends to deceive thee, with garments red and yellow, and with
victuals pleasing and sweet, which are coveted by those who are slaves
of their belly, but which are abhorrent to the rule of durvishes: the
best measure therefore is to put him to death, as an example to
terrify others from coming hither.’ But Abd-ul Khader and his mother,
_Bíbí Aláí_, the daughter of Míyan Jelal eddin, would not agree to it.
On the day when Abd-ul Khader visited the camp of _Sâíd Khán_, his
horse was frightened at the noise of the kettle-drums and horns, and
dashed from amid the crowd to one side; an Afghan observed: ‘The horse
executes what the lord Miyan Róshen has ordered, but you do not; be
sure you shall suffer from the after-sickness of this debauch.’ Abd-ul
Khader asked: ‘What has Miyan ordered?’ The Afghan replied: ‘To keep
at a distance, and to beware of the Moghuls.’” When Abd-ul Khader
presented himself at the court of the lord _Abúl Mazafer Shaháb-eddin
Muhammed, Sáheb-i-Kerán sání Amír al Múmenín shah Jehan Pádshah,
gházy_, “the victorious,” he was elevated to a high rank. In the year
of the Hejira 1043 (A. D. 1633-4) he reached his last day, and was
buried at Paishaver.
_Mirza_, the son of _Núr-eddín_, lived in the reign of the lord _Amír
al Múmenín Shah Jehán_, and was killed in the battle of Dóulet-abad.
Kerimdad, the son of Jelal eddin, was delivered up by the tribe of the
Jelalian to _Muhammed Yakub Kashmírí_, the _Vakíl_, “agent,” of _Sâíd
Khán Terkhán_, and he was put to death in the year of the Hejira 1048
(A. D. 1638-9). _Alhedád Khán_, the son of Jelal-eddin, having been
honored with the title of _Rashíd Khán_, was appointed to a command of
four thousand in the Dekan, and ended the term of this life in the
year of the Hejira 1058 (A. D. 1648-9).[34]
[32] According to Akhun Derwazch (of whom hereafter) Bayazid
had five sons. _Khair eddin_ is placed between the last
mentioned above.
[33] Jelál-eddin, although supported by many, was strongly
opposed by some of the Afghan tribes; other mixed tribes
never adopted the Rosheniah creed. Among the last were the
_Házárahs_, distinct from the Afghans and Moghuls; their
original seat is supposed to have been between _Herat_ and
_Balkh_; but they possessed themselves of a considerable
part between _Ghazni_ and _Kandahar_, in one direction, and
between _Máidan_ and _Balkh_, in the other. We find in the
before quoted Memoir of H. T. Colebrooke (_As. Res._, vol.
VII. p. 343): “The Házárahs of Kábul are an innumerable
tribe, who reside in Kábul, Ghazni, and Khandahar. Many of
them are Shíahs, and adherents of the holy family. At
present, among the chiefs of the Shiâhs is _Mirza Shádmán_,
with whom the faithful are well pleased, and of whose
incursions the _Khárejis_ of Kabul and Ghuzni bitterly
complain.”
[34] We find in the Asiatic Researches (vol. XI. from p. 363
to 418), a translation of this chapter, with a Memoir on the
Rosheniah sect by the late Doctor John Leyden, whose early
death in Java will ever be regretted as a great loss to
Oriental literature. In his researches relative to the
language and literature of the Afghans, he met with a work
in the Afghan or Pashtu languge, entitled _Makhan Afhganí_,
a miscellaneous compilation on the ritual and moral practice
of Islam, composed by _Akhun_ (Mulla) _Derwezeh_, a
character celebrated in Afghanistan chiefly for his
sanctity, and belonging to the tribe of _Tajek_. This word
in general signifies “peasant, or cultivator of ground;” but
is in particular applied to those who are not Arabs, and by
the Moghuls to the natives of Iran, who are neither of Arab
nor Moghul extraction, probably of a mixed origin. They
extend from the mountains of _Chetár_, in _Kashgar_, as far
as _Balkh_ and _Kandahar_, and live either under their own
chiefs, or subject and tributary to the Afghans, Turkmans,
or Usbek Tartars, among whom they reside. The Tajiks always
showed themselves adverse to the Rosheniahs, and Akhun
Derwezeh in the said work contradicts and blames the tenets
and opinions of Bayazid, whom he calls the “master of
darkness.” In the extract given by Leyden, of Derwezeh’s
account, we see that the doctrine of the Rosheniahs
coincided in several points with that of the Ismaîlahs:
Bayazid, in like manner as the latter, established eight
degrees of perfection, through which his sectaries were to
pass, and which led to an entire dereliction of all positive
religion, and an unrestrained licentiousness in manners and
practices. The account given by the author of the Dabistan
is far from provoking so severe a blame. As to the history
of Bayazid’s life and that of his son――highway robbery,
devastation, and bloodshed are evidently practised by them,
in the recital of both authors. The Memoir of the learned
Leyden abounds with curious and important information
respecting the Afghan tribes, to which the present events in
Western India can but lend a higher interest. Some reputed
followers of Bayazid are still to be found both in Paishavir
and Kabul, most numerous among the wild tribes of the
_Yusefzei_.
CHAPTER X.
OF THE RELIGION OF THE ILAHÍAH: IN FOUR SECTIONS.
SECTION I.――On the appearance of the Khalifet of God, and some of
the miracles, called _Burhan_.
SECTION II.――On the dispute of the professors of different religions
and creeds in the service of the lord, the Khalifet of God, and the
Burahin of the Khalifet of God.
SECTION III.――On the virtues of the stars.
SECTION IV.――On the ordinances of conduct.
SECTION I.――ON THE APPEARANCE OF THE KHALIFET OF THE ALL-JUST.
_An account of the lord Khalífet_, “Vicar,” _of God_.――The author of
this book heard from _Khájah Masâud_, the son of _Khájah Mahmúd_, the
son of _Khájah Mirshed al hak_, who was a pious master of worldly
concerns, what follows: “My honored father said he had heard from his
noble ancestors, that the lord of the faith and of the world will
appear; but he knew not whether that lord’s time was already come, or
will come; meanwhile he saw him one night in a dream; when he rose
from sleep, he went to the country where that august personage was
born, that is on Sunday of the month _Rajeb_ (the seventh Arabian
month), in the year of the Hejira 949 (A. D. 1543), the lord _Jelal
eddin Akbar_, the august son of _Hamáyún Pádshah_ and of the
praise-worthy _Bánú Bêgam_ was born.” The writer of this work heard
also in the year of the Hejira 1053 (A. D. 1643-4), in Lahore, from
_Mirzá Sháh Muhammed_, surnamed _Khaznín Khán_, the son of shah _Baigh
Khán_, with the surname of _Khán Douran_, a native of Arghún, who is
said to have asked from the Naváb _Azíz Kóka_, surnamed _Khán Aâzem_,
what observation he had to make upon the rumor current relative to the
Lord, the inhabitant of the ninth heaven, as to his being like the
Messiah? He answered: “What the mother said, is the truth.”[35]
[35] The author does not mention any particular miracle,
which we had reason to expect from the preceding title of
this section.
SECTION II.――ON THE DISPUTE OF THE PEOPLE OF DIFFERENT RELIGIONS.
In the service of the khalifah were two learned persons, the one a
Sonnite, and the other a Shiâh, who both sought admittance at court.
The emperor called them, and by their desire in his presence they
endeavored to establish the truth of their respective religions. The
Shiâh said: “It is evident that the Sonnites are without faith,
because they do not acknowledge the prophet’s purity, and say that
David caused Uriá to be killed.” The Sonnite replied: “This fact is
equally mentioned in the Koran and in the _Tóurít_, ‘Pentateuch,’
explicitly and circumstantially.” A Jew was present, and affirmed: “It
is certainly in the Pentateuch.” Upon which the Shiâh rejoined: “The
Pentateuch is altered.” The Jew retorted: “We may as well, and with a
better right, say that your book is altered, whilst there is no reason
to be urged that the Pentateuch is corrupted.” The Shiâh had no answer
to give, and the author of this book saw in the treatises of several
of the modern learned, that they have appropriated this answer to
themselves. The Shiâh again said: “The godly Ali was a very learned
and most excellent man, and never polluted his lips with wine, nor
pork, nor any thing dressed by the infidels.” To which the Sonnite
replied: “As with you the hand of an infidel is impure, and the Korésh
all drank wine and eat pork, the prophet, who associated with them,
eat the same food in the house of his paternal uncles, and so did the
lord, the godly Ali.” The Shiâh had no suitable reply to make to this
observation; he continued however: “In the _Malul_ and _Nahel_, it is
stated that the pure Fátima[36] declared, The palmgrove of _Fedak_[37]
is my inheritance, as the lord of the prophetic asylum committed it to
me as a _tamlík_ (hereditary property) during his life-time. But the
prophet has said:
“‘We, the company of prophets, do not leave to our heirs what
has been bestowed on us as a gift or as alms.’
“On the strength of which Sádik (Abu bekr) rejected her claim. But
even were this tradition irrefragable, how could he reject the claim
of a _tamlík_, if that tradition, by which the rejection of such an
inheritance never takes place, be acknowledged to be right?” The
Sonnite opposed to this: “The splendid lady had no witnesses that the
law could accept; as the evidence of husband, or son, or grandson, is
not admissible.” The Shiâh insisted: “Sádik was wrong. And the burning
of the court[38] in sequel of the mortal malady of the prophet; and
the repentance which was the consequence of it? and the like, what
dost thou say about it? Moreover, Omar’s impeding the writing of a
last will in the mortal malady of the prophet, as the Imám _Ismâíl
Bokhárí_[39] has related upon the authority of _Abd-ulla_, the son of
_Abas_, that in his mortal malady the house of the prophet was full of
his companions. He said:
‘Make haste, let me put down a writing for your sake, in
order that, after me, you may be safe against error and
deceit.’
“But Omar said: ‘The prophet is overcome by the malady, and his
intellect is obstructed; the heavenly book, and the proofs of the text
of the Koran are sufficient for us.’ On which account accumulated
contradictions and conflicting discussions rose to such a height that
the prophet said: ‘Leave me.’ The Sonnite resumed: The prophet himself
declared:
‘I am a man like you, but I speak from inspiration.’
“In eating, dress, repose, affliction, health, sickness, wounds, in
life and death, his condition was that of mankind: thus, some teeth of
the venerable were knocked out,[40] and in his last malady he was
exceedingly suffering, so that in the violence of his pain he might
have said things which were not consonant with a sound mind. On that
account Omar forbade his writing.” The Shiâh remarked: “When the
prophet had left the garment of mortality, Omar drew his sword, and
threatened to kill whosoever would say that the prophet died, because
he was still living; such a declaration, how can it be reconciled with
his impeding the writing of the last will in the manner before said?”
The Sonnite avowed: “Mankind is subject to error.” The Shiâh pressed
further: “After the contention, when Osmân was appointed khalif, his
relations of the family of Omiyah practised oppression under his
authority, and he brought back Hakim, the son of Aś,[41] the son of
Omiyah, to Medina, from whence the prophet had banished him, so that
he was called ‘the banished of the prophet,’ although Sádik (Abubekr)
and Fárúk (Omar) had not called him. Further, Osman expelled Abázer
from Medina; he also gave his daughter in marriage to Merván, the son
of Hakim, with the fifth part of the spoils of Afrika, which amounted
to forty thousand gold dinárs.[42] Besides, he granted security to
Abd-ullah, the son of Serj;[43] although the lord of the prophetic
asylum had ordered his blood to be shed; and he conferred on him the
administration of Egypt; he consigned also to Abd-ullah, the son of
Aamar, the government of Baśra, where he indulged himself in all sorts
of shameful actions. Among the Umrás of his army were _Máavíah_, the
son of Abi Safián, the collector of _Shám_ (Syria), and _Sâíd_, the son
of _Alâaś_, the collector of Kúfa. Afterwards, _Abd-ullah_, the son of
_Aamer_; and _Valíd_, the son of _Akba Abd-ullah_, the son of _Sâd_,
the son of _Abí Serj_; all these trod the road of perverseness and
unrighteousness.” The Sonnite had no convenient reply to make. The
Shiâh continued: “The prophet sent three friends to fight to a place
called _Tabúk_;[44] they disagreed: after which the prophet declared:
‘Whoever causes discord in the army or service, the curse of God be
upon him.’” The Sonnite here fell in: “At the time of the prophet’s
moving, it was not advisable to undertake the expedition designed;
there was no disunion about the war among them; but only a discussion
about the fitting out of the troops and the arrangements; whence a
delay in this affair arose, on account of settling the proper order of
march and other proceedings.” The Shiâh went on: “What the Sonnites
attribute to God and the prophet, cannot be ascribed to the lowest
man.” The Sonnite asked: “What is that?” The Shiâh answered: “One of
these things, stated in the book of your traditions, is that the lord
prophet, having exhibited before Aâisha dance and disport, asked her:
‘Art thou satisfied?’ Such a thing cannot in truth be said of any body
without disgrace. Besides, there are acts unbecoming of the prophet’s
companions, such as Omar’s preventing Muhammed’s last will, and the
like, avowed by themselves in their book; and yet they hold these men
in high esteem!” Here the Sonnite observed: “What thou first settest
forth about the prophet’s exhibition of disport, is nothing shameful;
as to what thou sayest about bad customs, they belong only to thy own
vicious opinion. Deniest thou that the prophet has said:
‘I am sent to settle the customs and manners.’
“If a fact has not existed or has not happened, why should it have
been recorded?” The Shiâh called out: “It has been invented and formed
into a lie.” The Sonnite objected: “Thus, according to thy opinion,
the master of truth, Bokhari and the like, are tellers of lies, and
thus they have transmitted lies! Why then, on their authority
believest thou that Omar has prevented the making of the last will,
and other such things, which, according to thee throw blame upon the
companions of the prophet? Therefore, in whatever of all these things
according to thy opinion is unbecoming, thou shoulst believe that the
master of truth, Bokhâri, and those like him, have told lies, so
wouldst thou cease to cast reproach upon the companions and friends of
the prophet; but if they spoke truth, then reckon also to be true,
what they have attributed as praise-worthy to the prophet, and true
what they have stated of the virtues of the said companions. Further,
as to thy separating the prophet from mankind, it belongs, as it has
been revealed by the divine text, to the creed of unbelievers to say,
that the prophet should not eat nor drink.” Now the Shiâh grew warm,
and said: “Is it not enough to attach to the lord prophet the blame of
having listened to music and assisted at dancing; and now thou
pretendest to prove the purity of the two Shaikhs (Abubekr and Omar)
and of Osmán!” The Sonnite took up the controversy: “I said before
that listening to music is reasonably not blamable, and even laudable,
when a lawgiver also listens to it, and I observed, concerning customs
and manners, that thou esteemest bad what thou hast badly understood.
As thou refusest to approve dancing, what sayest thou about the
interdiction of a woman from her spouse at the desire of the
prophet?[45] If thou holdest the example of customary acts
reprehensible, there is nothing to be said about such an occurrence.
And likewise, if the two Shaikhs had not been pure, the lord prophet
would not have exalted their heads by matrimonial alliance; and the
daughter of the lord Ali and the lord prophet would never have been in
the house of the great _Fáruk_ (Omar), and of the possessor of two
lights (Osman). To open the road of contention is not laudable; and if
not so according to thy opinion, explain this to me: since the lord,
the lion of God (Ali) was informed of all the secrets of the hearts,
why did he wage war upon Mâaviah, who was a Muselmán? and why was he
the death of so many men, since causing death is by no means
right?[46] It is likewise known and admitted by you as true that, when
one day a Muselman was selling garlic and onions upon the passage of
the prophet, that venerable personage told him: ‘If thou wouldst sit
down in a corner, retiring out of my way, it would be well.’ The man
made an excuse, and the prophet passed on. Shortly after came Alí, who
said to the man: ‘The prophet dislikes the smell of onions and garlic,
therefore move out of his way.’ The man answered: ‘O Alí, the prophet
told me to rise, and I did not move.’ Alí said: ‘At the prophet’s
order thou didst not rise?’ He drew immediately his sword, and cut off
the man’s head. Such an action is reprobated by the law, as the lord
of the prophetic asylum forbade killing even the hostile unbelievers,
saying:
“‘Do not exceed in shedding blood, even if thou be a conqueror.’
“And by historical accounts it is known that he has blamed Ibrahim for
having driven an unbeliever from his board. Nushírván,[47] who was not
crowned with the diadem of the right faith, is celebrated, because he
sat upon the throne of justice, and one of his most approved actions
was, that he withheld his hand from an old woman’s house, which was an
hinderance in the vicinity of his palace, and preferred to waste his
own fields; and the lord of the prophetic asylum, because he appeared
upon the field of testimony in the time of this king, exalted his fame
and glory by these words:
‘I was born in the time of the just king.’[48]
“How can it be right to believe that the prophet, the last of the age,
should be pleased with the destruction of a Muselman; he who would not
disturb the people who, engaged in their trade and occupation,
obstructed his passage? he who said:
‘He who kills willingly a believer shall have hell for
eternal punishment;’
“He cannot have acted by that rule; he who declares:
“‘God will not give to a soul more trouble than it can bear;’
“Such an action is not that of a virtuous man; this however is related
(of Alí) by your learned men, and likewise joking and buffooning,
which indicates a want of dignity, degraded him.” The Shiâh said:
“Nevertheless, he was certainly the most excellent of all the
companions of the prophet.” The Sonnite asked: “In knowledge or in
practice?” The Shiâh replied: “In both knowledge and practice.” The
Sonnite resumed: “This we do not hold for certain; in what respect was
he superior in practice to the chief of the believers, Omar?” The
Shiâh answered: “Alí used to pray the whole night.” The Sonnite
rejoined: “According to your own account, the lord Ali wanted a woman
every night; and his custom, (called _matâh_)[49] was to engage one
for a short time; and so many did he occupy, that he seemed an
unceasing bridegroom;[50] how could a person so employed pray the
whole night? unless in your religion you call praying what we call by
another name.” The Shiâh interrupted him saying: “You are liars from
the very beginning. Abu Hanífa, your great Imám, was a native of
Kabul, and attached himself particularly to the service of Imám Jâfr
Sádik; at last he left him, and professed openly the religion of his
fathers, who were Magi. A sign of the Magian creed was, that he
thought it right to eat three times a-day, and to lay aside all choice
of diet, as well as not to reckon the unbelievers impure, saying that
impurity resides in the interior, if any where, and the like.”
The Sonnite remarked: “Thou thyself agreest that Abu Hanífa was a
follower of the Imám Jâfr, therefore he most likely practised what was
conformable to the religion of the Imám Jâfr. We do not admit that
your people are attached to the religion of the Imám; we rather
believe that they are Magi; for when your ancestors were conquered and
subjected, they, by necessity, joined the Islámian, but mixed the
right faith with the creed of the Magi: as it appears from the worship
called _nóu róz_, which is a custom of the Magi; according to whom
they likewise perform divine worship three times a day. They think it
right to turn the head in praying to the left, which is turning off
from the Kiblah (of Mecca); they assert that the five prayers every
day are improper, as they are not able to perform them exactly; they
maintain, however, as requisite those at midday, before sunset, and in
the evening on going to sleep. In the same manner, they took the
_matâh_, or temporary matrimonial unions, from the Mazhdakian.”[51]
All the Shiâhs have founded their creed upon two rules: the first is
the _Bedas_ (Védas); these were promulgated with the view to surround
us with power and magnificence, or with the modes of happiness, which
brilliant prospects have not been realized; it was said that the lord
of divine majesty dictated the Veda. The second rule is godliness; by
which men are freed from all the propensities of nature. The Shiâhs
are of this persuasion; and when they are asked about the manner of
it, they say: By means of godliness we experience the non-reality of
exterior things.
The Vedá treats of theology, and of what may appear contrary to
divinity; it explains the will[52] which on the part of the perverse
may be manifested contrary to the will of the (supreme) judge. The
Véda moreover treats of practice: when an action tends towards one
thing, and when, after or before its accomplishment, it turns towards
something else.
The unbelievers, who are in opposition to the prophet assert, that he
has adopted the morals of Amrál Kaîs[53] and mixed them with the
Koran, that likewise he has frequently made use therein of the ideas
of other poets, and even frequently gave place in it to the usages of
paganism, with which he had been pleased. There are other
controversies current. It will be best to attend to the following
observation: What avail the doubts of the Shiâhs? They attack in their
speeches the Vicars of the prophet; when the first party (the
Sonnites) repress the answer to it upon their tongues, let the other
party too refrain from dispute.
The arguments being carried to this point, the khalif of God dismissed
the parties.
One day a Nazarene came to pay his submissive respects to the khalif
of God, and challenged any of learned among the Muselmans to dispute
with him. The proposal being accepted, the Nazarene began: “Do you
believe in Aisa (Jesus)?” The Muselman answered: “Certainly; we
acknowledge him as a prophet of God; our prophet bore testimony to the
divine mission of Jesus.” The Nazarene continued: “This prophet (the
Messiah) has announced that after him many will appear who will
pretend to a prophetic office; yet ‘believe not in them, nor follow
them, for they are liars; but remain you steadfast and firm in my
faith, until I come again.’ There is no mention of your prophet in the
Gospel.” The Muselman replied: “Mention of him was in the
Pentateuch[54] and in the Gospel,[55] but your principal men
obliterated it.” The Nazarene asked: “Do you possess that Gospel which
is correct?” The Muselman avowed: “We do not.” Then the Nazarene
resumed: “Hence your falsehood is evident; you deny the Gospel; for if
you did not, you would preserve it, as we, who are Christians,
preserve the Pentateuch, which is the book of Moses; but you keep
neither the Pentateuch nor the Gospel, and if there had been mentioned
in the Gospel any thing of your prophet, we would without doubt,
according to the words of Jesus, adhere to it, because, in conformity
with our faith, our desire is to obey the precepts of Jesus. But now,
whence can we know that your prophet is true?” The Muselman said:
“From his miracles, one of which is the dividing of the moon.”[56] The
Nazarene observed upon this: “If the dividing of the moon has taken
place, the inhabitants of the world must have seen it, and the
recorders of extraordinary things in all countries, and the historians
of all nations would have written it down with the pen of truth. Now
none, except Muselmans, give any information of it.” There was an
Hindú present; the Nazarene asked him: “In the Kali yug, which is the
fourth of your ages, has the moon been once divided?” And he addressed
the same question to the Persians and Turks there present; all said:
“We have not seen any thing like it, in our historical accounts.” The
Muselman remained confounded.
Another day, a Jew presented himself; the lord khalif of God placed
the Nazarene in opposition to him for a religious discussion. The Jew
began: “In the Pentateuch, there is no mention made of Jesus.” The
Nazarene replied: “How not? Does not David say: ‘My hands and my feet
fall off, and all my bones are counted.’ This is a prediction of the
sufferings and of the crucifixion of Jesus.” The Jew remarked upon
this: “Whatever David may have said of himself, and the All-Just have
announced by his tongue, should all this be taken for a prediction of
Jesus?” The Nazarene pursued: “But the conception of a virgin was
predicted, and this virgin was Mary.” The Jew objected: “Amongst us,
the virginity of Mary is not proved, as, according to your belief,
before the birth of Jesus, she was married to Joseph the carpenter,
and Jesus is said to be the son of Joseph the carpenter.” The Nazarene
admitted: “This is true; but,” he added: “Joseph had never touched
Mary.” The Jew opposed: “How is that proved?” And this was the
question which the Jew repeated at every thing which the Nazarene
brought forward, so that the latter was reduced to silence.
A learned philosopher came into the hall, where Hindus also were
present, and three other learned men; a Muselman, a Nazarene, and a
Jew: these were summoned, and ranged in opposition to the learned
philosopher. The latter opened the discussion in this manner: “The
divine mission of your prophets has not been proved, for several
reasons: the first is, that whatever the prophet says ought to be
conformable to reason; the second is, that he ought to be free from
crime, and not hurtful to other beings. But Moses, according to the
opinion of the Jews, was brought up by Pharâoh, and yet he caused him
by a stratagem to be drowned in the waters of the Nile, and listened
not to his repentance. What they say of the water of the Nile having
opened a passage to Moses, is an error. Nor did he attend to the
repentance of Kárún (Korah),[57] but, from covetousness of gold, he
caused him to be swallowed up by the earth. Jesus permitted the
killing and ill using of animals. And Muhammed himself attacked the
forces and caravans of the Koreish; he shed blood, nay, with his own
hand put to death animated beings. He besides exceeded all bounds in
sexual connexions, and in taking the wives of other men; so that, on
account of his gazing, a wife was separated from her husband,[58] and
the like are notorious of him. With these perverse qualities, how then
shall we recognise a prophet?” All concurred in declaring: “By
miracles.” The philosopher asked: “What are the miracles of your
prophets?” The Jew answered: “Thou must have heard of Moses’s wand,
which became a serpent.” The doctor immediately took up his girdle,
breathed upon it, and it became a great serpent, which hissed and
turned towards the Jew; but the philosopher stretched out his hand,
and took it back, saying: “Lo, the miracle of Moses!” whilst the Jew,
from fear, had scarcely any life left in his body, and could not
recover his breath again. Now the Christian said: “The Messiah was
born without a father.” The doctor replied: “You yourselves say that
Joseph, the carpenter, had taken Mary to wife; how can it be made out
that Jesus was not the son of Joseph?” The Nazarene was reduced to
silence. The Mahomedan took up the word, and said: “Our prophet
brought forth the Korán, divided the moon, and ascended to heaven.”
The philosopher observed upon this: “It is stated in your sacred book:
“‘And they say: We will by no means believe on thee, until
thou cause a spring of water to gush forth for us out of the
earth, or thou have a garden of palm trees and vines, and
thou cause rivers to spring forth from the midst of this
palm plantation; or that thou throw down upon the earth the
heaven torn in pieces; or that thou bring down God Almighty
and the angels to vouch for thee; or thou have a house of
gold; or thou ascend by a ladder to heaven: neither will we
believe thy ascending, until thou cause a book to descend
unto us which we may read. The answer is in this way: Say, O
Muhammed, pure is God the nourisher, I am but a
man-prophet.’[59]
“From this an equitable judge can conclude, he who could not cause a
spring of running water to come forth, how could he have shown the
miracles which are related of him? when he had not the power of
tearing the heaven in pieces, in what manner could he divide the moon?
when he was unable to show the angels, how could he see Jabrííl with
his own eyes? and his companions too did not behold him in the shape
of an Arab; when he was unable, in the presence of unbelievers, to go
to heaven with his body, how did he perform the bodily ascension
(ascribed to him in the Koran)? As he brought thence no writing, in
what way came the Koran down from heaven?”
A follower of Zerdusht, who stood in a corner, now interrupted the
philosopher, saying: “Maintain all this, but do not deny miracles _in
general_, for our prophet too ascended to heaven.” The doctor replied:
“You admit the existence of Yezdán and Ahrimán, in order that Yezdán
may not be said to be the author of evil; but you also assert, that
Ahrimán sprung forth from the evil thought of the all-just Lord;
therefore he sprung from God, and evil originates from God, the
All-Just: you are therefore wrong in the fundamental principle, the
very root of your religion, and wrong must be every branch which you
derive from it.”
A learned Brahman here took up the discussion: “Thou deniest the
prophetic missions; but our Avatárs rest upon these missions.” The
doctor said: “You at first acknowledge one God, and then you say that,
having descended from his solitude, he assumed a great body; but God
is not clothed with a body, which belongs to contingency and tangible
matter. In like manner, you attribute wives to your gods. Vishnu, who
according to some represents the second person of the divine triad,
according to others, is acknowledged as the supreme God, is said to
have descended from his station, and become incarnate at different
times, in the forms of a fish, a boar, a tortoise, and of man. When he
was in the state of Rama, his wife was ravished from him. He was
ignorant, and acquired some knowledge by becoming the disciple of one
among the sages of India, until he was freed from his body; in the
form of Krishna he was addicted to lust and deceit, of which you
yourselves tell many stories. You state, that in this incarnation
there was little of the wisdom of a supreme God, and much of the
corporeal matter of Krishna: thus you compel mankind, who, capable of
justice, are superior to all sorts of animals, to worship a boar or a
tortoise! And you adore the form of the male organ as Mahadeva, whom
many acknowledge to be God, and the female organ as his wife! You seem
not to know that the irrational cannot be the creator of the rational;
that the one, uncompounded, is incompatible with division, and that
plurality of the self-existent one is absurd. Finally, by the worship
of a mean object, no perfection can accrue to the noble.” By these
proofs and arguments he established his theses, and the Brahman
remained confounded.
Afterwards the philosopher addressed the assembly: “Know for certain
that the perfect prophet and learned apostle, the possessor of fame,
_Akbar_, that is, the lord of wisdom, directs us to acknowledge that
the self-existent being is the wisest teacher, and ordains the
creatures with absolute power, so that the intelligent among them may
be able to understand his precepts; and as reason renders it evident
that the world has a Creator, all-mighty and all-wise, who has
diffused upon the field of events among the servants, subject to
vicissitudes, numerous and various benefits which are worthy of praise
and thanksgiving; therefore, according to the lights of our reason,
let us investigate the mysteries of his creation, and, according to
our knowledge, pour out the praises of his benefits; and as, by the
knowledge of the primordial omnipotence, we shall have found the
direction to the right way, we shall, in proportion to our gratitude,
be led to the reward of yon exuberant beatitude; if, by denying the
unity and disowning the benefits of God we sink into guilt, shall we
not be deserving of punishment? Such being the case, why should we pay
obedience to any person who belongs to mankind as ourselves, and who
is subject to anger and lust, and avarice and passion, and love of
rank and power, even more than ourselves? If this mortal exhorts us to
knowledge and gratitude, we may by the concurrence of our own reason
obtain this advantage; but if he urges his precepts by what is
opposite to reason, then his speech is a proof of deceit; for reason
demonstrates that the world has a wise creator, and that he, being
wise, prescribes to the creatures a worship which to their reason does
not evince itself as an evil; and whatever is proved bad, is not
ordered by him. Now the law contains particulars which reason accounts
as false or bad: such are conversations with God; the descent of
incorporeal heavenly beings in human forms or in the shape of a
tortoise; the reascension to heaven in an elemental body; the
pilgrimage to particular edifices for performance of worship; the
circuit (round the Kába), the entrance in it, the fatigue, the
throwing of stones;[60] the acquitting one’s self of the pilgrimage to
Mecca; the kissing of the black stone. If it be said that, without a
visible medium, it is impossible to worship the all-mighty Creator,
and that a place for the sake of connexion is to be fixed, it may be
answered, that one who offers praises and thanks to God, has no need
of a medium and of a place; and if a fixed place were to be admitted,
the forms of the stars above would be preferable. If it be objected,
that this cannot be free from the detestable suspicion of paganism,
whilst, certainly, a place among others having been fixed, which
place, by distinction from them all, presents itself to them as
particular, a predilection for it appeared proper. In like manner,
after a computation of dimensions, geometricians and mathematicians
determine a place which, with respect to the objects and points of a
space, bears the same relation as the centre to a circle; then,
without doubt, every portion of the circumference will have its
particular relative situation with respect to the point of the centre;
certainly, in consequence of this arrangement, all places so
determined become referable to this particular place, and among the
other places, shall be worthy of predilection.” _To this may be
answered_: “This opinion agrees not with the ideas of many
distinguished persons; for a great number confers upon the site of
another place the attribute of being the middle, and distinguish it as
such; which is evident from the books of the institutes of Brahma and
of others, and by the necessity of pronouncing benedictions there.
This also cannot be free from the suspicion of paganism: because one
may suppose that God, the All-Just, is represented in the house, or is
a body, on which account people call it ‘the house of God.’ If it be
so, or if the Kábah be situated in the midst of a country, other
prophets may have chosen another place, such as the holy house (of
Jerusalem), and the like; but this is but by error; thus it
happened――that, at first, the lord Muhammed did not offer his prayers
at the Kâbah. Since therefore the detestable suspicion of paganism
rests upon all the worship of stone, earth, and bodies, then water,
fire, and the planets, are objects more proper to be honored; and if a
centre be desired, let it be the sun in the midst of the seven
heavens. In like manner objectionable is the sacrifice of animals, and
the interdiction of what may be proper for the food of men, and the
admitting thereof by one prophet to be lawful what is forbidden by
another. Thus, if it be not right to eat pork, why was it permitted by
Jesus? if it was interdicted on account of pollution in consequence of
the animal’s feeding upon unclean and nasty things, so the cock is
objectionable for the same reasons. Similar to these are most other
commands, and contrary to the precepts of reason. But the greatest
injury comprehended in a prophetic mission is the obligation to submit
to one like ourselves of the human species, who is subject to the
incidental distempers and imperfections of mankind; and who
nevertheless controls others with severity, in eating, drinking, and
in all their other possessions, and drives them about like brutes, in
every direction which he pleases; who declares every follower’s wife
he desires, legal for himself and forbidden to the husband; who takes
to himself nine wives,[61] whilst he allows no more than four to his
followers; and even of these wives he takes whichever he pleases for
himself;[62] and who grants impunity for shedding blood to whomsoever
he chooses. On account of what excellency, on account of what science,
is it necessary to follow that man’s command; and what proof is there
to establish the legitimacy of his pretensions? If he be a prophet by
his simple word, his word, because it is only a word, has no claim of
superiority over the words of others. Nor is it possible to know which
of the sayings be correctly his own, on account of the multiplicity of
contradictions in the professions of faith. If he be a prophet on the
strength of miracles, then the deference to it is very dependent;
because a miracle is not firmly established, and rests only upon
tradition or a demon’s romances: as the house of tradition, from old
age, falls in ruins, it deserves no confidence. Besides, by the
regulation of divine providence, occult sciences are numerous; and the
properties of bodies without end or number. Why should it not happen
that such a phenomenon, which thou thinkest to be a miracle, be
nothing else but one of the properties of several bodies, or a strange
effect of the occult art? As with thee, the dividing of the moon, of
which thou hast heard, is a miracle, why shouldst thou not admit, as
proved, the moon of Káshgar?[63] And if thou namest Moses, ‘the
speaker of God,’ why shouldst thou not so much the more give this
title to Sámerí,[64] who caused a calf to speak?
“But if it be said that every intellect has not the power of
comprehending the sublime precepts, but that the bounty of the
all-mighty God created degrees of reason and a particular order of
spirits, so that he blessed a few of the number with superior
sagacity; and that the merciful light of lights, by diffusion and
guidance, exalted the prophets even above these intellects. If it be
so, then a prophet is of little service to men; for he gives
instruction which they do not understand, or which their reason does
not approve. Then the prophet will propagate his doctrine by the
sword; he says to the inferiors: ‘My words are above your
understanding, and your study will not comprehend them.’ To the
intelligent he says: ‘My faith is above the mode of reason.’ Thus, his
religion suits neither the ignorant nor the wise. Another evil
_attending submission to an incomprehensible doctrine_ is that,
whatever the intellect possesses and offers by its ingenuity, turns to
no instruction and advantage of mankind, whilst the prophet himself
has said:
‘God imposes upon a man no more than he can bear.’
“And whatever the understanding does not comprise within the extent of
reason, the truth of this remains hidden; and to assent thereto is
silliness; because the doctrine of other wise men may be of a higher
value than the tradition or the book of that prophet. Besides, if the
maxim were inculcated that prophets must be right, any body who chose
could set up the pretension of being one; as silly men will always be
found to follow him, saying: ‘His reason is superior to ours, which is
not equal to such things.’ Hence have arisen among the Muselmans and
other nations so many creeds and doctrines, as well as practices
without number.
“Another defect is that, when the religion of one prophet has been
adopted, and when his rule has been followed in the knowledge and
worship of God, after a certain time another prophet arises, who
prescribes another religion to the people. Hence they become
perplexed, and know not whether the former prophet was a liar, or
whether they ought to conclude that in each period mankind is to alter
the law according to circumstances. But the knowledge of truth admits
no contradiction; yet there exists a great number of contradictions in
the four sacred books:[65] hence it appears that, in the first times,
the true God has not made himself known, and that the first creed with
respect to him had been wrong; thus, in the second book, something
else is said, and in like manner in the third and in the fourth.
“In the sequel it became evident to wise men, that emancipation is to
be obtained only by the knowledge of truth conformably with the
precepts of the perfect prophet, the perfect lord of fame, _Akbar_,
‘the Wise;’ the practices enjoined by him are: renouncing and
abandoning the world; refraining from lust, sensuality, entertainment,
slaughter of what possesses life; and from appropriating to one’s self
the riches of other men; abstaining from women, deceit, false
accusation, oppression, intimidation, foolishness, and giving (to
others) opprobrious titles. The endeavors for the recompense of the
other world, and the forms of the true religion may be comprised in
ten virtues, namely: 1. liberality and beneficence; 2. forbearance
from bad actions and repulsion of anger with mildness; 3. abstinence
from worldly desires; 4. care of freedom from the bonds of the worldly
existence and violence, as well as accumulating precious stores for
the future real and perpetual world; 5. piety, wisdom, and devotion,
with frequent meditations on the consequences of actions; 6. strength
of dexterous prudence in the desire of sublime actions; 7. soft voice,
gentle words, and pleasing speeches for every body; 8. good society
with brothers, so that their will may have the precedence to our own;
9. a perfect alienation from the creatures, and a perfect attachment
to the supreme Being; 10. purification of the soul by the yearning
after God the all-just, and the union with the merciful Lord, in such
a manner that, as long as the soul dwells in the body, it may think
itself one with him and long to join him, until the hour of separation
from the body arrives. The best men are those who content themselves
with the least food, and who sequestrate themselves from this
perishable world, and abstain from the enjoyments of eating, drinking,
dress, and marriage. The vilest of the people are those who think it
right to indulge the desire of generation, the passion for wine, and
banquetting with eagerness, as if it were something divine. As the
mode which the perfect prophet and apostle, Akbar the Wise, has
prescribed to his followers, is difficult, certainly the demons excite
the spirit of brutish passion against his regulations; so that there
are prophets who, captivated with lust, anger, pleasures of eating and
drinking, costly garments, beautiful women, and engaged in oppression
towards the children of one race, whom they call infidels, consider
these practices not only as legal, but even as laudable, and tend
towards them. So it happens that many learned men and their followers,
who, for the sake of the world have chosen to obey these prophets, but
in their heart deny them, and are aware of the falsehood of this sect,
wait for an opportunity, with prudent regard to circumstances and a
favorable hour, to adopt the regulations _of Akbar_”.――Nobody in the
assembly had an answer to give to the learned philosopher, who, after
the effort which he had made, left the hall.[66]
The lord vicar of God said to his disciples, that, it is an
indispensable duty to worship God, the all-just, and that it is
necessary to praise those who are near him; among mankind, said he,
none is higher in rank than the planets, to the station of which no
man can attain. None except God, the all-mighty, is the wish of the
godly man, that is, whatever the godly undertakes, the object of his
wish in it is God; for instance, he takes some food, that he may be
able to perform the service of God; performs that service, that he may
not be slack and deficient in his duties to God; desires a wife, that
he may give existence to a virtuous son, worshipper of God; pays
veneration to the lights of the stars, because they are near God the
all-just; and abandons himself to sleep, that his soul may ascend to
the upper world. Finally, the godly man is at all times in the service
and obedience of the all-just, and at no moment is he negligent in
pious practices. Moreover, he thinks himself bound to abstain from
hurting living beings, and he respects all the creatures of God. He
does not cut grass and green trees without necessity, nor pollute the
ground wantonly, except on a particular place; he throws neither water
nor fire upon vile spots; he blesses the stars; further in this
disposition he accustoms himself to abstinence in speaking, eating,
and sleeping; he constrains himself to many occupations: one of them
is to close with his fingers the exterior organs; he dwells with
veneration upon the image of the lord of fires (the sun), until he had
carried this exercise so far that, by merely covering his eyes, the
great object is present to him; then, whichever of the illustrious and
mighty personages of Hind, or Iran, or Greece, or any other place, he
wishes to see, that person presents himself to his view, and he sees
lights, explores many ways, and makes himself master of the temporary
and the eternal. The lord vicar of the all-just is called _Ilahí_,
“divine,” by his followers, because in all their actions the object of
their wishes is God; and the lord has received the divine mission to
establish the worship of the stars, which are to be the Kiblah of the
pious. In the ancient books of the Hindus and Parsis, without number,
the excellence of the constellations is affirmed.
Náin Javet gave the information that, in the reign of the lord (Akbar)
the learned assembled, and Makhdúm ul mulk gave the decision, that in
this age it is not required to make the pilgrimage to Mecca; but that
whoever makes it deserves punishment; for this reason; namely, because
the road to Mecca by land passes through the middle of Irak, and by
sea through Guzerat and the ports of the Farangis; by land it is
unavoidable to hear unseemly speeches from the Kazel báshan; and on
the voyage by sea to suffer much impropriety in the transactions and
communications with the Farangis; because they have represented upon
their papers[67] the image of Jesus and the picture of Mary, which
bear a resemblance to idolatry.
His majesty Akbar said one day that he heard from Shaikh Abdul Nabí,
that one of the chief lawyers of the Sonnites declared the taking of
nine wives to be legal, whilst other learned men denied it, and quoted
the passage of the Koran:
“Take in marriage such women as please you, two, or three, or
four.”[68]
As even eighteen wives were said to be legal, then the learned gave
the decision that it may be admissible, by the mode of _matâh_, “a
temporary agreement,”[69] by means of which the obtainment of women is
facilitated for a certain price; and this is permitted pursuant to the
creed of the Imám Málik. The sect of the Shíahs assert, that a son
begotten in consequence of _matâh_, is preferable to all others. Nakib
Khan followed the footsteps of the Imám Málik, who at last declared
the matâh legal by a public patent. The sect of the Shíáhs quote, in
support of this, the following passage of the Koran:
“Your women are a field for you: approach your field as you
may like.”
By which they pretend to show that any mode of coition is
permitted.[70] Náin Javet said that, when the era of the Muselmans was
fixed, the people had a bad opinion of the companions of the prophet,
and wise men called all the laws “prisons,” and declared the centre of
faith rests upon reason. Nobody disputed with them. Then arrived
learned Farangis, and argued in their speeches. _Shaikh_ Bhavan, so
was called a learned Brahman from the country of Dekan, having
conceived hatred towards his relations, became a Muselman, and
obtained this name: he had the fourth Véda in his possession, and
interpreted some precepts of this book, which contains many beauties,
and a sentence like that of the Koran: “There is but one God;” and it
was also stated therein, that whoever does not make this confession
will not obtain salvation. In another place it was said that to eat
cow’s flesh was, under certain conditions, allowable; and elsewhere it
was ordained to bury, and not to burn, a corpse. Thus, the beforesaid
Shaikh was triumphant over the Brahmans. But Náin Javet related that
he has requested him to interpret this passage; when he had translated
it, its meaning was completely contrary and opposed to the sentence:
“There is but one God,” and the restriction to eat cow’s flesh also
was contrary to the custom of the Muselmans; and concerning the
burying of the dead he gave a different account from that which is
lawful by the faith of the Muselmans. His Majesty (Akbar), with all
those present, laughed at the Brahman, and said: “Look at these
Muselmans and Hindus, who among many conflicting arguments did not
think to ask what was the meaning of the passages in question, and
have praised me exceedingly.”
Mír Sáíd Sherif Amely came to the place of Daibálpúr, and waited on
his Majesty (Akbar), who was then taking part in a public dispute
between a number of young men with some theologians, about Mahmúd, and
he reduced them to silence. The Emperor conferred also many favors
upon the said Mir, and the controversy in religion went so far that
even doctors in law were accused of infidelity; learned men and Sufies
declared in the celestial court (Akbar’s), that wise and capable men
existed in all religions: where then is the superiority and
preponderance? More than one thousand years have not elapsed since
this faith was established.
In like manner, a number of children were put in a place called
_Gangmahel_, where every thing necessary was furnished to them; but
none could articulate a letter; having remained there to their
fourteenth year, they were found to be dumb; which made it evident,
that letters and language are not natural to man, that is, cannot be
used unless they have been acquired by instruction, and it is then
only that the use of conversation becomes possible. From this the
conclusion was drawn, that the world is very ancient, and language of
a long date, whence the Brahmans derive arguments founded upon reason
and testimony for the truth of their religion and the futility of
others.
The crown of the pious Shaikh Táj-ed-din, the son of Shaikh Zakríá
Jondehení Dahluví, explained the exterior rites of the mystic
doctrine; the system of the unity of the real being; and the precepts
of the religion of Pharâoh, which is the _Feśus ul hikem_, the “bezels
of philosophers,”[71] and the superiority of hope over fear. His
Majesty Akbar liked the mode in which the Kings of Ajem performed
worship; the Sufis, acknowledging holy personages as representing the
Khalífs of the age, used to prostrate themselves before them, touching
the ground with their foreheads; this was intended to mark the secret
meaning that the angels had once adored Adam. The truth is, that the
wise are the terrestrial angels, who worship an holy personage as a
_Khalífah_, “vicar,” of God; and for having attained to this dignity,
they venerate him under a similar character, and call him also their
_Kabâh_ and _Kiblah_: because the heart of a just man is the heart of
the all-just God, and it is to its door that they turn in the worship
of God; in that sense Yâkúb and his sons prostrated themselves before
Yúsef.
Shaikh Yâkúb, a grammarian of Kashmir, who was a spiritual guide of
the age, related, as from _Aín alkasa Hamdání_, that Muhammed is the
manifest name of a guide, and Iblis the manifest name of a seducer.
Mulla Muhammed Yzedí blamed the three khalifs, and reviled the
companions of the prophet and their followers; he seduced people to
the faith of Shíâhs, and, having brought forth chapters of the Gospel,
he drew from them a proof of the third person of the Trinity as being
true, and confirmed the religion of the Naśaránains.
As his Majesty (Akbar) showed himself a friend of all men, he gave
orders to the Nawab, the wise _Shaikh Abu ’l Faźil_,[72] who
frequently witnessed the prodigious deeds of the emperor, to interpret
several _foreign works_, and instead of the common sentence,
“_Bismilla_,” etc., he adopted another, viz.:
“Thy name is a fortress, and thou art its foundation,
Thou art holy, and there is no God but God.”
The Rájah Birber conceived in his mind that the sun is an object all
comprehensive; that he causes the ripening of the grain, of the sown
fields, of the fruits, and of all vegetables; and gives splendor and
life; likewise, fire and water, and stones and trees, all are
manifestations of God; he gave the mark on the forehead and the zunar.
The learned brought it nearly to certainty that the sun, the great,
the exalted luminary, is the benefactor of the world, and the
protector of monarchs. The Yezdánian said, that the sun is the world
of spirits, the self-existent being; and the sun of the world of
bodies is a luminary (a soul)[73] which is the Khalifah, “the vicar,”
of God. A sect of the fire-worshippers stated also that the learned
entertain conflicting opinions about the existence of spirits, of
unity, and the self-existing being; and other sects denied this; but
no denial is possible about the existence, the splendor, and the
beneficence of the sun. His Majesty, Akbar, as he was ordered by God,
used to read prayers, containing the praise of the sun, in the
Persian, Hindi, Turkish, and Arabic languages, among which all was one
prayer which is proper to the Hindus, and which they sing at midnight
and at sun-rise. Besides, the emperor forbade his subjects to kill
cows and to eat their flesh because medical men have declared that
cow’s flesh causes itch, dry scab, leprosy, elephantiasis, and the
like diseases, and is difficult to digest. The Hindus say also that,
as many advantages are derived from the cow, it is not right to kill
it. The Yezdánian maintained that it is tyranny to kill harmless
animals, and a tyrant is an enemy of God, the Almighty. But the
learned of the time showed in the book _Serat´ ul mustakím_, “the
right road,” composed by the Imám _Majeddin Muhammed_, son of _Yàkub_,
son of _Muhammed_, _Fírózábádí_,[74] that what is known
“The most excellent meat of both worlds is flesh.”
This has not been firmly established, and in the subject of the
excellence of _hersiah_, a kind of pottage, nothing appeared, nor on
the subject of the virtues of the white cock;[75] and on the subject
of bastards it is known:
“The illegitimate son has no access to paradise.”
This was not firmly established, and is futile. His Majesty, the
khalífah of the all-just, proclaimed himself the joyous tidings, that
cows ought not to be killed.
In like manner, the fire-worshippers, who had come from the town of
Nóusarí, situated in the district of Gujerát, asserted the truth of
the religion of Zoroaster, and the great reverence and worship due to
fire. The emperor called them to his presence, and was pleased to take
information about the way and lustre of their wise men. He also called
from Persia a follower of Zardusht, named Ardeshir, to whom he sent
money; he delivered the sacred fire with care to the wise Shaikh Abu
’l Faźil, and established that it should be preserved in the interior
apartment by night and day, perpetual henceforth, according to the
rule of the Mobeds, and to the manner which was always practised in
the fire-temples of the Kings of Ajem, because the _Ití set_ was among
the sentences of the Lord, and light from among the lights of the
great Ized. He invited likewise the fire-worshippers from Kirman to
his presence, and questioned them about the subtilties of Zardusht’s
religion; and he wrote letters to Azer-Káivan, who was a chief of the
Yezdáníán and Abádáníán, and invited him to India; Azer-Káivan begged
to be excused from coming, but sent a book of his own composition in
praise of the self-existing being, of reason, the soul, the heavens,
the stars, and the elements; as well as a word of advice to the King;
all this contained in fourteen sections: every first line of each was
in Persian _pure derí_; when read invertedly, it was Arabic; when
turned about, Turkish; and when this was read in reversed order, it
became Hindí. The Nawab, the wise Shaikh Abu ’l Fazil placed a full
confidence in Azer Káivan; he called the inhabitants of Ajem and
Arabia “infestors of roads,” and the people of Islám “accursed.” The
wise Shaikh Abu ’l Fazil said in Fatah púr to Abd ul Káder Bedávaní:
“I have to complain of the authors of books for two reasons: the first
is, that they have not explicitly enough written the account of
ancient prophets, similar to that of their own prophet; the second is,
that nothing remained of the industrious men whose name is not
mentioned in the _Tazkeret-ul-awlía_, ‘the Story of the Saints,’[76]
and the _Nafhát alúns_,[77] ‘the fragrant Gales of Mankind,’ and the
like; and the family of the prophet, what was their guilt that their
names were not admitted into them?” Abd ul Káder gave no satisfactory
answer. Ghází Khán Baddakshi, who had not his equal in logical
science, treated explicitly and laboriously in sections of the just
Imám (Alí), and established by investigation his superior merit in
other treatises; and other learned men exercised their sagacity upon
this subject.
In the month Rajeb of the year of the Hejira 987 (A. D. 1579), the
Emperor Akbar was ordered (by Heaven) to fix the sentence: “There is
but one God, and Akbar is his Khalifah,” to be used. If the people
really wished it, they might adopt this faith; and his Majesty
declared, that this religion ought to be established by choice, and
not by violence. In this manner, a number of men, who were more pious
or wise than those of their times, chose this creed according to their
conscience. The command came from God, that the attachment to the
cause of the Lord God and to one’s master has four degrees, which are:
sacrifice of property, life, reputation, and religion. The command of
the _Ilahi_, “divine,” faith means that, in case of an indispensable
conflict, if one does not sacrifice all he possesses, he must renounce
these four degrees. Further, it is the divine command, that one may
relinquish something of the four degrees, but never make an
abandonment of his God.
The Emperor further said, that one thousand years have elapsed since
the beginning of Muhammed’s mission, and that this was the extent of
the duration of this religion, now arrived at its term.
Another of his ordinances abolished absolutely the obligation of
bathing after pollution _by spermatic emission_. The sages said that
the most exquisite and best part of a man is _maní_, “sperm,” and that
the seed of creation is pure. What sense is there that, after the
common natural secretions bathing be not required, whilst the release
of a quantity of delicate matter is subject to an entire ablution? Yet
it is suitable to bathe before indulging sexual propensity.
It is equally absurd to prepare food for the spirit of a corpse, which
then belongs to minerals: what sense is there in it? Yet the birth-day
of a person is justly made a great festival, and called “the banquet
of life.” Moreover, when one’s soul has attained the full knowledge of
the primitive cause, and has left its mortal garment, this day also is
devoted to rejoicing, and named “the day of union.”
On account of the difference between the era of the Hindus and that of
the Hejira used by the Arabs, the Emperor introduced a new one,
beginning from the first year of the reign of Hamáyún, which is 963 of
the Hejira (A. D. 1555-6); the names of the months were those used by
the Kings of Ajem; and fourteen festivals in the year instituted,
coinciding with those of Zardusht, were named “the years and days of
_Ilahí_.” This arrangement was established by _Hakím Sháh Fattah ulla
Shírází_. On account of hearing so many disputes of the learned in the
midst of the multitude, the custom of reading the comments on the
Koran and the science of religion and law, were laid aside, and in
their place astronomy, physic, arithmetic, mysticism, poetry, and
chronology became current. The people of Ajem used to repeat
frequently these verses:
“By living upon milk of camels and upon lizards,
The Arabians raised their fortune;
So that they now covet Ajem:
Fie upon thee, O revolving world, fie!”
Khaja abd ul látíf,[78] who was one of the distinguished personages of
Maverah ul naher, gifted with the talent of subtile distinctions,
raised doubts upon the truth of the saying:
‘The neck of the lord Muhammed is similar to the neck of an
idol.’
If that prevailed, then idolatry would be laudable. In like manner,
the tradition about the she-camel straying far off,[79] which is
published in the _Sír_, “acts and deeds;” then the assault upon the
caravan of the Koraish, in the beginning of the Hejira;[80] also
demanding nine wives,[81] and the interdiction of women from husbands
according to the pleasure of the prophet, and this taking place;[82]
the companions giving up their body; which is to be known by reading
the book _Sír_; further, the appointment of the three first
khalifs;[83] the affair of Fadek;[84] the war of Safín;[85] the
victory of the Shiâhs; and the defeat of the Sonnites: _all these
topics are subject to reflection_.
At a convivial meeting on the new-year’s festival, a Kási and a Mufti
were inclined to drink cups of wine. Shaik Abu ’l Fazil, as a
counterpart to the explanation of the verse of the Koran, called “the
throne,”[86] composed a sermon in two parts. He also translated the
Mahábharat, which is the history of the wars of the ancient Hindu
chiefs. Some learned men denied absolutely the affair of Muhammed’s
marriage night with _Sidíkáh_,[87] and blamed the deed of David
concerning Uriah’s wife.
When the Sultán Khajah, who was one of the Ilahian, was about to leave
this world, he said to the emperor: “Let not your Majesty bury me as
if I had been an adorer of Divs.” On that account he was placed in a
tomb with lamps, like a person of distinction, and a lattice was left
towards the great majestic luminary, the splendor of which purifies
from of all sins. Further, orders were issued that, in imitation of
the kings of Ajem, low people may be prevented from reading the books
of the wise, and from the pursuit of sciences. By other ordinances,
the affairs of the Hindus were to be decided by learned Brahmans, and
those of Muselmans by their own Káśis. Likewise the followers of other
religions and persuasions received orders, that the head of a corpse
may be laid in a tomb towards the east, and its feet towards the west;
and that persons, even in their sleep, may dispose themselves in that
direction. It was further ordained, that the Ilahian may not apply to
any other sciences of the Arabs but to astronomy, arithmetic, physic,
and philosophy, and not spend their life-time in the pursuit of what
is not reasonable. The interdiction of slaying cows was confirmed. It
was also regulated, that a Hindu woman is not to be prevented from
burning with her dead husband, but that the sacrifice ought to take
place without violence used towards, or abhorrence shewn by, the
widow. Another regulation was that, whoever eats with one whose
profession is the slaughter of animals, should have his hand cut off;
but only a finger, if he belong to the people of his house.
Again, a woman who is going about in narrow streets or in
market-places, without having at that time her face veiled, ought not
to be approached by her husband; and a woman of improper conduct, who
quarrels with her husband, ought to be sent to the place of
prostitutes, whose business it is to offer themselves for sale. In
addition to this, in times of distressing famine, a father and a
mother may happen to sell their children under age; when they find
themselves in better circumstances, they must be allowed, by giving
money, to rescue their offspring from the bonds of servitude.
Moreover, a Hindu who, in his infancy, without his will, has been made
a Muselman, if later he chooses to return to the faith of his fathers,
is at liberty to do so, and is not to be prevented from it; also every
person is permitted to profess whatever religion he chooses, and to
pass, whenever he likes, from one religion to another. But if a Hindu
woman, having fallen in love with a Muselman, wishes to adopt his
religion, she can be taken by force and delivered up to her family.
And likewise a Muselman woman, if she has fallen in love with an
Hindu, and wishes to adopt his faith, is prevented from it, and not
admitted in his caste. Finally, the erection of a temple of idols, of
a church, of a fire-temple, and a sepulchral vault, ought not to be
impeded, nor the building of a mosque for the Muselmans.
Sader Jehan adopted the Ilahi religion. Acbar called the harmless
animals the beasts of peace, and showed abhorrence to their slaughter.
He mixed the best and purest part of every religion for the formation
of his own faith. Mulla Tersún Badakhshi, who was a Muselman of the
Hanifa creed, informed me, in the Hejira 1058 (A. D. 1648-9), that one
day he went on a pilgrimage to visit the sepulchre of Akbar, the
inhabitant of heaven; there, one of his friends, having hurt his foot
in climbing up the holy tomb, set about reviling the khalifah of God.
The companions said: “If the blessed Emperor, now in heaven, have any
power, that man will certainly come to some misfortune.” Soon after,
indeed, he broke a toe of his foot by a stone which had fallen down
from a crevice of the wall. In one of Akbar’s works we find, that it
is indispensable to worship God, the all-just, and necessary to praise
the beings near him; that none of mankind rise to the rank of stars,
as men are not equal to the dignity of celestial luminaries. The
Emperor inculcated on his followers, that a godly man ought to know no
other object of his wishes but God, the Almighty; that is, whatever
business the godly undertakes, his wish in that business ought to tend
towards God.
[36] According to Muhammed’s sayings, no more than four
women obtained perfection, to wit: _Asia_, the wife of
Pharaoh; _Mary_, the daughter of Imran (the blessed Virgin);
_Khadijá_, the prophet’s wife, and _Fatima_, his daughter.
[37] _Fedak_, according to Abulfeda (I. 133. 273), is a
castle near the town of _Khaibar_; this is a place fertile
in palm-trees in the Arabian province of _Hejaz_, four days’
journey distant from Mecca. It was given to Muhammed by the
faithful, under the name of alms. After the prophet’s death,
Fátima claimed it as a patrimony: but Abubekr refused it to
her, setting forth the above mentioned saying of the
prophet. Abulfeda, whom I follow, gives it as follows:
نحن معاشر الانبیاء لانورث ماتر کناہ صدقة
The words لانورث are not in the quotation of the Dabistán,
edit. of Calcutta, nor in the manuscript of Oude. Thus was
Fedak taken from the race of Alí and fell into the hands of
Mervan, in whose family it remained until Omar declared it
again to belong to alms, and assigned the usufruct of it to
the Alides. But _Mamun_, the seventh khalif of the
Abbasides, who reigned from Hejira 198 to 218 (A. D.
813-833), gave it formally over to _Muhammed_, son of
_Yahia_, son of _Hassan_, son of _Zaid_, son of _Ali_, son
of _Hassan_, son of _Ali_, son of _Abu Taleb_.――(_Abulfeda_,
II. p. 167).
[38] Muhammed had scarcely expired, when a vehement contest
about the succession to his dignity arose between the
_Mohajirin_, “the emigrants from Mecca with the prophet,”
and the _Ansar_, “the protectors (see note, p. 27): both
claimed the right of nomination. Abubekr was proclaimed by
both. To crush the resistance of Alí, who was the legitimate
competitor, Omar, sent by Abu-bekr, burnt the gate, and was
about to set on fire the house of Alí――scarcely restrained
from the act by the reproach of Fátima, Muhammed’s daughter
and Ali’s wife, who from that moment till her death never
spoke to any of the enemies of her husband. The prophet,
according to authentic traditions, said: “Whoever gives
offence to Fatimah gives offence to me; and whoever offends
me, offends God.”
[39] Muhammed, son of Ismáil al Jisfi, called _Bochárí_,
from his native town in Mazinderan, lived from the year of
the Hejira 194 to 256 (A. D. 809-869). He is chiefly
celebrated by a work composed, as he says himself, at the
prophet’s tomb at Madína, from six hundred thousand
traditions, and called _Masnad es sahih_, the sincere
(just) Masnad. “Masnad” signifies a collection of
traditions, each of which is accompanied with the name of
the traditionist by whom it was handed down.
[40] This happened in the battle of Ohod (so is called a
mountain half an hour’s distance from Madína, on the route
of Mecca). Muhammed fought with seven hundred men against
more than three thousand Koreish from Mecca, in the third
year of the Hejira (A. D. 624). Otba, the son of Vaccasi,
and brother of Sâd, who fought on the prophet’s side, hit
him with a stone, so as to knock out four incisors of his
inferior jaw.
[41] The edition of Calcutta and the manuscript of Oude have
erroneously: “Hakim, the son of _Mervan_,” instead of _Aś_,
which I substituted for Mervan, according to Abulfeda, I. p.
271. Elmacin (_Hist. Sarac._, p. 38) reads “Hakim, son of
_Abúl-Aś_.”
[42] Abulfeda (I. p. 271) says 500,000 gold coins. Elmacin
(_loco cit._, p. 39) states five talents of Africa, said to
be worth 504,000 gold pieces.
[43] Abulfeda (I. p. 261) mentions _Abdalla_, son of _Sâd_,
son of _Abu Sarh_, Amerite, a foster-brother of Osman
(_ibid._, p. 154). Elmacin (_loco cit._, p. 39) calls him
_Abdalla_, son of _Sáid_, son of _Abu Jerh_, who had been a
writer of revelations, and who, because he had apostatised
from Islamism, would have been put to death by the prophet,
after the taking of Mecca, in the eighth year of the Hejira
(A. D. 629), if Osman had not interceded for him.
[44] This relates to an expedition which Muhammed undertook,
in the ninth year of the Hejira (A. D. 630), towards
_Tabúk_, a place situated about half-way between _Madína_
and _Damascus_, beyond the limits of Arabia; it was in the
midst of the summer heats, at a time of great drought and
scarcity; besides the fruits were then just ripe, and the
people had much rather have remained to gather them. But the
first cause of discontent was the exaction of a tribute for
covering the expense of the expedition. Abubekr, Omar,
Osman, Alí, Talha, Abder rahmen, contributed largely to it;
others declined their pecuniary and personal aid; three of
the _anśars_, friends above alluded to (see p. 27), were
permitted to remain. Alí staid at Madína as lieutenant of
the prophet, who moved with an army of thirty thousand men
to the frontiers of Syria, which were defended by an equal
force of Greeks. He encamped during twenty days near Tabúk,
and then thought it necessary to retreat.
[45] If I am not mistaken, allusion is here made to _Zeinah_
(Zenobia), the wife of Zaid. Muhammed, having gone one day
to the house of the latter, who was not at home, found
Zeinah in a dress which permitted him to remark her
beauties, with which he was so smitten, that he could not
refrain from an exclamation betraying his sensation. Zeinah
did not fail to apprise her husband. Zeid then thought he
could not do less than to place his wife by a divorce at the
disposition of his master and benefactor, whose slave he had
once been, and by whom he was not only affranchised, but
adopted as a son. On that very account, Muhammed was
prevented by law from marrying Zeinah; but he procured to
himself an authorization from heaven, in a verse of the
Koran (chap. XXXIII. v. 36), and after the term of Zeinah’s
divorce, took to wife the object of his desires, at the
latter end of the fifth year of the Hejira (A. D. 626).
[46] During the contest between Alí and Moaviah, the armies
of both chiefs were in the year of the Hejira 37 (A. D. 657)
encamped opposite to each other in a plain on the banks of
the Euphrates, called by the Greeks _Barbelissos_ or
_Barabrissos_, and by the Arabs _Safin_; and in ninety
engagements, which took place between them in a hundred and
ten days, on the side of Moaviah fell forty-five thousand,
and on that of Ali twenty-five thousand men. In the night
which preceded the decisive day of Safin, Ali is said to
have killed with his own hand four hundred
enemies.――(_Abulfeda_, vol. I. pp. 305-313.)
[47] See vol. I. pp. 103-104, note 1.
[48] Muhammed, according to his traditions, was born in the
twentieth year of Nushirvan’s reign, which, as this king
began to reign A. D. 531, would be in 551. This does not
agree with the date of the prophet’s death in 632, at the
age of sixty-three years, about which the best historians
are unanimous. For the same reason, the date of his birth,
as stated by Silvestre de Sacy, on the 20th April, 571,
cannot be true. According to Weisi, Muhammed was born in the
thirty-eighth year of Nushirvan’s reign, on the 1st of
April, 569, which was a Monday, and it was on a Monday he
was born and died (see _Gemäldesaal Mosl., Herrsher I^{ter}
Band, Seite 22_, note).
[49] متعه.
[50] کہ لنک او حشک نشدی “ut membrum ejus nunquam siccum
esset.”
[51] See vol. I. p. 377.
[52] ارادة _irádet_, “will” (upon this word see an
explanation hereafter); it is one of the names of the first
minister, or of the universal intelligence in the mystic
language of the Druzes (see _Chrestom. Ar._, tome II. p.
243). This sect belongs to the Ismâilahs, who appear to have
borrowed much from the Indian philosophy.
[53] Amrál Kais, son of Hajr, king of the Arabs of the tribe
of _Kendah_, according to Herbelot, of _Asad_, was,
according to Sale, one of the greatest poets before
Muhammedism, and one of the seven, whose compositions were
suspended upon silken stuff in golden letters in the temple
of Mecca, and therefore called _moallakat_, “suspended.” His
poems, translated by Sir W. Jones (vol. X. of his Works),
are amatory, and have nothing of religion which Muhammed
could borrow. Amrálkaís was one of the adversaries of the
prophet, and wrote satires and invectives against him, which
were answered by _Labíd_, another of the seven poets, but
who ranged himself on the side of Muhammed. The Arabian
prophet certainly took many tenets and customs from former
times and religions: thus he confirmed the holiness of the
temple of Mecca and its environs, which were held in
veneration long before him; thus he adopted from Judaism
several laws relating to marriages, divorces, etc., etc.
[54] As the Arabians descend from Ismail, the brother of
Isaak, they take to themselves the blessing which God, in
Genesis (XVII. 20), pronounced upon him and his posterity;
and in the twelve princes who, according to the same verse,
were to issue from him, they see their twelve Imáms, Alí and
the rest (see vol. II. p. 367). They believe also that the
prophet, who, as God announced to Moses in the Pentateuch
(Deuteronomy, XVIII. 18), would rise from the Ismailites,
was Muhammed. According to Abul Firaj (_Specimen Hist.
Arab._, 14.17), the Muhammedans find in a passage of the
Pentateuch (Deuter., XXXIII. 2) indicated the descent of the
law to Moses upon mount Sinai; that of the Gospel to Jesus
upon mount Sair; and that of the Koran to Muhammed upon
mount Pharan, near Mecca. Further, in Psalm L. v. 2. they
imagine that in the words: “Manifestavit Deus e Sione
coronam laudatam, _actilan mahmudan_,” by _actilan_,
“crown,” is to be understood “kingdom,” and by _mahmudan_,
“praised,” the very name of Muhammed. But this passage is
translated in our Bible: “Out of Sion hath God appeared in
perfect beauty.” They find also passages applicable to their
prophet in Isaiah XXII. 6. 7. 9: XLII. 1. 7. 16. 17.; and
the whole chapter LXIII. 1. 6. etc.: moreover in Habacuc,
III. 3. etc. Besides, the town of Medina, being inhabited by
a tribe of conquered Jews, who were expecting a promised
Messiah, Muhammed presented himself as one for all nations;
and the credulous easily confounded him who was expected by
the Jews with the upstart Arabian prophet.
[55] The Moslims have a Gospel in Arabic, attributed to
Saint Barnabas, in which, it is said, they have inserted the
very name of their prophet _Muhammed_, _Ahmed_, _Mahmud_, as
being the translation of the Greek word περικλυτος,
periclytos, “famous, illustrious,” which they have
substituted for παρακλητος, paraclètos, “comforter, called
upon, _advocatus_;” which is found in St. John’s Gospel,
XIV. 26; XV. 26; XVI. 7.; and by which is designated Jesus,
or the Holy Ghost (see Sale’s _Koran_, Prel. Disc., p. 98).
The interpretation of the word _periclytos_ might also have
found place in the Arabian translation of the Bible, made by
Werka, the cousin of Muhammed’s first wife. Whatever it be,
we read in chap. LXI. v. 6. of the Koran: “And when Jesus,
the son of Mary, said: ‘O children of Israel, verily I am
the apostle of God, sent unto you, confirming the law which
was delivered before me, and bringing good tidings of an
apostle who shall come after me, and whose name shall be
_Ahmed_.’”
[56] This miracle has perhaps no other foundation but the
atmospheric phenomena of a double moon which was seen in
Mecca, four or five years before the Hejira. Some ascribed
it to Muhammed on the infidels demanding a sign of him; the
moon then appeared cloven in two; one part vanishing and the
other remaining: it was affirmed that the mount Hara was
seen interposing between the two sections. To this the
believers refer chapter LIV of the Koran, entitled _the
moon_, which begins by these words: “The hour approacheth,
and the moon hath been split asunder.’ The most intelligent
expounders understand in the first word the hour of
judgment; others think, that in the rest the preter tense is
used, in the prophetic style, for the future; and that the
passage should be thus rendered: “The moon shall be split
asunder:” for this, they say, is to happen at the
resurrection.――(See Sale’s _Koran_, vol. II. p. 405). In the
subsequent section, “upon the interpretation of the
prophet’s miracle,” this subject is particularly treated.
[57] According to Richardson’s Dict., edit. of F. Johnson:
“Kárún is supposed to be the same person called Korah
(Numbers, chap. XVI) whom the Muhammedans describe as the
cousin of Moses. He is frequently alluded to by the poets
and moralists, not only as being extremely handsome, but as
possessed of immense wealth, acquired by his skill in
chemistry, and the discovery of the philosopher’s stone;
whilst his avarice is represented as so remarkable, that his
name is proverbially applied to all misers. They add, that
it was on account of his refusal to pay Moses a tithe of his
possessions for the public use, that the earth opened and
swallowed him up.”
[58] See p. 59, note 1, relative to Zaid and Zeinah.
[59] Koran, chap. XVII. v. 92-95. The Dabistán gives the
Arabic text and the Persian translation, which last I have
followed. It agrees, except in a few words, with the English
version of Sale, and the French of M. Kasimirsky.
[60] The principal ceremonies performed by the pilgrims of
Mecca have been touched upon in vol. II. p. 409, note 3; the
throwing of stones takes place in the valley of Mina, where
the devotees throw seven stones at three marks or pillars,
in imitation of Abraham, who, meeting the devil in that
place, and being disturbed by him in his devotions and
tempted to disobedience, when he was going to sacrifice his
son, was commanded by God to drive him away by throwing
stones at him; though others pretend this rite to be as old
as Adam, who also put the devil to flight in the same place,
and by the same means.――(Sale’s _Koran_, Prel. Disc., p.
160.)
[61] Herbelot says that, according to the Muhammedans, their
prophet had twenty-one wives, six of whom he repudiated, and
five died before him; therefore ten remained.
[62] Chapter XXXIII. v. 47. has the following passage: “O
prophet, we have allowed thee thy wives unto whom thou hast
given their dower, and also the slaves which thy right hand
possesseth, of the booty which God hath granted thee, and
the daughters of thy aunts, both on thy father’s side, who
have fled with thee from Mecca, and any other believing
woman, if she give herself unto the prophet, in case the
prophet desireth to take her to wife. This is a peculiar
privilege granted unto thee above the rest of the true
believers.”
[63] This reminds of Hakem, the moon-maker.――(See p. 3, note
1.)
[64] The name of a magician said to have been contemporary
with Moses. He is mentioned in the Koran, chap. XX. v. 87.
Sale observes (vol. II. pp. 145. 146. N. 9.) that he was
not, as the Muhammedans believe, one of the Samaritans, who
were not then formed into a people, nor bore that name till
many ages after. Selden is of opinion, that this person was
no other than Aaron himself, called _al Sameri_, from the
Hebrew word _shamar_, “to keep;” because he was the keeper,
or guardian, of the children of Israel during the absence of
his brother, Moses, on the mount.
[65] The Pentateuch, the Psalter, the Gospel, and the Koran.
[66] In the Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay,
vol. II. pp. 242-270, is to be found: “A Notice respecting
the religion introduced by the Emperor Akbar, by Captain
Vans Kennedy, written in 1818,” with an elegant, but in
several places abridged, translation of the just-given
disputes, between the doctors of the different religions, in
form of a dialogue, accompanied with valuable remarks
respecting the author of the Dabistán, of which I availed
myself in several quotations in the Preliminary Discourse,
as well as in this place.
[67] This refers principally to papers, such as passports,
of the Portuguese, who, as I have been informed by Viscount
Santarem, used to represent St. Catherine upon them, this
saint being the patroness of Goa and of one of the principal
confraternities; and the above-mentioned images are besides
often used as ornaments of books and printed papers.
[68] Others translate: “two, and three, and four,”
consequently nine wives; as the conjunction _va_, in Arabic,
may mean _or_ as well as _and_.――(See _Transact. of the Lit.
Soc. of Bombay_, vol. II. p. 268.)
[69] The passage of the Koran favorable to temporary
marriage is in chap. IV. v. 28: “For the advantage which you
receive from them, give them their reward (assign them their
dower), according to what is ordained: but it shall not be
criminal to make any other agreement among yourselves, after
the ordinance shall be complied with.” In this passage the
word _matâh_ occurs. This sort of marriage is also admitted
in the _Hédaya fil forú_, “the Guide in the Branches of the
Law” (translated into English by Charles Hamilton, 1791).
Nevertheless it was a subject of great contest among the
Muhammedan doctors whether such a connection be legitimate
or not. The Imám Abu Hanifah and others declared it
abrogated, according to the universal concurrence of the
prophet’s companions, on the authority of Ebn Abbas
Abdallah, who died Hej. 68 (A. D. 687). This Imám adduced
the information received from Ali, who, on the day of the
combat of Chaibar (A. D. 630), heard the prophet declare
that such marriages are forbidden. Moreover, a strong
opposer to their legitimacy was _Yahia_, the son of Aktam,
son of Muhammed, son of Katan, a celebrated judge, who died
in the year of the Hejira 242 (A. D. 856). Living during the
reign of Mamun, he succeeded in persuading the Khalif to
prohibit by a decree temporary marriage, which he had before
permitted.――(See _Abulfeda_, vol. II. pp. 195-199).
[70] قبل و دبُر, antè vel retrorsum.
[71] This is a work of Mohi eddin Ibn Arabi, who died in the
year of the Hejira 638 (A. D. 1240), of whom hereafter.
[72] Abu ’l Fazil, the wise minister of Akbar, is generally
known by his work entitled _Ayín Akbarí_, “the Institutes of
the Emperor Akbar,” translated from the original Persian, by
Francis Gladwin, in two volumes. This work contains the best
statistical account hitherto given respecting India of those
times. Abu ’l Fazil was the first Muhammedan who bestowed
attention upon the history and religion of the Hindus, and
drew his information regarding them from their own books. It
was by him, or under his eyes, that the Mahabharat was
translated from Sanskrit into Persian. The tolerance and
liberality of the Emperor Akbar towards all religions, and
his attempt to establish a new creed, are generally ascribed
to the influence of his enlightened minister, who paid it
with his life: for Jehangir, Akbar’s fanatic son, hired
assassins who murdered the excellent man, near Orcha, in the
district of Narwar, on his return from the Dekan, during the
life of Akbar, who, except his utmost indignation, had no
punishment to inflict upon the heir-apparent of his empire.
[73] افتاب, _aftab_, signifies sun and soul.
[74] Majeddin Abu Thaher Muhammed ben Yakub is the compiler
of the celebrated Arabic Dictionary, called _Al kamus_,
already quoted, which from a work of sixty-five volumes was
reduced to two. He is the author of several works besides
the above-mentioned. He died in the year of the Hejira 817
(A. D. 1414).
[75] I am not acquainted with the subjects above alluded to,
nor does the text appear connected.
[76] Composed by Ferid eddin Attlar.
[77] This is a work of the celebrated _Abd-al rahmen Jámi_;
its whole title is: كتاب نفحات الانس من حضرات القدس
_Kitab-u-nafhát-i ’l uns-i, min hazarat-i ’l Kades_,
translated by Silvestre de Sacy, “_les Haleines de la
familiarité, provenant des personnages eminens en
sainteté_,” “the breathings of familiarity proceeding from
personages eminent in sanctity.” Baron von Hammer rendered
the title by: “_Die Hauche der Menshheit_,” “the Breathings
of Mankind;” _Nefhát_ being interpreted in the Dictionary,
by “a breath of wind, a fragrant gate, perfume,
(metaphorically for) good fame,” I prefered the version
given in the text.
[78] Abdul latif Khan, son of Abdalla, prince of the
Usbecks, died in the year of the Hejira 948 (A. D. 1541).
[79] This appears an allusion to the following occurrence:
_Ayeshá_, Muhammed’s favorite wife, accompanied the prophet
on an expedition against the tribe of the Mostalek, in the
sixth year of the Hejira (A. D. 627). During the
night-march, according to her own statement, she alighted
from her camel, in order to search for a valuable necklace
which she had dropped. On account of her light weight, her
absence was not perceived by the drivers, who went on and
left her alone on the road. There, having laid down and
fallen asleep, she was the next morning found by Safwan Ebn
al Moattel, and brought, at noon, on his own camel to
Muhammed’s next resting-place. This occurrence raised
suspicions respecting Ayesha’s virtue; Muhammed found
necessary to inveigh against slander in the Koran (chap.
XXIV), and to punish the free-speakers as slanderers: but he
could not silence the severe reflections of some respectable
men, among whom was Alí.――(_Hammer’s Gemäldesaal_, _I^{ter}
Band. Sexte_, 144-145.
[80] Muhammed made, in the beginning of the Hejira, several
unsuccessful attempts to intercept the caravans of the
Koreish, his enemies; at last, in the second year of the
Hejira (A. D. 623), took place the battle of _Bedr_, in the
valley of the same name, near the sea, between Mecca and
Medina. Muhammed, with 319 combattants, had marched to take
a caravan of the Koreish, which, richly laden, returned from
Syria; apprised of it, the inhabitants of Mecca sent 950 men
to succour the caravan: this force was attacked and routed
by Muhammed’s inferior number, _assisted by angels_, and a
rich booty fell into his hands.
[81] See vol. III. p. 79.
[82] See vol. III. p. 59.
[83] See vol. I. pp. 99-100.
[84] See vol. III. p. 51.
[85] See vol. III. pp. 59-60. note 2.
[86] This is the 256th verse of chapter II. It is justly
admired by the Muhammedans, who recite it in their prayer,
and some of them wear it about them, engraved on an agate or
other precious stone. Here it follows, as translated by
Sale, who remarks that his translation must not be supposed
to equal the dignity of the original (vol. I. p. 47): “God!
there is no God but he; the living, the self-subsisting;
neither slumber nor sleep seizeth him; to him belongeth
whatsoever is in heaven and on earth. Who is he that can
intercede with him, but through his good pleasure? He
knoweth that which is past, and that which is to come to
them, and they shall not comprehend any thing of his
knowledge, but so far as he pleaseth. His throne is extended
over heaven and earth, and the preservation of both is no
burthen unto him. He is the High, the Mighty.”
[87] _Sidíkáh_, “the true,” is a surname given by the
Muhammedans to the blessed Virgin, and to _Ayishá_, daughter
of Abu-bekr, and wife of Muhammed. At nine years of age, her
mother took her down from a swing suspended between two
palm-trees, where she childishly slept, and placed her upon
the lap of the prophet, a bridegroom of fifty-two years. She
was but eighteen when he died. She then became the head of a
party hostile to Ali. She never forgot the austere judgment
which he had passed upon the occurrence related in the
preceding note (p. 100 note 1); not satisfied with having
discarded him more than twenty-three years from the
khalifat, she led in person a strong army against him, to
wrest it from his hands; but was taken in battle, generously
treated, and sent to Medina, where she died in the year of
the Hejira 58 (A. D. 677), having attained the prophet’s age
of sixty-three years.
SECTION III.――UPON THE VIRTUES OF THE STARS, ACCORDING TO REASON,
MANIFESTATION, REVELATION, AND TRADITION.
_Aghátho démón_,[88] or _Shís_, and _Hermes al hermes_, or
_Idris_,[89] and the philosophers said, that the Almighty Author
created the celestial bodies and the stars in such a manner that, from
their movements, effects may be manifested in the nether world, that
is to say, the events below are subject to their motions, and every
constellation, and every degree of altitude has its particular nature;
which being known by experience, and information having been collected
about the qualities of the degrees, the celestial signs, and their
influences, it is in this manner evident that they are near the
all-just; and that the house of prayer, the Kâbah of truth, and the
Kiblah of conviction is heaven. The wise men believe, that every
master of fame worshipped one of the stars: thus Moses worshipped
Saturn, as Saturday is holy to the Jews, and Moses vanquished the
magicians and enchanters who are subservient to Saturn; Jesus
worshipped the sun, on which account Sunday was sanctified by him, and
finally his soul united with the sun; Muhammed worshipped Venus,
wherefore he fixed upon Friday as a sacred day: as he would not reveal
this meaning to the common people, he kept it secret; but it is
evident from the prophet’s customs that he held Venus in great
veneration; one of these was his passion for perfumes and the
like.[90] We find in the histories of the Persians, that Ferhósh was a
king in the time of Abád, and had poets without number about him; out
of them all he chose seven; each of them, on one day of the week,
recited his verses to the king. On Sunday, which was consecrated to
the great luminary, the monarch used to go to the _Kermábah_[91], and
on his return from thence, having approached the august image of the
great fire, and there performed his worship, he betook himself to his
palace. The chief of the speech-adoring bards, called Shedósh, came
then into the royal presence. As the King professed the religion of
the Yezdáníán, who never hurt an harmless animal, they brought, on
this day sacred to the sun, _Sirdín_, that is “rice,” and _Perdín_,
called in Hindostan _pahatí_, before the King, and peas in the shell,
which were then stript of their integuments. The King asked Shedósh:
“For whom is this food?” The poet answered: “For the friend who, for
the sake of retirement, is naked from head to foot.” The monarch,
being pleased with this answer, filled the poet’s mouth with precious
pearls of the purest water. The Queen, named Shuker, averting her
heart from the King her husband, attached it passionately to the sweet
composer of melodious speeches. When night came on, Shuker, believing
that the King slept, went out by stealth. The King too followed her
steps. When Shuker arrived at the house of Shedósh, many words
occurred between them. Then the poet said to her: “A woman fears
nobody; on that account she ought to be feared. Thou hast left
Ferhosh, the King, and wilt devote thy affections to one like me!”
Upon these words, the woman returned home without hope, and Shedosh
turned his face to the image of the sun. But his looks fell upon one
of the maids who were adorers of the sun, and desired her to converse
with him; the maid, indignant at such a proposal, having approached
the image of the sun, said: “I am thy worshipper; and this is not the
time for associating with men: this poet of the King addressed to me
an improper speech.” When Shidósh came to the image of the sun, he
found himself afflicted with a malady, and returned ashamed.
Afterwards he went to the King, who, having seen him the night before
in company with Shuker, said: “Shidósh, if thou speakest not the
truth, thou shalt be put to death: what didst thou mean by saying that
a woman fears nobody?” Shidosh replied:
“A woman is a king; her strength is that of an ocean;
It opens its passage, and has fear of nobody.”
The King was pleased with this speech, and bestowed Shuker on him as a
gift; whatever excuses Shidosh offered, the sovereign did not listen
to them; wherefore the poet brought the king’s wife to his house. But,
from disease, his flesh began to diminish, and he was so far reduced
as to be unable to leave his house. Thus it was, until the son of the
king came to visit his father, and requested to see the royal poets.
The King, having convoked six of them, ordered that Shidosh should
recite his verses sitting behind a curtian. Shidosh, having heard this
order, demanded at the very moment that a fire should be kindled, and
in the midst an iron chain adjusted to suspend a seat above the
flames. He resolved to himself from thence to address his praises to
the majesty of the great fire, the sun; if he received them with
favor, so much the better; if not, to throw himself into the fire, and
so to obtain his due. He then got upon the seat, and began to chaunt
the verses which he had composed in honor of the sun: at this very
time his leprosy disappeared. But, before he had ended his poem, his
followers thought the great luminary would not grant his wish; and the
poet, from fear of his life, would not throw himself into the fire;
therefore, pulling the chair by means of the chain, they precipitated
it into the flames. But after falling, he felt the fire had no effect
upon him, and although dejected, remaining in his seat, he terminated
his praise; then coming forth, he approached the King, and recited the
verses which he had composed for the occasion; he subjoined: “O King,
I have not been guilty of any vile deed on this occasion; but on the
same day, at the time when the women approach the image of the sun, I
also went there, and the guards did not know me. But the rebellious
spirit had his play with me, so that, supposing a virtuous woman I
beheld to be unmarried, I spoke improper words to her; on that account
I was punished; but at the same time I held Shuker as a mother.”
Hóshang, the King, in the work _Bahín ferah_, “the highest dignity,”
which is written to inculcate the duties towards the sanctity of the
stars, states great miracles of every luminary. We read likewise, in
the Mahábharat, that the Rája Jedeshter (Yudhishthira)[92] attained
the fulfilment of his wishes by worshipping the sun. As the Mahábharat
is all symbolic, we also find there that the sun, having appeared to
him in the form of a man, announced to him: “I am pleased with thee; I
will provide thee with food during twelve years, then for the space of
thirteen years thou wilt obtain a wonderful empire.” And the sun gave
him a kettle, saying: “The property of this kettle is, that every day
all sort of food in such quantity as thou wishest, comes forth from
it, under the condition that thou first distributest it among Brahmans
and Fakirs, and then among thy valiant brothers, the Kshatriyas.”
Herodetes, the author of the history of the Yúnán (Greeks), stated
that in a town of Rúmí there was in a temple an idol in the shape of
Iskalápíús, which was known under the image of _Apú_, that is “the
sun,” and that, whatever question they addressed was answered by
him.[93] The raiser of this figure was Iskalápíús. In the opinion of
the Magians of Rúmi, it rendered oracles, because, having been made in
strict dependency on the observation of the motions of the seven
planets at the most suitable moments, it was constituted in such a
manner that one of the spirits of the stars descended into it; and
therefore answered any question asked from him. The name of this
figure was _Saklapes_.[94]
The _Sabeans_ believe that in some of their idols a white hand
appears. Further, the wise men of Persia, Greece, India, and the
Sabeans, all acknowledge the stars as the Kiblah, and the blessed
Emperor (Akbar) also received divine commands with regard to them.
In the histories of the Turks is to be found that _Jangiskhan_[95]
worshipped the stars, and several things of wonderful meaning were
connected with his person. In the first line was that which they call
the state of _washt_. Some of the spirits of the stars were his
assistants. During several days he was in a swoon, and in this state
of senselessness all that the world-conquering Khan could articulate
was _Hu_, _hu_! It is said that on the first manifestation of this
malady, he obtained union with spirits, victories, and revelations of
mysteries. The very same coat and garment which he first put on were
deposited in a wardrobe, there sealed up, and kept by themselves.
Every time that the illustrious Khan fell into this state, his people
dressed him in that coat, and every event, victory, purpose, discovery
of enemies, defeat, conquest of countries, which he desired, came upon
his tongue; a person wrote down every thing, and put it into a bag
which he sealed. When the world-seizing Khan recovered his senses,
every thing was read to him and he acted accordingly, and every thing
he had said took place. He possessed perfectly the science of
divination by means of combs, and having burnt them, gave his
decisions in a manner different from that of other diviners who paid
attention to combs. It is said that, when this conqueror of the world
fell into the hands of his enemies, he recovered his liberty by the
assistance of Amír Shír Khán, who, having given him a mare of Kirang,
enabled him to join his men, who had already despaired of his life.
Tulí Khán, who was then in his infancy, said one day: “My father,
sitting upon a mare of Kirang, is coming near.” On this very day, the
Khan returned in that manner to his camp. When the Turks saw the
wonders of his acts, they opened freely the road of their affection to
him. Such was his justice and equity, that in his army nobody was bold
enough to take up a whip thrown on the road, except the proprietor of
it; lying and thieving were unknown in his camp. Every woman among the
Khorásánián, who had a husband living, had no attempt upon her person
to fear. Thus we read in the _Tabkat Náśeri_, “the degrees of
Naśer,”[96] that when _Malik Táj-ed din_, surnamed the King of Ghór,
returned with the permission of Jangis Khan, from the country of
Tálkán to Ghór, he related the following anecdote: When I had left the
presence of Jangis Khan, and sat down in the royal tent, _Aghlán
herbí_, with whom I came, and some other friends, were with me, a
Moghul brought two other Moghuls, who the day before had fallen asleep
when on the watch, saying: “I struck their horses with the whip,
rebuking them for their guilt in sleeping, yet left them; but to-day I
have brought them here.” Aghlan faced these two Moghuls, asking them:
“Have you fallen asleep?” Both avowed it. He then ordered one of them
to be put to death; and that his head should be tied to the hair lock
of the other the latter then to be conducted through the camp, and
afterwards executed. Thus it was done. I remained astonished, and said
to Aglan: “There was no witness to prove the guilt of the Moghuls; as
these two men knew that death awaits them, why have they confessed? If
they had denied, they would have saved themselves.” Aghlan Herbí
replied: “Why art thou astonished? You, Tají Khan, you act in this
way, and tell lies; but, should a thousand lives be at stake, Moghuls
would not utter a lie.”
Jangis Khan raised _Oktáyí Khan_ to the rank of a _Khalif_,
“successor.”[97] _Châtayi Khan_, who was his elder brother, in a
drunken fit dashed his horse against Oktáyi Khan, and then hurried
away. When he became sober, he reflected upon the danger which would
ensue from his act, and that the foundation of the monarchy might be
destroyed in consequence of it; therefore, presenting himself as a
criminal, he said to his brother: “How could a man like me presume to
measure himself with the King, and dash his horse against him!
Therefore I am guilty, and confess my crime. Put me to death, or use
the whip against me: you are the judge.” Oktáyi replied: “A miserable
like myself, what place should he take? You are the master: what am
I?――that is, you are the elder, I the younger, brother.” Finally,
Chengháyi, presenting him nine horses, said: “I offer this as a
grateful acknowledgment that the King did not exercise his justice
towards me, and that he forgives my crime.”
When _Oktáyí Khan_ dispatched _Jermághún_, a commander of a district
furnishing ten thousand men, with an army of thirty thousand warriors,
to reduce the sultan _Jelal eddin_,[98] king of Khárazim, at the time
of the breaking up of the army, he said to one of the Omrás, who was
subordinate to Jermaghún: “The great affair of Jelal eddin in thy hand
will sufficiently occupy thee.” Finally, this Amir, having fallen upon
the Sultan Jelal-eddin in Kurdistan, destroyed him completely. The
liberality and generosity of Oktáyikán was as conspicuous as the sun.
When _Tayir Baháder_, in the year of the Hejira 625 (A. D. 1227) moved
the army of the Moghuls from _Abt´al_ to the country of _Sístán_, they
besieged the fort _Arak_; at that time the plague manifested itself
among the Moghuls, so that, at first, a pain was felt in the mouth,
then the teeth moved, and on the third day death ensued. _Malik
Sálakín_, the governor of the fort, fixed upon the stratagem that
seven hundred young men should lie in ambush: who, when they should
hear the sound of the war-drum from the eastern gate, opposite which
they were placed, were to break out from the ambush, and fall on the
back of the enemies. Conformably with this plan, in the morning the
eastern gate was opened, and the Muselmans were engaged in the
assault; but when the drum was beaten, nobody came forth from the
ambush: after three watches, a man was sent to bring intelligence from
that quarter, but he found them all dead.
The world-conquering Jangiz Khan, at the time of his wasting away,
said to his sons: “Never deviate from your faith, nor lend your
powerful support to other religions; because, as long as you remain
firmly rooted in your faith, your people and companions will
acknowledge you as the chiefs of their faith, and count you as the
leaders of worship; but he who changes his religion for that of
others, being a chief of the faith, may be still considered as a chief
by the people of the new religion; but in the eyes of his own people
will lose that dignity: because he who passes over with you to another
faith will esteem as chiefs those of the new faith; besides, he who
remains attached to my faith will also be displeased with you for not
having continued in the religion of his fathers.” To sum up all, as
long as they conformed themselves to the last will of the Khan, they
were powerful; but when they deviated from his counsel, they sunk into
distress and abjection. The stars were favorable to them in every
thing.[99]
It is related: Kík Khan, who was of the family of Chaghaty Khan, was
one day walking with noblemen of his suit in the plain, travelling
about in the desert. At once, his looks fell upon bones; at the same
moment he became thoughtful, and then asked: “Do you know what this
handful of bones says to me?” They replied: “The King knows best.” He
resumed: “They demand justice from me as being oppressed.” He demanded
information about the history of these bones from Amír Hazárah, who
held this country under his dependence. This governor inquired of Amir
Sadah, who administered this district under him; and after reiterated
investigations, it became clear that, nine years before, a caravan had
been attacked at this place by a band of highwaymen, and plundered of
their property, a part of which remained still in the hands of the
guilty. At last it was recovered from the murderers, and restored to
the heirs of the slain who were in Khorásán.
It is said that, when an army of the Moghuls was occupied with the
siege of the fort of _Imbál_, in which were the mother and several
women of the king of Khárarem, nobody had ever given information that
the garrison was distressed for want of water. Although a quantity of
rain-water was collected in the reservoirs, so that during years they
had no need of spring-water, yet at the time when the Moghuls were
encamped before the place to reduce it, no rain had fallen, and one
day not a drop of water remained in the reservoirs; the next day the
women of the Turks and Naśer eddin, with thirsty lips, compelled by
necessity came down to surrender; but at the very moment that they
arrived at the foot of the fort, and the army of the Moghuls entered
it, a heavy rain began to pour down, so that the water ran out from
the ditches of the fort. When this intelligence was brought to the
Sultan Muhammed, sovereign of Khárazem, he become insensible, and when
he recovered his senses, he died without being able to utter a word.
Upon the whole: as long as the Sultans of the Moghuls preserved the
worship of the stars, they conquered the inhabitants of the world;
but, as soon as they abandoned it, they lost many countries, and those
which they kept were without value and strength.[100]
[88] According to Sheristání, there is a sect called
_Hernânites_, or _Herranites_, disciples of a certain
_Hernán_, a branch of the Sabeans, of whom hereafter; these
sectaries designate, as authors of their scientific
treatises, four prophets, among whom are Agatho démon and
Hermes.
_Agatho démon_, that is to say, “the good genius,” was an
Egyptian god. According to general belief, this denomination
is the approximative translation of _Knef_, or “the good
principle,” and in that acceptation it was applied to other
deities, as for instance, to the Nile, and typified as the
emblem of wisdom, prudence, life, health, youth, eternity,
and infinitude, in the _inoffensive serpent_; now and then
this form is combined with that of other animals. According
to some authors, Agatho demon was the Egyptian _Chetnuph_;
and to him are attributed a number of works, a list of which
is given by Fabricius in his “Bibliotheca græca.”
[89] The first Hermes of the Orientals lived one thousand
years after Adam, in the beginning of their second solar
millenium, and was no other but Idris, or Enoch; the second
in the third solar millenium, was the _Trismegist_ of the
Greeks. According to Abu ’l farage, the second was the
third; and between these two intervened a Chaldean or
Babylonian Hermes, who lived a few centuries after the
deluge, and to whom the principal notions of astronomy are
referred. A disciple of the first Hermes, or of Idris, was
Esculapius, of whom hereafter.
[90] Muhammed used to say: “I like of your world but women
and perfumes, and God has placed the refreshment of my eyes
in prayers.”――(Baron Hammer.)
[91] This word, not in the Dictionary, means perhaps
“assembly of the nobles.”
[92] Yudisht’hira, according to the Vichnu-purena (Wilson’s
transl., pp. 437-459), was the son of _Kuntí_, also called
_Prithá_, and of the deities Dharma, Vayu, and Indra. He was
the half-brother of Karna, whom his mother conceived by
_Aditya_, “the sun.”
[93] In the History of Herodotus, if this be meant above,
the name of Esculapius does not occur. The denomination of
_Rumí_ may be applied to Asia Minor, Turkey, the whole
ancient and modern empire of the Greeks and Romans; in so
vast a space there was certainly more than one town with a
temple and an oracular statue of Esculapius. One
circumstance is singularly true in the above account of
_Apu_, to wit: that Esculapius was formerly called _Apius_,
Αρωγὸν αὐδήσουσιν Ἠπίου γόνον: adjutorem invocabunt
Æsculapii filium――(see _Lycophron_, v. 1054); and that he
was often confounded with the sun, as son of Apollo, who
also was the sun, and of the nymph Coronnis, who was the
daughter of _Phlegyas_, that is, “the heat of the sun.”
[94] _Saklapes_ probably stands for _Serapis_. It is known
that Serapis and Bacchus were the sun of autumn and the sun
of spring. Serapis bore sometimes the character of the
Egyptian Chmún, surnamed Esculapius. To predict and to
resuscitate were powers attributed to _Apollo-Esculapius_.
As the latter, so had Serapis a serpent. He was also
_Osiris_. _Helios-Serapis_ and _Jupiter-Serapis_ are read
upon bronzes. Temples of Serapis were numerous in Asia,
Thracia, Greece, and Italy. I shall only mention that of
Antium, and that at Rome, on an island of the Tiber, beyond
the pons Palatinus.
[95] Jangís khan, originally called Tamujin, was, according
to Chinese and Moghul authorities (see _Geschichte der
Ost-mongolen von Isaak Jacob Schmidt_, _Seite_ 376), born in
the year of the Hejira 558 (A. D. 1162), in _Dilun Jalún_.
It was in the year 1206 of our era that he received, in a
general assembly of submissive Tartars, the name of
_Jangis-khan_, “Great Khan:” his own tribe, which was that
of _Moghuls_, before him called _Bida_, he raised to
pre-eminence over all the Tartars.
[96] This is a work of _Naśer eddin Túsi_ (about whom, see
vol. II. p. 417, note 2, and p. 449). He was the favorite
minister of Hulagu Khan, whose arms he had successfully
directed against Baghdad and the Khalif. The Khan, after his
conquests, took up his residence at _Maragha_, in
_Aderbigan_; there he assembled philosophers and astronomers
to cultivate science, under the direction of Nâśer eddin. In
our days the place is still shown where the observatory of
this astronomer was situated, and where he compiled the
astronomic tables, known under the name of _Jal-khanní_.
[97] Jangis Khan had four sons, whose rank of seniority is
differently stated by different authors, and among whom he
divided his vast empire. _Octáyi_ was to rule all the
countries of the Moghuls, Kathayans, and others extending
towards the East. He died in the year of the Hejira 639
(A.D. 1241). _Châtayí_ was to possess Mawer ul nahir,
Turkistan, Balkh, and Badakhshan. He died in the year of the
Hejira 638 (A.D. 1240). _Jují_ was to reign over Desht,
Kapchak, Kharizm, Khizer, Bulgaria, Lokmin, Alan, As,
Russia, and the northern countries. He died in Hejira 624
(A.D. 1226), during his father’s life. _Tuli Khan_ received
for his share Khorassan, India, and Persia; he died soon
after his father; but his sons, Manjuka, Koblai, and Hulagú
became celebrated in history.
[98] Jangis Khan, during his terrific career, in the
fourteenth year of slaughter, devastation, and conquest,
fell upon the empire of Kharism and Ghazni. Muhammed of the
Seljuks was driven from all his possessions, and died a
fugitive. He had before divided his empire between his four
sons, to one of whom _Jelál eddin_, he had assigned
Kharizm, Khorassan, Mazinderan, Ghazni, Bamian, Ghor, Bost
Takanad, Zamigdand, and all the Indian provinces. This
prince, retiring before superior forces towards Ghazni,
gained two battles over the Moghuls, but was at last obliged
to fly to the banks of the Indus. There, closely pressed by
the enemies, who murdered his captive son seven years old
before his eyes, he threw his mother, wife, and the rest of
his family, at their own desire, into the water, and then
swam, with a few followers, across the river, before his
admiring pursuers, who followed him no further.
[99] Jangis Khan died in the year of the Hejira 626 (A. D.
1228), in his sixty-sixth year. He left an empire which
extended from the Indus to the Black sea; from the banks of
the Wolga to the remote plains of China; and from the arid
shores of the Persian gulf to the cold deserts of Siberia.
Having, in his early age, been driven by his subjects from
his home, he passed several years under the protection of a
Christian prince, _Awenk Khan_, or _Ungh Khan_, known to
Europeans under the name of _Prester John_; and was
therefore supposed by some to have adopted the Christian
religion: thus much is true――he and his successors protected
the Christians and persecuted the Muhammedans, until
_Nikudár Oglan_ professed the Muhammedan faith, in A. D.
1281, and drove the Christians out of his empire.
[100] The duration of Jangis Khan’s dynasty reckoned from
the year of the Hejira 599 (A. D. 1202) extended by fourteen
princes to 736 (A. D. 1335), comprising 137 lunar, 133
solar, years. It does not appear that change of religion, by
itself, had any influence upon the decline and fall of this
dynasty.
SECTION IV.――UPON THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY (AKBAR), DWELLING IN THE
SEVENTH HEAVEN.
First, the ordinances of conduct which the Nawab, the wise and learned
Shaikh Abu ’l Fazil wrote, with the pen of accuracy, by orders of his
Majesty, dwelling in heaven, in order that the governors of the
countries occupied by his sovereignty, and the clerks, may pay
attention to their execution.
This is “God is great;” this is the patent of the Ilahí faith: and the
ordinances of conduct are a work of instruction, which sprung from the
fountain of benevolence, and the mine of kindness of sovereignty, and
according to which the regulators of the royal offices, the managers
of the Khalifa’s court among his fortunate sons, the gentle-minded
princes, the Omrahs, high in dignity, all men of rank, the collectors
of revenues and the Kótwals may settle their practices; and in the
arrangement of important affairs in great cities and in villages, and
in all places maintain their authority.
The principal point is summarily this: that, in all transactions, they
may endeavor to deserve the divine favor, by their usages and pious
practices; and that, humbly suppliant in the court of God, without
partial complacence to themselves and to others, they may execute the
law in their proceedings. Another point is, that they may not too much
like their private apartment; for this is the manner of the
desert-choosing durvishes; that they may not accustom themselves to
sit in the society of common people, nor to mix in large crowds; for
this is the mode of market people; in short, that they may keep the
medium between the two extremes, and never forsake the just
temperance; that is, avoid equally excess in dissipation and
retirement. Besides, they are enjoined to venerate those who are
distinguished by devotion to the incomparable God; to take the habit
of vigilance in the morning and evening, and particularly at midnight;
and at all times, when they are free from the affairs of God’s
creatures, to occupy themselves with perusing the books of the masters
of purity and sanctity, and the books of moral philosophy, which is
the medicine of spirituality and the essence of all sciences; such as
_Ikhlák Naseri_, “the Ethics of Naśery;”[101] and _manjíat wa
mahelkat_, “the Causes of Salvation and Perdition,” _Ahyáyí âlúm ál
dín_, “the Revival of the Sciences of Faith;”[102] the _Kimíáyi
Sâadet_, Alchymy of Felicity;”[103] and _Masnaví_, “the poetical
compostion of the Máulavi of Rúm,”[104] so that having attained the
highest degree of religious knowledge, they may not be liable to be
moved from their station by the fictions of the masters of deceit and
falsehood; as in this state of dependence the best sort of worship is,
after all, the most important concern of creatures; that, without
being influenced by friendship or enmity, without regard to relations
or strangers, they may with an open forehead raise themselves to a
dignified rank; further, that they may, to the extent of their power,
confer benefits upon the religious mendicants, the miserable and
indigent, particularly upon the pious recluse in a corner, and upon
the saints, who, straitened in their expense and income, never open
their lips for a demand; that, being in company with the pious hermits
seeking God, they may beg their benediction; besides that, having
weighed the faults, errors, and crimes of men in the balance of
justice, they may assign to each his proper place, and by the balance
of well-founded appreciation bestow retribution upon each; that by the
judgment of sagacious men they may find out in the crowd him whose
faults ought to be concealed and passed over, and him whose guilt is
to be examined, proclaimed, and punished; for there are faults which
deserve greatly to be repressed, and others which are to be treated
with great indulgence; it is required that, to show the right way to
the disobedient, they use advice and gentleness, harshness or
mildness, according to the difference of rank and season; when advice
remains without effect, then imprisoning, beating, maiming of members,
and capital punishment may be inflicted, according to the diversity of
cases; but in putting a man to death they ought not to be too rash,
but rather employ an abundance of considerations:
“A head once severed cannot be refitted to the body.”
Whenever practicable, they ought to send the delinquent worthy of
death to the King’s court, and there represent his case. If keeping
him be likely to occasion an insurrection, or (sending him to the
King’s court) become the cause of trouble, in this necessity he may be
executed; but flaying alive, or throwing a man under the feet of an
elephant, which is practised by violent kings, ought to be avoided.
The treatment of every man is to be conformable to his rank and
condition; because to a high-minded man a severe look is equivalent to
death, whilst to an abject person, even flagellation is nothing.
Besides, remission is to be made to any body who, by his genius,
knowledge, and virtue should have acquired consideration, and when the
magistrates observe in his conduct any thing unbecoming in their
opinion, they ought to tell it to him in private. If one of the
historians of the times relates something wrong, they are not to
rebuke him severely for it; for a rebuke is a barrier upon the road of
truth-speaking; and he upon whom the incomparable God has conferred
the aptness of speaking truth, deserves to be accounted precious: for
men are excessively weak, and those who are of a mean origin and
depraved, have no inclination to speak truth, but choose to submit to
every sort of abjectness. He who is of a good disposition is cautious
that nothing in his speech may be disagreeable to the ears of his
master, and that he may not incur disgrace. But the man of noble
sentiments, who prefers his own loss to the advantage of others,
possesses the science of the philosopher’s stone. Administrators ought
not to be fond of flattery, as many affairs are left undone on account
of flatterers; nor ought they, on the other hand, to ill treat those
who are not flatterers, as a servant may also be obliged to say
unpleasing things.
The judges should attend personally, as much as possible, to the
examination of the plaintiff (_verse of Sâdi_):
“Throw not his complaint to the diván (tribunal),
As he may possibly have to complain of the divan itself.”
The plaintiffs ought to be examined in the order in which their names
are inscribed on the list, in order that he who came first may not be
subject to the inconvenience of waiting. The disposal of precedence or
delay is not to rest with the first registrars of the court. If a
person be accused of acting criminally, the judges ought not to
precipitate his punishment; for there are many eloquent slanderers,
and few well-intentioned speakers of what is right. During the period
of anger, they ought not to let the bridle of reason slip out of their
hands, but act with calmness and reflexion. It becomes them to grant
privileges to some of their friends and servants, who are
distinguished by great wisdom and devotedness. At the time of
overbearing grief and affliction, when the wise abstain from speaking,
let them not exceed either in words, silence, or imbecility. They
should be sparing with their oaths, as much swearing raises a
suspicion of lying. They ought not, to accustom themselves to offend
an interlocutor by evil surmises or by bad names: for these are vile
manners. Finally, it is their duty to show solicitude for the
promotion of agriculture, the welfare of the cultivator, and the
assistance of tenants; in order that, from year to year, the great
cities, the villages, and towns may rise in prosperity, and acquire
such facility of improvement that the whole land may be rendered fit
for cultivation, and consequently the increase of population be
carried to the utmost.
* * * * *
These ordinances, separately written, are to be communicated to every
agent of government, that they may apply their minds to the execution
of them; in short, having given notice of them to all subjects small
and great, the magistrates ought not to deviate from them under no
circumstance nor in any manner: and to prevent the soldiers from
entering the houses of the inhabitants without their permission;
besides, in their proceedings, they should not rely upon their own
judgment, but ask the advice of those who are wiser than themselves;
not obtaining this, they ought nevertheless not to desist from seeking
advice; as it happens frequently that even the ignorant may indicate
the road of truth, as it was said (_by Sadi_):
“Now and then, from the aged sage,
Right advice is not derived;
Now and then, the unmeaning ignorant
By accident hits the butt with his arrow.”
Moreover, advice is not to be asked from many persons: for, right
judgment in practical life is a particular gift of God; it is not
acquired by reading, nor is it found by good fortune. It may also
happen, that a set of ignorant men opposes thy endeavors, and causes
irksome embarrassment in thy way, so as to retain thee from the
dictates of thine own reason, and from the right-acting men, whose
number is always small.
The magistrates are also directed never to charge their sons with a
business which belongs to servants; and never to be a guarantee for
what is done by their sons; as thou canst easily find amends for what
passes between others; but, for what occurs to thee a remedy is
difficult. It may become thee to listen to excuses, and to look with
half-shut eyes at some faults; for there is no man without guilt or
defect; rebuke sometimes renders him but bolder; sometimes depresses
him beyond measure. There are men who must be reprehended at each
fault; there are others in whom a thousand faults must be overlooked;
in short, the affair of punishment does not suit the dignity of the
important concerns of royalty, and is to be carried with calmness and
judgment to its proper aim. A governor ought to grant all facilities
to God-fearing and zealous men, and to inquire from them the good and
the bad, never ceasing to collect information: for royalty and command
borrow security from vigilance. He ought not to oppose the creed and
religion of the creatures of God: inasmuch as a wise man chooses not
his loss in the affairs of this perishable world, how in those of
religion, which is permanent and eternal, should he knowingly tend to
his perdition? If God be with his faith, then thou thyself carriest on
controversy and opposition against God; and if God fails him, and he
unknowingly takes the wrong way, then he proves to himself a rule of
erroneous profession, which demands pity and assistance, not enmity or
contradiction. Those who act and think well, bear friendship to every
sect. Besides, they avoid excess in sleeping and eating, without
deviating from the measure of what is necessary, so that, rising above
the relinquished step of brutishness, they attain a distinguished rank
of humanity. Let it be recommended to watch by night as much as
possible; never to show violent enmity towards any man; and to beware
of making one’s bosom the prison-house of rancour; should it
nevertheless take place from the infirmity of human nature, let it
soon be stifled: for, in the interior of our soul resides the true
agent, the unparallelled God, and raises tumultuous strife for the
sake of provoking the investigation of truth.
A governor should disdain laughing and joking: he should always be
informed of every occurrence by spies; but never rely upon the
information of one of them, because truth and disinterestedness are
rare among them; therefore, in every affair, let him appoint several
spies and intelligencers, who are not to know each other; and, having
written down separately the account given by each of them; compare
them with each other. But the notorious spies are to be dismissed and
discarded from his presence, nor access granted to persons of mean
birth and depraved habits, although this sort of people may be
usefully employed against other bad men; but he should never let the
account-book slip out of his hands, and always entertain in his heart
suspicion against this class of men, that they may not perhaps, under
the guise of friendship, usurp the place of honest men. Let him
observe those near him and his servants, that they may not, on account
of their approaching him, oppress others. He ought to be on his guard
against the flattering-tongued liars, who in the garb of friendship
act the part of real enemies, as disorders are occasioned by their
agency. Great personages, on account of abundant occupations, have
little, but these malefactors have a great deal of leisure; therefore,
from all sides and quarters, precautions against the latter are
required. To cut short all prolixity, a governor ought to find men
worthy of confidence, and pay the greatest attention to the promotion
of knowledge and industry, so that men of talent may not fall off from
their high station among men. He ought besides to favor the good
education of the old families of the royal court.
The warlike requisites and arms of the soldiers are by no means to be
neglected. Further, the expenses must always be less than the
revenues: this last is of the most essential concern, for it is said:
Whoever spends more than he receives is a blockhead; he who equals his
expense and income is to be accounted neither wise nor stupid; but he
lays no foundation of any establishment; he is always subject to
service, expecting favor, and dependant upon promises. A commander is
bound to be true in his words, particularly with the functionaries of
government. Let him constantly practise shooting with arrows and guns,
and exercise the soldiers in arms; but not be passionately devoted to
hunting, although he may sometimes indulge in it for the training of
troops, and the recreation of the mind, which is indispensable in this
world of dependencies. He is never permitted to take corn from the
class of the Rayas, with the intention to hoard it up for selling it
at a high price. Let him attend to the beating of the kettle-drum at
the rising of that luminary which bestows light upon the world; and at
midnight, which is properly the beginning of sunrise, and during the
progress of the great majestic light from station to station, let him
order small and great guns to be fired, so that all men be called up
to offer thanks to God.
Somebody ought to be placed at the gate of the court, for bringing all
petitions before the high presence of the King. If there be no
_Kútwál_,[105] he ought, observing well the parts and rules of it, to
apply himself to the performance of this office, and not on account of
considering it rustic (low) business, say to himself: “How can I do
the business of a Kútwál?” but from piety acknowledging the greatness
of God, he ought to submit to this charge.
To explain clearly its duties, the first of all is, that the Kútwál of
every city, town, and village write down, with the agreement of the
people, their houses and buildings; as well as register in a book the
inhabitants of every part of a place from house to house, and, having
taken security from house to house, grant them free intercourse with
each other; having determined the divisions in each of them, a head
man of the division is to be appointed, so that the good and bad men
may be under his superintendence; he must also appoint spies, by whose
means every occurrence by night and day, the arrivals and departures
in each quarter, are to be recorded. He ought to establish that,
whenever a theft is committed, fire breaks out, or any other mishap
takes place, at the very moment succor be given by the neighbors, and
likewise all householders tender their services: if they be absent
without necessity, they are to be held guilty. Nobody can undertake a
journey without giving information of it to his neighbor, the head man
of the division, or the recorder of news. No man of bad character is
to be received in any quarter of the place, and all those who have not
given security, are to be kept separate from the other inhabitants in
the great public house, to which a head man and a recorder of news are
to be attached. The Kútwal ought to be perpetually informed of the
income and expense of every individual, for the sake of survey and
precaution, and fix his attention on it: for, any body whose income is
small and expense great, cannot certainly be without guilt. It is
incumbent on him to follow an indication, and never to be remiss in
attention to persons of good birth and right intentions. This inquiry
is to be understood as a measure of order, and not as the means of
rapine and oppression. Further, the Kútwal’s business is to establish
in the bazar, “market,” brokers of all sorts, after having taken
security from them, that he may receive notice of whatever is bought
and sold. He ought to declare that whoever buys or sells anything
without notice, is subject to a fine. The names of the buyer and
seller are to be entered into a daily register, and nothing is to be
bought or sold without the consent of the head man of the division.
Moreover, the Kútwál must appoint guards for watching at night in
every quarter, every street, and in the whole district of the town,
and endeavor that in the quarters, bazars, and streets no stranger be
found; he must apply to the search and pursuit of thieves and
pickpockets, and other delinquents, and leave no trace of them.
Whatever is purloined or plundered he must bring forth, together with
the pilferers, and if not, by returning the equivalent, he must make
good the damages. It is his duty to ascertain the property of
strangers and deceased persons, in order that, if there be heirs, he
may remit it to them, and if not, deliver it to the Amín,
“superintendant,” and write an explanation thereof to the Royal court,
so that at any time when the true proprietor is discovered, he may be
put in possession of it. In this transaction too, he ought to manifest
his right principles and his good origin, so as, perhaps, to come up
to what is customary in the country of Rúm. The Kútwal is further
bound to endeavor that there be no trace of wine-drinking to be found,
and to reprehend, with the concurrence of the judge, the buyer and
seller, the abettor and perpetrator thereof; so that the people may
take an example from it; nevertheless, if any body, of high character
for prudence for the sake of relaxation of mind, makes use of wine as
a medicine, no opposition is to be made to his usage.
The Kútwal must be sollicitous for the cheapness of provisions, and
not allow rich men to buy and to hoard a large quantity to sell it
dear afterwards. Let him take care of providing the requisites for the
_Náúroz_, “new year,” this is a great festival, the beginning of which
is the time when the great world-illuming luminary enters the sign of
Aries, at the commencement of the month _Farvardin_ (March). Another
feast is on the 19th of the said month, which is the day of the most
glorious sun. Other feasts are as follows: the 3rd of _Ardíbihest_
(April); the 6th of _Khórdád_ (May); the 10th of _Abán_ (October); the
9th of _Azar_ (November), in the month of _Dáí_ (December) are three
festivals, viz. on the 8th, the 15th, and the 23rd; besides, the 2nd
of _Bahman_ (January), and the 15th of _Isfendármend_ (February). The
known festivals are to be celebrated according to regulations; and the
nights of the _Náú-róz_ and _Sherif_, “glorious,” are to be
illuminated by torches, in the manner of the night _Bharát_, in the
8th Arabian month, called _Shâabán_, “consecrated to the memory of
forefathers;” and in the first night which is followed by the morning
of a festival, the kettle-drum is to be beaten, which is also to be
done on an elephant’s back on all festivals. A woman ought never,
without necessity, to appear on horseback. The Kútwál is enjoined to
separate the fords of rivers for bathing from those for fetching
water, and to assign particular fords to women.
The emperor inhabiting the seventh heaven, Akbar, wrote a book of
advice for the King Ahás Safaví, and this was also penned by Shaikh
Abu ’l Fazil. Some precepts from this book are as follows: The high
personages of the people, who are the depositors of the divine
secrets, are to be considered with eyes of benign admiration, and kept
with zeal in our conciliated hearts. Acknowledging that the bounty of
the incomprehensible God embraces all religions, let us entirely
devote ourselves to the culture of flowers in the rose garden of the
perpetual spring of peace, and unceasingly attend to the _Nas eb ul
âyín_, “establishment of the thing itself,” as to the study of
promoting one’s happiness; as the Almighty God, opening the door of
his bounty to the different religions[106] in their various means of
salvation, maintains them; so, in imitation of him, it is incumbent on
the powerful Kings, who are the shades of divine providence, never to
desist from this rule, because the Creator of the universe confided to
them this vast population for the sake of directing the state of the
apparent world, and of watching over all mankind, not without
preserving the good name of exalted families.
In Multan, we saw the Shah Salám ulla; he was a man unmarried,
attached to the unity of God, and to sanctity; having retired from the
world, he said: “I was often in the society of Jelál eddin Akbar; I
heard him frequently say: ‘Had I possessed before the knowledge which
I now have, I would never, for my sake, have taken a wife; for to me
the elder matrons are mothers, women of my age sisters, and the
younger ones daughters.’” One of my friends heard this speech, which
has just been attributed to the blessed emperor, from the mouth of the
Nawáb Abu ’l Hassen, surnamed Lashker Khán Mashhedí. Shah Salam ulla
related also that he heard the lord khalífah of God say, weeping:
“Would to God my body were the greatest of all, that the inhabitants
of the world might take their food from it, and not hurt any other
living being.” A proof of the extensive views of this celebrated King
was, that he employed in his service men of all nations――Firangis,
Jews, Iráníans, and Turáníans; because, if they were all of one
nation, they would be disposed to rebellion, as it was the case with
the Usbéks, and the Kazel báshan, who dethroned their sultan; but the
King Abás, son of sultan Khodabendah Safaví, who succeeded him,
reduced the Kurjís to order. He also paid no attention to the wealth
of heritage, but without showing partiality to lineage or religion, he
promoted the skilled in science and laws.
[101] A work of Naśir-eddin Tusi, upon whom see vol. II. p.
417.
[102] This is a celebrated work of Ghazáli.――(See vol. II.
p. 350, note.)
[103] A work of the same author.
[104] _Rumí_ is the surname under which _Ali Ebn Abbas_, an
illustrious poet, is most known. He was of Turkish origin,
but born in Syria. He composed several works, which Avisenna
used to read with delight, and the most difficult passages
of which he commented. He died in the year of the Hejira 283
(A. D. 896)――(see Herbelot). But the poet above alluded to
is _Mawlana Jelal eddin Rumí_, whose proper name is Muhammed
of Balkh, who derives his origin from Muhammed, son of Amam.
He is praised as the greatest mystical poet of the Orient,
the oracle of the Súfís, the nightingale of contemplative
life, the author of the Masnavi (a double-rhymed poem), the
founder of the Mawlavis, the most celebrated order of mystic
Durvishes. He died in the year of the Hejirah 661 (A. D.
1262). We shall quote hereafter a specimen of his
poetry.――(See upon him _Schöne Redekünste Persiens_, by
baron von Hammer, pp. 163 _et seq._)
[105] Police officer or inspector.
[106] The original means _masháreb_, “drinks, drinking
vessels,” above rendered by “religions.”
CHAPTER XI.
OF THE RELIGION OF THE WISE (PHILOSOPHERS),
IN THREE SECTIONS.
SECTION I. Of the religion of the philosophers, and of some branches
of their questions.
SECTION II. Of their reputation.
SECTION III. Of the wise men, and of late philosophers, and of those
of that class who existed among all the nations of the children
of Adam, and still exist; named in Persian _Zirek_, and
_Farzanah_; in Hindi _Budhvan_, _Badisher_, _Set mat_, _Set
pati_, _Kianisher_, _Chater_, _Pah danter_, and _Jami_; in Greek
_Filsofi_; and in Arabic _Hakim_.
SECTION I.――OF THE RELIGION OF THE PHILOSOPHERS, AND OF SOME BRANCHES
OF THEIR QUESTIONS.
The distinguished men of that class divide themselves into two sorts:
the one are the Oriental, the other the Occidental. As to the
religious customs of the Orientals, let it be known, that they are
also called _Ravákín_, and in Persian _Keshísh_, “the religious,”
_Pertaví_, “the splendent,” and _Róshendil_, “the enlightened,” and in
Hindí _Ner mel men_ and _Jókísher_: these names relate to sanctity.
The Occidentals are called in Persian _Rah berí_, “way-guides,” and
_Joya_, inquirers;” in Hindí _Tárkek_.
As to their tendency and opinions――whatever relates to the creed of
the Orientals has already been stated in the chapter on the
_Yezdáníán_, who are also entitled _Azarhóshangían_, but all that is
attributed to the two sects is symbolical. The ancient philosophers of
Greece, down to _Aflátún_ (Plato), were Oriental; it was Araśtu
(Aristotle), his disciple, who then took the lead in the doctrine, the
centre of which with this class is the argumentative reason. Both
sects, by means of their discussions, cannot explain the nature of the
self-existing being; the essence, unity, particularity, and all
attributes are inherent in his holy nature, as I have said in the
account of the religion of the Hoshanganíans. They have said besides:
God is the world in its universality, but in its particularity mutable
conformably with the whole, as it has been stated in the doctrine of
the Yezdánían. They maintain, the work of God is according to his
will; he does; if he wills not, he does not; but a good work is
conformable to his nature: because all his attributes are perfection,
in which sense they draw necessary conclusions with regard to the
nature of God.
“The year of God is that which passeth away; and thou shalt
not find a change in the years of God.”
Their creed is: God is not the immediate actor; as it would not be
suitable to the dignity of royalty and sovereignty to perform himself
every business; but it is proper that he should appoint some one of
his servants who, on account of his great knowledge and power, is
qualified for business, for the execution of the royal orders and the
protection of the subjects. The latter also may, by the Sultan’s
order, name another as Vizir or Nawab, for the affairs; every one of
these chiefs may instal functionaries or agents; so that the whole
administration may be firmly established according to the desire and
the order of the sovereign. On that account, God created a first
intellect, called in Persian _Bahman_, that is, “supreme soul,” or
_Barósú_, or _Ferósu_, or _Serósh seróshán_, and “the science of
truth;” he who produced something “new;” he is also entitled “the
true man: ‘_God created man according to his image_;’” that is to
say, pure, uncompounded, like reason, betwixt necessity and
possibility,[107] in the centre between both; necessity is on his
right side, possibility on his left; the perfect spirit rises from the
left, which is the side of possibility. With respect to truth, the
image of man is _âkl_,[108] “spirit of wisdom, the holy spirit, and
the image of Eva a perfect spirit: on that account it was said that
the forthcoming of Eva took place from Adam’s left side. The Sofis
also agree with this, as we find it explained by Shaikh Muhammed
Láhají,[109] in his work _Sharah-i-Gulshen_, “the Commentary of the
Rose-bower.” Jesus, the son of God, proceeds from this “holy spirit.”
When wisdom manifests itself through somebody, it is called his
“spirit of wisdom;” and when impressions of sciences in all creatures
have penetrated through its mediation, it is named “arrow;” and as the
perfection of the lord of the prophetic asylum is a ray of that jewel,
it bears the name of “Muhammed’s light.”
“If not for thee, I would not have created the worlds.”[110]
These are the attributes of its nature, and besides these it has many
names. By the intervention of the first intelligence came forth the
second intelligence, the spirit and body of “the crystalline heaven;”
and the soul of the heaven above the crystalline firmament is called
“_haváyi mânavi_, “the true soul.” By the intervention of the second
intelligence, the third, and the spirit and body of the heaven of the
fixed stars were produced. In this wonderful way, intelligences and
spirits were formed, until the spirits of the tenth class;[111] among
these ten bringers of good news (Evangelists) are distinguished;
likewise nine heavens were brought into existence, that they may
correspond to nine prophets. From the tenth class of intelligences
came forth the matter of the elements, and bodies, and the spirits of
elemental existence. The philosophers said, that ten kinds of
intelligences are enumerated, not because there may not exist any
more, but because these are required; and likewise we want the number
of nine heavens, without its being prohibited to add any other. The
Eastern philosophers however declare themselves against numbering the
kinds of intelligences, because, with them every kind of thing has its
god, whom they call “the god of the species,” in Persian _Dára_, the
angel of rains, the angel of rivers, to which the following sentence
relates:
“Each thing has its angel to whom it is confided, and an
angel descends with every drop.”
The Oriental philosophers hold the bodies to be shadows of the
uncompounded lights.
“Seest thou not that God has spread his shadow over me?”
According to the sages, the kinds of intelligences and spirits of
heaven are the heavenly angels, who have no body nor any thing
corporeal, neither feathers nor wings. When an effulgence of the
luminous attributes of the self-existing Being falls upon them, it is
by the mediating power of this ray, that deeds of wonderful purity
proceed from them; and in this production there is no need of a
motion, nor of an instrument, in like manner as in the forthcoming of
a work of God his will is sufficient. This meaning has been made
intelligible to the understanding of the vulgar by saying, that an
angel with feathered wings traversed the distance of a road which
could not be travelled over in a thousand years. They say also that
Isráfíl is one of the powers of the sun; the angel of death proceeds
from Saturn; Míkáil from the moon; and Jebríil emanated from the tenth
power of intelligence. As often as, on account of the revolution of
the heavens or the motion of the stars, something suitable manifests
itself in the elemental matter, compounded and uncompounded, it issues
into existence by way of emanation from the superior wisdom; and the
revelation of the prophet, and the instruction of the perfect to
mankind, takes place by the intervention of the last-mentioned angel.
On that account there is an intrinsic connexion between the souls of
the prophets and this by-standing angel. According to the Eastern
philosophers, Jabríil is a god of a kind similar to human nature, and
called in Persian _Wakhshur_, “prophet,” and _Serósh pajám sipár_,
“Serosh, the message-bringer.” In the opinion of the philosophers, the
crystalline heaven is the ninth heaven, and the heaven of the fixed
stars the throne of God. The exalted rational spirit is without an
habitation, and, without being in the body, is connected with it, in a
manner similar to that of a lover with his mistress. This doctrine is
very ancient with the Orientals, as has been stated in the account
about the Azar Hóshangían, but with the first master among the
learned, Aristotle and his followers, it is a tradition. According to
general consent, the soul is eternal.
“Believe not that those who were killed in the way of God are
dead; on the contrary, they are living and nourished at the
side of their Lord.”[112]
To unite the soul with the body is as much as to drive Adam from
heaven; to long for the body is to bear the commands of Eva; and to
perform bad actions is to eat of the forbidden tree; anger is the
serpent; lust is the peacock. They hold that Iblis represents the
power of imagination which guides us, and the sensual influence which
denies the knowledge of words and things consentient with reason, and
contends with the power of reason; that what is stated in the law,
that all angels prostrated themselves before Adam, except Iblis,
signifies that all bodily powers, which are the angels of the earth,
are obedient to the soul of Adam, except the power of imagination,
that is Iblis, which is rebellious, and sometimes gets the better of
judgment. Reason says, that a corpse is to be accounted a mineral, and
no wise to be feared; but imagination says: “this is true;
nevertheless we “must fear;” and when one finds himself in a house
alone with a dead man, it may happen that his mind experiences an
agitation of terror. The Súfis too agree with this, as we find it
expressed by the venerable Shaikh Mahmúd Shósterí[113] in a chapter of
the _Merát ul Mohakakín_, “the mirror of the investigators of truth.”
It is stated in the _Akhván ús afá_, “the companions of purity,” of
Mullá Alí, that there were intelligences and spirits which were not
ordered to adore Adam, as being of a higher rank, as it is written in
the Koran, that God, the All-just, addressed this speech to Iblis:
“Thou art proud; believest thou thyself to be one of the more
exalted beings?”[114]
And this was the occasion on which the angels of the earth were
ordered to adore Adam.
The Orientals maintain that when the soul realises, as it ought to do,
the conditions of its primitive origin, it obtains emancipation from
the bodily bonds, and joins the intelligences and spirits: this
exalted dignity is Paradise.
“O peaceful soul, return to thy lord willingly and readily;
and whoever desires to meet his lord, let him perform good
works.”
In this high state it is possible to behold the face of God. There is
another sect which asserts, that the All-Just is visible; they say
right; because the rational soul sees with interior eyes: another sect
which denies the seeing of God is also right; because he cannot be
seen with bodily eyes,
“The eyes attain him, and attain him not.”
But the soul which has left the narrow prison of the body, but has not
attained the field of its beatifying residence, unites, for taking a
seat, with the body of any one of the celestial spheres with which it
has some relation; it finds rest in the higher or lower heavens,
according to order and distinction; it is engaged in the contemplation
of beauteous forms, and the noble endowments of one who praises God in
the delight of that sphere, which, with some, means the fancy of a
particular kind, and is blessed by the enjoyment of delightful
imaginations and representations. What is stated in the code of law,
that the souls of the vulgar among the believers are in the first
heaven; this is founded upon the words of the prophet.
“His acquisition is but a known place.”
The meaning of this relates to the different degrees of merit.
By “Paradise” is understood one of the heavens, eight of which are
counted, and these are beneath the ninth, which is the roof of the
Paradise, as it is stated in the traditions. But, when the souls not
yet come forth from the pit of the natural darkness of bodily matter,
are nevertheless in a state of increasing improvement, then, in an
ascending way, they migrate from body to body, each purer than the
former one, until the time of climbing up to the steps of the
wished-for perfection of mankind, yet according to possibility, after
which, purified of the defilement of the body, they join the world of
sanctity: and this final migration (death) is called _nasikh_,
“obliteration.”
“The verses which we have abrogated, we have replaced by
others.”
Some call this state _Aâráf_,[115] “boundary;” which means a wall
between heaven and hell, behind which shall be those who in their
conduct fell short of goodness, until the time of being permitted to
enter into heaven. If the iniquities of the souls predominate, then,
descending, they assume the forms of animals corresponding to their
prevailing character: thus, the souls of the powerful malefactors and
of the furious enter into the bodies of lions; the proud become
tigers; the formidable, wolves; and the crafty and covetous appear as
little ants; in this manner they are all ravenous, grazing, flying,
creeping; and this state of things is called _masakh_, “metamorphosis.”
“As often as their skin is burnt we renew it with another,
in order that they may taste punishment.”
“There is no kind of beast on earth, nor fowl which flieth
with its wings, but the same is a people like unto you.”[116]
Sometimes, descending, the souls are united with vegetable bodies; and
this is entitled _rasakh_, “firmness.”
“Under the form which thy master wills.”
Sometimes they enter into mineral bodies, as for instance into metals;
and this is named _fasakh_, “fracture.”
“We let you grow according to your acts.”
The learned Umer Khíyam says:
“Endeavor to acquire praise worthy qualities: for, in the
field of destiny,
Thy resurrection shall be in conformity
with thy qualities.”
This threefold division they call “hell.” The number of the stories of
hell, according to the followers of the law, is seven; that of the
simple elements, four; and that of the compound elements, three:
altogether seven. Every soul, on leaving the elemental world, enters
into one of the stories of hell. According to the _Masháyíns_,
“Peripatetics,” the human soul which, during its connection with the
body has contracted bad habits, becomes afflicted and distressed by
the impurity of such human attributes as are accounted defects of the
mind: on account of the extinction of sensual pleasure which had grown
into a fixed habit, the soul is bewildered, and its base customs and
qualities bear manifestly upon it under the guise of a serpent, a
scorpion, a burning fire, and by all the torments which are recorded
in the law-book, whilst, on the contrary, the noble habits of the
virtuous shine under the guise of _Huris_, _Kásurs_, sons, and youths,
and in all the blessings of heaven.
_Sirát´_, “the bridge of the last judgment,” signifies nothing else
but the temperature of power; as it has been established in the
doctrine of Ethics: for instance, the excess of courage is temerity, a
deficiency in it is cowardice; a medium between both is valour and, as
to keep the middle tenor, is very difficult, this has been
emblematized by something which is finer than a hair and sharper than
the edge of a sword, and by three arches, which indicate the due
mixture of three powers, viz.: knowledge, courage, and lust. Under
hell is meant elemental nature.
We shall pass to the interpretation of the gates of heaven, the number
of which is eight; that of the gates of hell, seven. It is established
that there are five external senses and five internal; but all of them
are not apt to perceive without the assistance of inference and
imagination; because it is imagination which perceives the forms, and
inference completes the perception of sensible things. The two
internal with the five external senses, make seven. If they attend not
to the commands of reason, each of them goes for imprisonment to that
hell which is under the heaven of the moon, and if they listen to
these commands, they reach with the ninth rank of intelligence the
eight gates of heaven for salvation and emancipation, as well as enter
the Paradise which is among the heavens.
“As to him who disobeyed, and preferred the worldly life,
hell shall be his abode; and as to him who feared the being
of the Lord and refused to give up his soul to
concupiscence, Paradise shall be his abode.”
* * * * *
UPON THE ANGELS OF PUNISHMENT.――It is to be known, that there are
seven rulers of the world over the seven stars which revolve within
the twelve signs of the zodiac; seven and twelve make nineteen, and
over these nineteen rulers, that is, managers of the world, are other
nineteen inspectors. In the space of the nether earth are seven powers
of vegetation, viz.: that of nourishment, watering, birth, retention,
attraction, mildness, and repulsion. There are twelve powers of animal
life, viz.: five external, five internal senses, and two powers of
movement, namely, lust and anger. Mankind, as long as they remain in
prison beneath the heaven of the moon, and not severed from sensuality
and its ties, is indispensably and continually subject to the
impressions of the upper and nether rulers, and to sufferings; but if
it rids itself of these conditions, it enjoys freedom in this and in
the other world.
_Nakir_ and _Monkir_ point to our praise-worthy or blameable conduct.
The body is a tomb, and so is the belly of the mother, and the
interior part of the heaven of the moon.
* * * * *
AN ACCOUNT OF THE PAGES OF HUMAN ACTIONS AND THEIR RECORDERS; AND OF
THE DESCENT OF ANGELS AND DEMONS TO THE GOOD AND THE WICKED.
Know that, of every speech or action which is said or done, a mark is
made by them; and when, in any one of them a repetition occurs, the
mark becomes permanent, as it may be assimilated to what takes place
in acquiring a knowledge or learning an art. As the marks of good and
bad actions of mankind are determined, so every body shares
accordingly pleasure or pain. Words or deeds, one by one, being
revealed and described, establish conviction; so that disavowal
becomes impossible. This is the office of two recorders, the one of
whom stands to the right and the other to the left; whatever of one’s
speeches and actions is praise-worthy, this is called “angelic;” and
whatever is blameable is named “satanic.” This is what the prophet of
Arabia said: “_From goodness arises an Angel, from badness a Satan._”
The balance typifies the rule of justice in the retribution of
conduct, so that there may not be any disparity; the basins of the
balance contain the good and bad actions; if the basin of the first
descends heavy, everlasting heaven is bestowed; if it ascend light,
hell.
“He whose weight is heavy, shall be admitted to a delightful
life; and he whose weight is light, shall fall into hell.”
Praiseworthy speeches and actions are the properties of dignity,
steadfastness and peace of mind; blameable words and deeds belong to
perturbation, doubt, and want of conviction; he who acquires composure
and dignity of mind, obtains the grace of God; this grace is the
treasurer of paradise, who is _Razvan_, “the porter of heaven;” but
doubt and perturbation are the leaders to misfortune and to disdain;
and disdain is the treasurer of hell, who is called _Málik_, “the
keeper of hell.”
* * * * *
AN ACCOUNT OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS, AND OF WHAT OCCURS UPON THE EARTH
OF THE LAST JUDGMENT.
It should be known, that a mountain can be the emblem of a body, which
is as overgrown with wool, and the seas can signify the elements; or
it may be proper to call the mountains “elements, which are opaque,”
and the seas “the skies.” Besides, from a mountain, bodies can be
desired; as it may be the station of angels, and from the sea angels
proceed. Attempting to investigate the nature of God we meet with a
veil, and this veil is darkness. The only light we find is, that
whoever travels over the stages of materiality and spirituality,
attains rest in the seat of purity,
“Near the mighty King.”
The veils of darkness are like colored wool raised up.
“The mountains shall become like carded wool of various colors
driven by the wind.”[117]
He lifts up the immense veil before the light, as then the
contradiction, the mutual opposition, and the unsuitableness of
conduct which arises from the sensuality of the body, vanish at the
passing away of the body; conformity and concord, which belong to
unity and harmony, manifest themselves; certainly nothing of
repugnancy and no sort of apprehension remains; the poison of serpents
and of scorpions is no more; the wolf associates with the sheep, the
falcon with the little partridge, and confidence between those who
feared each other, appears;
“When the animals will unite.”
When there is no body, there is no death. This is what the prophet
declared: “On the day of resurrection death will be summoned and
annihilated;” he likewise said: “On the day of the last judgment hell
will be made visible:
“Hell manifests itself to whosoever looks.”
On no other day but this, hell, as it is, can be seen; because one who
is plunged in the ocean, how can he see the ocean? It is when he rises
above the waves that he can distinguish them:
“A spirit appears better on the border of an expanse.”
I have now given an explanation about the streams of heaven and hell;
the pleasures and pains during the time of the soul’s progress and
regress. The running streams signify life, which the celestial
community enjoys; milk is the cause of nourishment in early infancy,
and is more excellent than water; because, although its use be at
times salutary for all, yet, in different circumstances, it is not so
for all. Rivers of milk signify rivers of knowledge for noble persons;
they proceed from the origin and development of sciences, and from
these rivers is derived the enjoyment of the celestial beings, whose
state may be compared to that of infancy. Honey is the cause of
recovery to the sick and afflicted, and is more excellent than milk,
because its advantage is reserved to a certain number only; and rivers
of honey in heaven are emblematical of rivers of noble sciences; and
the enjoyment of the select in heaven is derived from these rivers.
Wine is the cause of the removal of terror, and fear, and sadness; and
is more excellent than honey, because it is prohibited to the people
of the world, and permitted and legal to the inhabitants of heaven;
and it is a purifying draught of the water of Paradise:
“Their lord made them drink a purifying beverage.”
And rivers of wine in heaven signify rivers of knowledge, for the
nobles, among noble personages, and their enjoyment in heaven is
derived from these rivers:
“There will be rivers of limpid water, and rivers of milk,
The savor of which shall not be altered; rivers of wine
Will be a delight to those who drink of them;
And there will be rivers of purified honey.”
For the inhabitants of hell are four rivers, in opposition to those in
heaven; they are called “that of heat; that of water, blood, and
matter; that of liquid pitch: and that of poison;” that is to say:
death, ignorance, simple ignorance, and compound ignorance; for it is
said:
“These are the similes which we propose to men; the wise only
understand their explanation.”
* * * * *
ACCOUNT OF THE TREE _TUBA_, WHICH IS IN HEAVEN, AND THE TREE
_ZAKUM_, WHICH IS IN HELL.
It is to be known that _Túba_[118] is a celestial tree which sends
branches into every corner of heaven; and this is an emblem of the
tree of wisdom, from which branches extend to every corner――to any
body, whether it be elemental or imaginary; that is to say, to every
mind which is illumed and warmed by a ray of the sun of wisdom; it is
by this light that his speech and conduct answer the exigency of
wisdom, and that he considers well the end of his actions; so that he
has never to repent of any one of his words or deeds, which is a sign
of knowledge.
The tree _zakúm_[119] represents the tree of nature, a branch of which
extends to every corner, that is to say, whatever power a man
(actuated by it) exerts, he never considers the end of the action
which he does, and has therefore always to repent of his words and
deeds, which is a sign of ignorance.
As to an explanation about the Har and Kasur, it is to be known that
both names relate to secrets of hidden things and sciences, which are
concealed from the eyes of the profane by a veil, or by the pavilions
of sublimity:
“The Hur and Kasur are concealed in the pavilions.”
The hand of men with an elegant and fanciful conception has never
reached, nor shall ever reach, them.
“Nobody has ever touched them before, neither men nor genii.”
For these Hur and Kaśur belong to men endowed with sanctity and truth;
as often as these perfect personages approach them, they find also
virgins, and enjoy each time a pleasure such as they never had before;
because each time they meet with the beginning of a new meaning, finer
than the former, although they obtain these objects before their
death.
It has been stated by some sages that, when they were intent upon some
high undertaking, they declared after its conclusion: “How can
emperors and their sons enjoy such a happiness, which is still to be
increased when all impediments will be removed.” Know, men attached to
exterior evidence said, that whatever is commonly believed of the last
judgment, and what is connected with the soul of the world, implies
nothing else but that, from the time when the Almighty God brought
forth out of nothingness into existence, the heavens, the stars, the
material bodies, the three kingdoms of nature, and the essences, the
duration of the world shall extend to that period when he will again
plunge the whole into non-existence, and this shall be “the other
world.”
The learned say besides, that the composition of the human body, and
its conjunction with the soul, make but one period of time, although
birth and life appear two distinct periods; the one comprising the
sensible and perceptible world, the other the rational and
intellectual world: for
“Whoever is not born twice, shall not enter at the same time
into the kingdom of heaven and that of the earth.”[120]
This is the speech of the Lord Jesus, and with him the present and the
future world have also a twofold signification, also both a particular
and a common one. As to the particular――there is something external
and internal in every one; body and soul in every one; this is his
present and future world. As to the common signification――there is an
external and an internal world, that is, the material world is the
present, and the future is the internal world. As to what is stated in
the ostensible law, that the earth has seven stories and the heaven
also seven, the interpretation of this is, that the earth is divided
into seven regions, whence is concluded that the heaven also is
divided into seven, separate from which they account the _Kersi_ or
_Arsh_, that is the ninth heaven. As to what is said, that on the day
of resurrection the heaven will be folded together,
“On the day on which we shall fold the heavens, as the angel
folds the book (of good and bad actions of men), we shall
replace them as they were formed at the beginning of the
creation. The heavens will then be folded by his grace,
power, and strength,”
And the earth changed into another.
“One day we shall change this earth into another earth.”
And after this change the earth and heaven will be annihilated; the
earth will be like pure silver, and upon this earth no sin whatever
will be committed: in all this, the day of resurrection, heaven, and
hell are rendered present. As to what is asserted that this earth will
be changed into another――the Orientals say, this is meant to relate to
a vision which is called the region of symbolic truth. And the
rendering present heaven and hell; this also refers to an attribution
of good and bad. Whoever assumes the form of Hur or Kásur, serpent or
scorpion, is rendered happy or miserable. As to the transmutation of
the earth――this needs no interpretation: what wonder is it that the
culture of a region passes into that of another country; and the
passage from the region of the sensible into that of allegory is
evident in the transformation of the folded heavens. It has also been
maintained that “the book of God” is one thing, and “the word of God”
another: because the word is derived from the world[121] of commands,
which has its purport from the invisible and rational world; whilst
the book is from the world of creatures; that is, the material world;
the word, when written down, becomes a book; a command which is
brought to pass becomes an action; and this is, with these believers,
the meaning of the words: _Run fa yakun._
“(God said) ‘Let it be,’ and it was.”
The world of command is devoid of contradiction and multiplicity; it
is pure in its essence but the world of creatures contains
contradiction and multiplicity, and no atom of all atoms of beings is
out of the material world.
“There is nothing fresh or dry but in the true book (the
Koran).”
Besides, the world of forms and of perceptible things is to be
considered as the book of God, and every thing as a _Surah_, “a
chapter,” of the Surahs of this book; the alternation of days and
nights, the changes and alterations in the horizon and in the
phenomena are the vowel points of this book; the days and nights of
this book, Surah after Surah, verse after verse, letter after letter,
follow each other, as in writing the lines are read in succession;
thus thou proceedest, from line to line and from letter to letter,
until thou findest the meaning which is hidden in the subject of the
words and expressions, until thou knowest and renderest evident to
thyself the purport of the book:
“We shall show our verses (of the Koran) in the horizon (every
where), and in their souls, until it become evident to them
that it is the truth.”
And when thou understandest the book and hast satisfied thy desire,
certainly the book is then closed and put out of thy hand.
“On the day on which we shall fold the heavens, as the angel
folds the book――the heavens will then be folded by his
grace, power, and strength.”
And it was said, “On the right hand,” that it may be manifest, that
those who are at the left can have no share in the possession of
heaven.
The change of the earth is thus interpreted, that mankind has two
states: at first a terrestrial body and a heavenly nature, subject to
the dictates of passion and of lust; and in this state all creatures
are in the troubles of imagination, and pride, and conceitedness. Then
takes place the first blast of the trumpet for the sake of rest, in
order that the terrestrial, who are subject to the qualities of the
body, and the celestial, who possess those of a higher nature, may
both of them become dead to the troubles of imagination, pride, and
conceitedness, unless a few of the qualities of the former state
remain alive; as this, on account of these very qualities, may be
indispensable by the power of necessity.
“And the trumpet was blown, and all the beings who were in
heaven and upon earth were troubled, except those whom God
willed (that they should not).
The second blast of the trumpet will be for recalling all men to life,
so that the terrestrial, who are endowed with the qualities of nature,
may resuscitate from the death of ignorance and the sleep of
heedlessness, and rise up; that they may avert their face from
material objects and bodily pleasures, which are understood under the
name “world,” and devote themselves to reasonable pursuits and
spiritual enjoyments, which are essential, so as to know every thing
in its real nature: which is
“Then the trumpet shall be blown, and instantly they shall
resuscitate, and see.”
In this state, the body, world, and the nature of reason and law, are
broken.
“The earth was illumed by the light of his Lord; he placed
the books, and he brought the prophets and the witnesses.”
Then the earth of darkness shall be changed into the world of light,
and the heaven of nature into the sphere of spirits:
“On the day on which the earth shall be changed for another
earth, as well as the heavens; and it shall then be known
that there is but one God, the Almighty.”
The obscuration of the stars, and the extinction of the sun’s and the
moon’s light are interpreted, that the stars signify the external and
internal senses, each of which is in its corresponding sign in heaven;
the spirit of animals and the light of the moon are referred to the
light of the soul; as the human soul has in fact no light of its own,
but solicits an abundant loan of it from the sun of reason, and
diffuses it according to its own deficiency. It is said, that when the
human soul manifests itself, then sensuality remains out of its action;
“When the stars shall be obscured;”
And when the light of reason breaks forth, then the human soul also is
dismissed from its action, and when the benefitted unites with the
benefactor, then an incomparable form shows its face;
“He reunited the sun and the moon.”
And when the light of God shines forth, that is, when “knowledge is
infused,” which is equivalent to revelation, manifesting itself, then
reason and sight are removed from the action, which they call
“When the sun shall be folded up.”[122]
There are fifty stations in the field of judgment:
“Present is the Creator and the master;
At every station another question;
Whoever gives his answer with justness
Shall reach his station with rapidity.”
The stations are in their order as follows: five external and five
internal senses; seven powers of passion and lust; three spirits of
nature, that is, of minerals, vegetables, and animals; four humors;
three kingdoms of nature; four elements; eight temperatures; seven
forms of imagination; the other four will be stated on another
occasion.
The book of God signifies knowledge. As to the last judgment and the
resurrection of bodies, intelligent men said, that each atom of the
atoms of a human body, which are dispersed, will be all collected on
the day of resurrection, and restored to life, and at this hour there
will be no question put about any thing done, but what is come to us
from the prophets and saints, this we must believe. The learned say
besides, that the question is here about the soul, which on the day of
resurrection returns (to its origin), and this substance is pure, and
does not require to be suitable to any dimension, color, or place, but
is independent of all these, and on that account fit for sciences and
knowledge of all things; its extreme excellence is to be able to
collect for review all things from the first origin to the last
extremity, and to know that whenever it attains that degree of
perfection, it has returned to the place of its origin; and this is
the knowledge of purity, which is remote from the defilement and
mixture of what is material. The learned assert besides, that _the
night of power_, “the night on which the Koran was sent down,” refers
to the beginning, and the day of resurrection to the place to which
one returns; because the nature of night is to conceal things of which
few may have information, and the nature of day is to bring to view
things of which all may take notice. Further, the whole of the notions
and powers of primitive creation is contained in the knowledge of God,
who is understood under the name of “primitive, permanent, and
predestinator.” Every body possesses not this knowledge; it was then
on account of the belief that the predestinations were concealed in
it, that “the night of power” was said to be “primitive,” and as in
the place to which one returns (that is at the resurrection) every
thing concealed shall become manifest, and every one be informed of
it, on account of this belief, this place was referred to “day.” As on
this day, all are to rise from the tomb of the body, and to awake from
the sleep of heedlessness, it was called “the resurrection.”
According to the learned, Kâbah (the square temple at Mecca) is an
emblem of the sun, on which account it is right to worship it; and the
well _Zem zem_[123] signifies likewise “the great luminary,” as _Hakím
Khákání_ said relatively to both:
“O Kábah, thou traveller of the heaven!
O Zem zem, thou fire of the world!”
_Hajer ul ásvad_, “the black stone at Mecca,” represents the body of
Venus, which on the border of the heavens is a star of the planets.
Some have interpreted the resurrection of the bodies in the sense of
the learned, who referred it to the revolution of the heavens, and to
the influences of the stars upon the terrestrial globe.
“Every external form of things, and every object which
disappeared,
Remains stored up in the storehouse of fate;
When the system of the heavens returns to its former order,
God, the All-Just, will bring them forth from the veil of
mystery.”
Another poet says:
“When the motion of the heavens in three hundred and sixty
thousand years,
Shall have described a minute about its centre,
Then shall be manifest what had been manifest before,
Without any divergence to the right or to the left.”
The great revolution with them, according to the word of _Berzasp_,
the disciple of Tahamúers, is of three hundred and sixty thousand
solar years: that is, as the motions of the heavens take place in a
circle, their positions are necessarily determined; when, according to
that revolution, the positions of the heavens manifest themselves so
that from the contiguities, the _adwár_ and _ikwár_,[124] “the
cycles,” the _zatk_ and _fatk_, “the shutting and opening,” from the
conjunctions of the whole and from the unions, all parts of the
phenomena show the very same necessarily determined position, in its
reality without increase and decrease. In the books of the Persian
sages is stated that, as the motions of the heavens are circular,
certainly the compasses return to the same point from which the
circumference began to be drawn, and when at a second revolution the
compasses run over the same line upon which the former circumference
was drawn, undoubtedly, whatsoever has been granted in the former
circumference, shall be granted again; as there is no disparity
between two circumferences, there will be no disparity between their
traces; because the phenomena, having returned to that order in which
they were found in the beginning, the stars and heavens, having made
their revolution about the former centre, the distances, contiguities,
appearances, and relations having in no aspect been contrary to the
former aspects, certainly the influences which manifested themselves
from yonder origin shall in no manner be different.
This is called in Persian _mahín cherkh_, “the great circle;” and in
Arabic _dawrah-i kabra_.
Fárábi[125] says: the vulgar form to their own sight their belief
according to the shape of their imagination, and will continue to form
it so, and the place of their imaginations will be a body of the
heavenly bodies. The venerable Shaikh Maktul tends to establish in his
demonstrations, that the heavenly bodies are places of imaginations of
the inhabitants of heaven, and that beneath the heaven of the moon,
and above the globe of fire is a spherical body, without motion, and
this is the place of the imaginations of the inhabitants of hell.
It is to be known, that this sect hold the world to be eternal, and
say that, as the sun’s light is to the heaven, so is the world to God.
Nothing was that had not been, and nothing will be that is not.
Further, according to the expounders of theological law, the world is
a phenomenon of time. The philosophers assert, the meaning of that
phenomenon is “procreation;” and the phenomenon of procreation is not
contradictory to “permanency;” infinite permanency coalesces with time.
[107] امكان _imkan_, “possibility,” signifies that, the
existence or non-existence of which, is the necessary
consequence of the essence of a thing. The philosophers
distinguish by name four sorts of possibility: 1. _imkan
zati_, “possibility with respect to essence;” 2. _imkan
istidadi_, “possibility by disposition,” also called
_mokúni_, “eventual;” 3. _imkan khaz_, “special
possibility;” and 4. _imkan âam_, “general
possibility.”――(See on this subject _Jorjani’s Definitions,
Notices et Extraits des MSS._, vol. XI pp. 82-83.)
[108] The word _âkl_ has a manifold and therefore often
vague meaning; it corresponds sometimes to Holy Ghost. I
thought it right to translate it hereafter by
“intelligency,” in the double acceptation of “unbodied
spirits” and “wisdom;” and also by “reason.”
[109] His whole title is _Shemseddin Muhammed ben Yahja, ben
Ali Lahjáni_, a native of Lahjan, a town in the province of
Gilan. He wrote in A.D. 1474 a work under the title
_Mefat-i-hul âjaib fi sherh-i-Gulshen-raz_, “the Key of
Marvels, in explanation of the Mystery of the Rosebower.”
The latter work was quoted vol. I. p. 82.
[110] See vol. I. p. 2. note.
[111] I shall attempt to sketch, in the smallest possible
compass, the fundamental ideas of Asiatic cosmology, which
are rather confusedly stated in the text.
According to the Dasatir, God created primitively,
immediately, and singly, _the supreme intelligence_; this
produced the _second intelligence_, with the primitive soul
and body; the second intelligence brought forth the third,
and the corresponding heavenly sphere, with soul and body;
and so down to the tenth intelligence, to wit that of _human
reason_. The modern Orientals kept the first-born supreme
intelligence, which to the Muhammedans was sanctified by the
verse of the Koran, saying: _The first being which God
created was intelligence_, and established a double series
of descending intelligences and ascending heavenly spheres,
as follows, according to the ancient and modern system:
COSMOLOGY
OF THE DASATIR. OF THE MODERN ORIENTALS.
_Intelligences._ _Spheres._
The Ist
intelligence.
II The Ist The IXth The uppermost
intelligence. heavenly sphere. Heaven.
III II VIII That of the zodiac, or
of fixed stars.
IV III VII That of Saturn.
V IV VI Jupiter.
VI V V Mars.
VII VI IV the Sun.
VIII VII III Venus.
IX VIII II Mercury.
X IX I the Moon.
XI X The human. the Earth.
The difference between the system of the Dasatir and the
latter consists only in this: that the first enthrones the
first supreme intelligence, or reason, above all nine
heavenly spheres, and assigns to the second intelligence
with its soul and body the ninth sphere, in which the latter
system places the first intelligence, and the third
intelligence corresponds to the eighth sphere, and so on;
each intelligence is placed in the first system, one sphere
higher than in the latter; so that the numbers of
intelligences and spheres, counterparts of each other, do
not form a perfect _Dekas_, which mutually meets in the
sacred number _five_, but they make an Endekas. Besides, the
Muhammedan philosophers call the soul of the second
intelligence “the truth of truths,” and identify it with
Muhammed, who is said to have declared: _The first being
which God created_ _was my light._――(See upon this subject
_Heidelberger Jahrbücher der Literatur_. 1823. _Erste
Hälfte_, pp. 313, etc.)
[112] Koran, chap. III. v. 163.
[113] _Shosterí_, or _Tosterí_, “native of the town of
Shoster or Toster,” is the surname of Abu Muhammed (above
Mahmud) _Sahal Ben And_. He is reputed as one of the
principal chiefs of the Sufís; he was a disciple of Zu al
nun, and condisciple of Jionaid. He died in his eightieth
year, in the year of the Hejira 283 (A. D. 896).
[114] See pp. 8-9, note 2.
[115] _Aâráf_, the plural of _ârf_, from the verb _arafa_,
“to distinguish between two things, or part of them:” some
interpret it as above, “a wall; any thing that is high
raised, as a wall of separation may be supposed to be.” In
the Koran, chap. VII. entitled _Al Aâráf_, v. 44, it is
called “a veil,” to wit: “Between the blessed and the damned
there shall be a veil, and men shall stand on _Al Araf_, who
shall know every one of them by their mark, and shall call
unto the inhabitants of Paradise, saying: ‘Peace be upon
you:’ yet they shall not enter therein, although they
earnestly desire it.” It appears a sort of purgatory for
those who deserve neither hell nor heaven. In this sense it
is taken above. Others imagine it to be a state of limbo for
the patriarchs and prophets, or for the martyrs and saints,
among whom there will also be angels in the form of men.
But, on the day of universal judgment, all those who are
confined in this place shall prostrate themselves in
adoration before the Lord, and hear these words: “Enter ye
into paradise; there shall come no fear upon you, neither
shall ye be grieved.”――_Ibid._, v. 47.
[116] Koran, chap. VI. v. 38.
[117] Koran, chap. CI. v. 4.
[118] _Túba_, says Herbelot, according to the Commentators
of the Koran, is a word derived from the Ethiopian language,
and means properly “eternal beatitude.” The Tuba, as the
heavenly lotos tree, or tree of life, occurs in all
mythologies, in the Chinese, Indian, Persian, Egyptian, and
Scandinavian. This tree is represented upon the coffin of a
mummy which exists in the imperial cabinet of Vienna; a
deity pours out from its branches the paradisiacal fountain,
which, according to the Muhammedans, issues from the roots
of the tree of life.――(See _The Mines of Orient_, vol. V.)
[119] This tree is imagined to spring from the bottom of
hell. There is a thorny tree, called _zakúm_, which grows in
Tahâma, and bears fruit like an almond, but extremely
bitter; and therefore the same name is given to this
infernal tree.――(See Sale’s _Koran_, pp. 104, 310.)
[120] This seems an incorrect quotation from St. John’s
Gospel, chapter III. verse 3, which is as follows: “Jesus
answered and said unto him (Nicodemus): Verily, verily, I
say unto thee, except a man be born again, he cannot see the
kingdom of God.”――Further, v. 5: “Verily, verily, I say unto
thee, except a man be born of water and of the spirit, he
cannot enter into the kingdom of God.”――V. 6: That which is
born of the flesh, is flesh; and that which is born of the
spirit, is spirit.”――V. 7: “Marvel not that I said unto
thee, you must be born again.”――V. 8: The wind bloweth where
it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst
not tell whence it cometh and whither it goeth: so is every
one that is born of the spirit.”
[121] The word _âalem_, “world,” has here (as it occurs with
the corresponding Sanskrit word _loka_) the meaning of
state, “condition.”
[122] Koran, chap. LXXXI. v. 1.
[123] A well at Mecca, see this vol., p. 14-15, note 1.
[124] ادوار و اكوار are the cycles or revolutions of years,
according to which the astrologers pretend to prognosticate
the accidents of human life. Every _adwár_ consists of 360
solar years, and the _ikwár_ of 120 lunar years; the whole
art consists in finding the combination of these years, and
their respective relations.
[125] _Abú Naśr Muhammed Ebn Turkhan al Fárábí_, a native of
_Farab_, a town situated on the occidental confines of
Turkestan, afterwards called _Otrar_. He is esteemed as the
greatest philosopher among the Muselmans, and at the same
time the most detached from the world. To him is attributed
the translation of Aristotle’s Analytics, under the title of
_Anoluthica_. Avisenna confessed to have derived all his
science from him. Ghazali counts Fárábi and Avisenna among
the philosophers who believed the eternity of the world, but
not without a first mover, which doctrine is believed by the
Muselmans to be atheistical. Fárábi died in the year of the
Hejira 339 (A. D. 950), according to Ebn Chal and Abulfeda,
quoted by Pococke (p. 372); according to Herbelot in Hejira
343 (A. D. 954).
SECTION II.――OF THE REPUTATION AND THE TRUTH OF THE PROPHETIC
DIGNITY.
Know that, when individuals of mankind want to associate in the
concerns of life, they find it indispensable to have recourse to
customs, regulations, and religious faith, in order that they may be
concordant, and that oppression may be excluded from their
transactions and associations, and the order of the world preserved.
It is requisite to refer the customs and regulations to God, and to
proclaim that they proceed from God, in order that all may adopt them.
On that account the necessity of theology and of a prophetic mission
became evident, in order that the institutes for the government of the
creatures may be established, and, by means of mildness and severity,
men might be induced to be concordant, and the different conditions of
the world arranged. And such an institutor is named “illustrious
sage;” his precepts are likewise celebrated; among the eminent
moderns, his title is that of “prophet,” or “legislator,” and that of
his precepts “the law.” But his deputy, who is a judge, ought to be a
person distinguished by divine grace, that he may promote the
instruction and arrange the affairs of mankind; such a man is called
by the wise “an universal ruler,” and his precepts are entitled “the
practice of the empire;” the moderns gave him the name of _Imám_, and
to his precepts that of _Imámet_. The unusual customs, which are
called _mâjazát_,’ “miracles,”[126] and _kirámát_, “prodigies,”[127]
have been submitted to investigations from which it results that the
vital spirit, or soul, is the cause of the accidents which are
manifested in our body, such as anger and violent emotion. It may be
that the vitality attains such a force in every manner, that its
relation to this world of depravity becomes of that nature as is our
relation to our own bodies: then its desire proves the cause of the
accidents; it brings about what it wishes in this world. On that
account, all the learned agree on this point, that, in every respect,
the soul is of an extreme ingenuity and sagacity, so that, of
whatsoever kind the knowledge may be to which it turns its attention,
it renders itself master in one day of the whole science, and the
power of its memory is such, that it recollects whatever it has heard
but once, and, to whatsoever object it directs its look, the soul will
give an account of it, of the past as well as of the present. Another
power of the soul is to know, either in a dream or by _ilhám_,
“inspiration,”[128] an event before it takes place. A further power of
the soul is, to discover the purport of whatever it sees. All this
together is the attribute of the soul. When, on account of pious
austerity and struggles in the cause of God, one’s sensual spirit is
kept in due temperature, it becomes like an essence of heaven, and his
rational soul borrows as much as possible from the heavenly spirit, in
the same manner as a polished mirror receives the image from a painted
surface. Whatever comes forth from the rational soul in the way of
generality, of that the rational soul gives an account by means of
images in the way of particularity, and brings it home to common sense
by way of allegories. And when comprehended by common sense, it
becomes evident, and there is no difference between what comes to
common sense from the exterior or from the interior; on which very
account some have entitled it the _common_ sense, as being sensible
from both sides. Further, he whose constitution is better tempered,
and whose power of imagination and common sense is brighter, he, after
being freed from worldly dependencies, will possess a righter
fore-knowledge, such as that in sleep: for sleep also is suitable to
prescience, and the revelation of some prophets was received during
sleep.
* * * * *
UPON THE MEANING OF REVELATION AND INSPIRATION.
Some of the novices who feel themselves in this state, comprehend at
once something which they did not understand before; they suppose they
are as if hearing something from within, and this they call “a voice
from an invisible speaker.” It has been said that, in miracles and
supernatural events, there is no doubt of our spirit being the
phenomenon――which manifests itself in the human body from men, tal
excitement and exultation; then it may happen that the spirit receives
such a force and perfection, that its relation to the world of
corruption be like our relation to the body whence its desire may be
the mover in this exterior world.
There is another wonderful science and property of things. The lord
Shaikh Abu Alí[129] says in his book, “the Ascent to Heaven:” All the
spirits are subject to more perfect intelligences, except “the Holy
Ghost,” who is the mediator between the self-existing Being and the
first intelligences, and this is “the command;” and the word of God
means “the revelation,” which the Holy Ghost makes by the intervention
of perfect intelligences, and which is manifested by the prophetic
spirit; whence, whatever is the speech of the prophet, all is the
expression of the word of God, and his word is futile by itself, and
the name of holiness comes from God alone.
UPON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE MIRACLES OF THE PROPHET.
The learned possess a great number of versions on this subject, but
the best of all interpretations is that of the lord raís, the wise Abu
Alí Síná, who declares: “So said the prophet of God, Muhammed, the
selected (peace be upon him):[130] “One night I slept in the house of
my father’s sister;[131] it was a night of thunder and lightning; no
animal uttered a sound; no bird was singing; no man was awake; and I
slept not, but was suspended between sleep and waking: the secret
meaning of this might have been, that it was a long while before I
became desirous of understanding the divine truth. Under the shield of
the night, men enjoy greater freedom, as the occupations of the body
and the dependence of the senses are broken. A sudden night fell then,
and I was still between sleep and waking; that is, between reason and
sensuality. I fell into the sea of knowledge; and it was a night with
thunder and lightning, that is, the seven upper agents prevailed, so
that the power of human courage and the power of imagination sunk from
their operation, and inactivity manifested its ascendancy over
activity. And lo! Jabrííl came down in a beautiful form, with much
pomp, splendor, and magnificence, so that the house became
illuminated; that is, the power of the holy spirit came upon me in the
form of the command, and made such an impression upon me, that all the
powers of the rational soul were renewed and enlightened by it. And
what the prophet said in the description of Jabrííl, “to have seen him
whiter than snow, with a lovely face, black hair, and on his forehead
the inscription: ‘There is no God but one God;’ the light of his eyes
charming, the eyebrows fine, having seventy thousand curls twisted of
red rubies, and six hundred thousand pearls of a fine water,” that is,
he possessed so many beauties in the eyes of pure reason, that if an
impression of these beauties was made upon a sense, it was able to
perceive those which have been described, and the purport of the
words: “there is no God but one God,” appeared in a determined light:
that is he whose eyes fall upon his perfections is removed from the
darkness of infidelity, and doubt, and worldly connection; and in such
a manner he feels himself fortified in the certitude of the Creator,
and attains such a degree of virtue, that hereafter, upon whatsoever
creature he looks, his faith in God’s unity will be enhanced by it.
And such were the charms of the angel that, if one possessed seventy
thousand curls, he would not attain to his beauty; and such was his
rapidity, that thou wouldst have said, he was flying with six hundred
wings and arms, so that his progress knew neither space nor time.”
“What he said came upon me, and he took me to his bosom, and gave me
kisses between the eyes, and said: ‘O thou sleeper, how long sleepest
thou? rise!’ That is, when the power of holiness came upon me, it
caressed me, opened the road of its revelation, and exalted me; a
certain delight which I cannot describe diffused itself in my heart,
and transported me to devotion. The angel then continued: ‘How long
sleepest thou?’ that is ‘why indulgest thou in the delusions of
falsehood? thou art attached to the world, and, as long as thou
remainest in it, and before thou awakest, knowledge cannot be
obtained; but I, from compassion towards thee, shall be thy guide on
the road. Rise.’ I trembled at his words, and from fear jumped up from
my place: that is, from timid respect for him no reflection remained
in my heart and mind. He further said: ‘Be calm, I am thy brother,
Jabrííl;’ thus, by his kindness and revelation, my terror was
appeased. But he unfolded more of his mysteries, so that fear returned
upon me. I then said: ‘O brother, I feel the hand of an enemy.’ He
replied: ‘I shall not deliver thee into the hand of an enemy.’ I
asked: ‘Into whose?’ He answered: ‘Rise, and be glad, and keep thy
heart within thyself:’ that is, preserve thy memory clear, and show
obedience to me, until I shall have removed the difficulties before
thee. And as he spoke I became entranced and transported, and I
proceeded on the footsteps of Jabrííl; that is, I forsook the sensual
world, and by the aid of natural reason I followed the footsteps of
holy grace.” What the prophet said: “I saw “Borák upon the footsteps
of Jabrííl,” signifies, the practical reason which triumphs by means
of the power of sanctity, and by its assistance gains the ascendancy
over this world of corruption: for from the heavenly intelligences
proceeds practical reason, which is the supreme king and assistant of
the soul, at any time when it may be required. It is to be compared to
Borak for this reason, because it was the illuminator of the night,
and the vehicle of the protector, who on that journey wanted it: on
that account the prophet called it _Borák_. And as to what he further
said: “It was greater than an ass “and smaller than a horse;” this
means, it was greater than human reason, but smaller than the first
intelligence. And “Borak’s face was like that “of a man,” signifies,
he had a propensity for human order and much kindness for men, as a
family by its manner and likeness among men has a bearing to kindness
and arrangement. What the prophet stated of “a long hand and long
foot,” means that his benefit extends to all places, and that his
bounty keeps all things new. What he stated: “I wanted to mount Borák,
but he resisted until Jabrííl gave assistance; then he became obedient
to me;” this implies, I was under the influence of the corporeal
world; I desired to associate with reason; but this was refused until
the power of sanctity washed off by a bath the entanglement of
ignorance and the hinderances of the body, so that I became pure, and
by such means attained the bounty and advantage of practical reason.
What the prophet further said: “When I proceeded on the way,[132] and
had left the mountains of Mecca, I saw a wanderer following my steps,
who called out: ‘Stop!’ But Jabrííl said: ‘Hold no conversation; go
on.’ I went on.” By this the power of the imgination is indicated;
that is: when I became free of the sight of my limbs and every thing
belonging to me, and yielding no more to sensuality, and thus
proceeded, the power of imagination, upon my steps, called out to me
to stop; for the power of imagination is dextrous, and certainly is
great, exerting itself in all affairs, and serves in lieu of intellect
to all animals; but it is not right to allow imagination too much
liberty, because it then descends to an equality with animals, and
disorders its noble nature; further, whoever is assisted by the grace
of God, follows not, on all occasions, the imagination. As to what the
prophet said: “Behind me called out a woman, deceitful and beauteous:
‘Stop until I join thee!’ Jabrííl also said: ‘Go on, and beware of
stopping:’” this means the power of imagination, which is deceitful
and bedecked, resembling a woman, to whom most natures are inclined,
and who keeps men in her bondage; besides, whatever she does, is all
art, without foundation, and contaminated by fraud and deception; nay,
the very business of women is artifice and fiction: the power of
imagination is not otherwise seductive. To continue: the lies and
false promises of women being so many lures, they render mankind their
slaves with their show, and never keep their faith; so that all they
affect turns out to be futile. Thus, when a man follows the steps of
imagination, he never attains true intelligence, as he always remains
upon the track of outward ornament and in the bondage of corporeal
appearance, without reality.
“And as to what the prophet stated: When I went on, Jabrííl said: ‘If
thou hadst waited until she had joined thee, thou wouldst have become
a friend of the world,’” this means: that worldly affairs are without
reality, brittle and soon decaying, and that worldly occupations have
a value but in conjunction with the views of a future state; inasmuch
as occurrences and appearances are a deception, and are esteemed as
adjuncts to the secrets of a high intelligence; and whoever devotes
himself to the former rests behind the higher intelligences, and, in
the illusion of vanity, rests imprisoned in the pitfall of ignorance.
And what Muhammed said: “When I left the mountains and these two
persons behind me, I went on until I reached the house of sanctity
(_Jerusalem_); and as I entered it, a person came to me, and gave me
three cups――the one of wine, the second of water, and the other of
milk. I wished to take that of wine, but Jabrííl forbade it, and
pointed to that of milk, which I took and drank:” the meaning of this
is: When I freed myself from sensuality, and knew the state of
imagination and deception, and resolved in myself to enter the world
of spirits, then I saw three spirits in the house of sanctity――the one
was that of animal life, the second that of nature, and the other that
of rationality. I wished to proceed on the footsteps of brutishness,
and compared it to wine, the power of which is seducing, clouding, and
ignorance-increasing, like passion and lust, and wine is the darkener
of the two other powers. And he compared nature to water, because from
it is derived the support and stability of a person, and man depends
upon the temperament of the agents which act in the body;[133] water
is also the vital strength of animals, and the promoter of growth and
increase. And the rational spirit he compared to milk, as being a
salutary and agreeable nourishment, and promoting welfare. And as to
what he said: “I wished to take the wine; but he forbade it, that I
might take the milk:” is in allusion to most men, who, being badly
disposed, do not desist from obsequiousness to two spirits, those of
nature and brutishness; and whoever is badly disposed demands what is
material, and the pleasure and enjoyment of these two spirits are of
this kind.
“The Prophet said farther: When I arrived there I entered the mosque,
and the crier called to prayer; and I stepped forward, I saw an
assembly of prophets and angels standing to the right and the left;
every one saluted me, and made a new covenant with me.”[134] This
means: When I became freed from all converse and concern with
brutishness and nature, I entered the mosque, that is, I retired into
the inmost of the soul; by “crier of the mosque” is understood the
power of remembering and praising God; by “one’s Imám,” meditation;
and “the angels” mean the powers of the inmost soul, such as
abstraction, memory, praise of God, and the like. Further, “saluting
them” refers to the comprehending of all the mental powers. Thus, when
one wishes to mount up to the terrace of a house, he must first have a
staircase by which he may, step after step, ascend, until he attains
the summit of the terrace; in like manner also are these refined
powers to be considered as ladder-steps, upon which, the one after the
other, a man ascends until he arrives at his aim.
“And what the prophet said: When I became free, I raised my face
upwards, and I found a ladder, one step of which was of silver and the
other of gold:”[135] this means, from the external to the internal
sense; “gold” and “silver” denote the superior value of the one over
the other.[136]
“And what he said: I arrived at the heaven of the universe; the gates
yielded and I entered. There I saw Ismâíl seated upon a throne, and a
crowd before him, with their eyes fixed upon his face. I made my
salute, looked at him, and went on.” By “heaven,” is understood the
moon; by “Ismâíl,” the body of the moon; and by “the crowd,” those
whose conditions are under the influence of the moon.
“What Muhammed said: I entered the second heaven;[137] there I saw an
Angel excelling all others; by his perfect beauty, he captivated the
admiration of the whole creation; one half of his body was of ice and
the other half of fire; and yet there was no counteraction nor enmity
between them. He saluted me, and said: ‘Be welcome! All things and
riches are thine.’” This means: it was the heaven of Mercury; and the
import of this is, that every star has a determined influence, either
auspicious or inauspicious; but Mercury acts in both ways; with an
inauspicious connection inauspiciously, with an auspicious one
auspiciously; so that one half is good and the other half bad.” The
“welcome,” and the gift of “prosperity and riches,” mean: the power of
the mind, and the multiplicity of sciences which the star bestows.
What the prophet said: “When I arrived into the third heaven,[138] I
there saw an Angel, equal to whom in excellence and beauty I had seen
none; placid and joyful, he was seated upon a throne; and a circle of
angelic effulgency was diffused about him.” This was the heaven of
Venus, and it is not necessary to comment its beauty: it denotes
gladness and festivity.
Further: “When I entered the fourth heaven,[139] I there saw an Angel,
surrounded with royal pomp, seated upon a throne of light; I made my
obeisance, to which he replied with entire haughtiness, and, from
pride and majesty, he bestowed neither word nor smile upon any body
about him. When he answered my salute, he said: ‘O Muhammed, I see all
things and riches in thee: glory and happiness to thee.’” That is,
“the fourth heaven,” the residence of “this angel,” means the sun; he
represents the conditions of kings and great personages; his “smile”
is his influence upon good fortune; and his “congratulation” signifies
his bounty for any body’s prosperity.
“In continuation: When I arrived at, and entered, the fifth
heaven,[140] I happened to have a view of hell; and I saw a black
region, and, on its borders was seated a terrific and dark Angel, who
was engaged in the business of punishing bad men.” That is “the fifth
heaven, with its angel,” signifies “Mars;” this planet denotes the
state of criminals and of blood-shedding men; and by “hell” is
understood any account and description of the conditions which are
appropriated to them.
“Moreover, When I entered the sixth heaven,[141] I saw an angel
sitting upon a throne of light, occupied with counting his prayers by
beads, and with uttering benedictions; he had wings, and curls set
with jewels, pearls, and rubies. I bowed before him, to which he
returned blessings and congratulations, and wishes of joy and
prosperity, and said: ‘I give thee perpetual blessing.’” That is, “the
sixth heaven,” and “its angel,” signifies “Jupiter;” and he relates to
persons of rectitude, abstinence and knowledge; his “wings and curls”
signify his light and rays; and his “blessings,” his auspicious
influence; for he bestows great felicity, and all sorts of good
prooceed from him.”
“To proceed: When I attained the seventh heaven,[142] I saw an angel
seated upon a throne of red rubies; not every one had access to him,
but he who approached him found a kind treatment. I made my reverence,
and he returned an answer by blessing me.” This is understood to be
“the seventh heaven,” and “that angel” was Saturn. He is averse to
greatness; but, whatever impression he makes is perfect and entire;
and when he shows favor it is greater than any other; “every one
cannot approach him:” that is, it happens seldom that one falls in
with a fortunate situation, but, if it occurs, the happy result is
such as to surpass all others.
“In sequel: When I proceeded,[143] I arrived at the heavenly mansion
of the angel Jabrííl; I saw a world full of light and splendor, and
such was the effulgency that my eyes were dazzled. To the right or
left, to whatever side I turned my looks, they met with angelic
spirits, engaged in devotion. I said: ‘O Jabrííl, who are this class
of beings?’ He answered: ‘these know of no other fixed business but
praying, counting their beads, and visiting churches.’”
“There is for him, on the other side, but one place known.”
“By the ‘eighth heaven’ is understood the heaven of the fixed stars,
and there are the constellations; “the churches” mean the twelve signs
of the zodiac; each community of them inhabits a determined side; they
do not combat each other, as the southern have no business with the
northern, and each has his fixed situation: some of the constellations
are in the zodiac, some to the south, and others to the north.
“Besides, the prophet said: I saw five mansions greater than any thing
else, which spread their shade over earth and heaven.” He denotes here
the great heaven, which in its interior incloses all the other
heavens, and is the greatest of all spaces.
Again, saying: “When I proceeded, I saw four seas, the waters of each
being of a different color,” he implies an account of essentiality,
corporeity, materiality, and exteriority; inasmuch as this account is
generally perplexing, the idea of every one being conceived in a
different way, and each way interpreted by every one.
And what the prophet said: “I saw angels much occupied with beads and
prayers and all taken up with the precious sentence, _There is no God
but one God_:” this refers to pure spirits who are free from matters
of desire, and spotless; and every man who is remote from the world,
wise, pure, and disengaged from all ties, when he separates from the
body, is transported by God Almighty to the place and mansion of
angels, and invested with everlasting beatitude. And the prophet
assimilated him with angels, because they are seats of purity and
devotion; that is, remote from corruption and perdition, and from the
disturbance of sensuality, intent upon avoiding anger, and raised to
the dignity of angels, perpetually engaged in the exploration of
secret knowledge; they likewise never look upon the nether world,
because, the body being in conjunction with mean and noble spirits,
when a person fixes his sight upon low stations, he becomes liable to
feel the attaint of necessity, and to search for expediency among
circumstances; but when he effects his separation from them, he
attains the noble perfection of himself, he becomes beatified, and
immersed in delight and tranquillity, in such a manner that he never
throws a look upon the inferior world, because, this bodily form being
taken off from him, he then, by increase of knowledge and
comprehension, acquires dignity and nobleness.
“Some are upon their knees, and some prostrate themselves.”
Some are spiritual, some praisers of God, some bent before him, some
holy, and some purified cherubim, conforming in customs, lords, and
princes.
“Still more: When I left this assembly, in my progess I arrived at a
sea without borders; howsoever I strained my sight, I could not
perceive any boundary or shore; and at this sea I saw a river, and an
angel who was pouring the seawater into the river, and from thence the
water ran to every place.” By “the sea,” he implies the first
intelligence; and by “the river,” the first spirit.
“Likewise: On the level of that sea, I perceived a great desert,
greater than which I had never seen any space, so that, in spite of my
endeavor, I found neither the beginning nor the end of it.” That is: I
could not assign a limit to what was more extensive than any thing
else, as the comprehension of a pure being belongs only to a perfect
intelligence.
“In continuance: On the level of the sea and the desert, I saw an
angel surrounded with every grandeur, splendor, and pomp, who guarded
both halves with facility; he called me to him, and having joined him,
I asked: ‘What is thy name?’ He answered: ‘_Mikáil_: I am the greatest
of all angels; whatever is difficult, ask it from me; and whatever
thou desirest, demand it from me: I will satisfy all thy wishes.’”
This means: When I had learned and considered all this, I understood
the first command. And the Angel represents what is called “the Holy
Ghost,” and is said to be “a cherub.” Whoever has access to him and
receives his assistance, evinces himself as wise, and participates in
spiritual enjoyments.
“And also: When I had set myself free from saluting and questioning, I
said: ‘To arrive at this place I experienced much trouble, and my
purpose in coming here was to attain knowledge, and the sight of God
Almighty. Grant me guidance, that I may satisfy my desire, and then
return home.’” That is: by the pure command, which is the holy word,
he wished that, as, after the study of nature, his inward sight was
opened to clear evidence, he might behold every thing such as it was;
he wished that he might find the absolute Being, the first cause, the
self-existing necessary Being, the supreme good; and that he might
know his unity so that in him multiplicity cannot exist.[144]
“What the prophet further said: That angel took me by the hand,[145]
and gave me a passage through several thousand curtains into a world,
where I saw nothing like what I had seen before, until he brought me
at last near the Lord of glory; then the command came to me:
‘Approach.’”[146] This means: that the holy God is exempt from body,
substance, and wants, which are found in this world.
“Again: In that majesty I immersed my sense and motion, and found
entire relaxation, contentment and tranquillity.” That is: I acquired
such a knowledge of his purity and of his beneficence, as no living
being can comprehend with his sense: for he may have a clear
perception of bodies, and observe forms and images; a substance
_endowed with_ a memorial intelligence conceives ideas; but the
self-existent, necessary Being is out of this category, and cannot be
understood by sense, imagination, and memorial power; in his majesty
there is no motion, because motion is a change of existence; but the
self-existent necessary Being is such as to be the mover of all
things.
“The prophet said further: From fear of the Lord I forgot all things I
had seen and known before, and I felt such an exaltation, inspiration,
and inward delight, that thou wouldst have said: ‘I am intoxicated.’”
That is: When my intelligence found access to the knowledge of unity,
I considered and investigated the parts, and from this study the
rational soul derived such enjoyment, that all the powers of
brutishness and nature desisted from their action, and such an
immersion into unity manifested itself, that there remained no
consideration for the science relative to substance and bodies.
“Again: I felt some impressions of God’s proximity, so that I was
seized with trembling; and I heard the command: ‘Proceed,’ and I
proceeded. Then came the word: ‘Fear not nor be disquieted.’” This
means: When I was initiated in the mystery of unity, I learned that
the self-existent necessary Being is without the divisions of this
world; I trembled at the boldness of my journey, which had attained
such a height and distance; and I apprehended failing in the proof of
the unity; but I heard the words: “Come nearer;” that is: dismiss thy
pondering, fear, and terror; for such is the proper state of a
believer in the unity of God, to be continually immersed in a
spiritual ecstacy, so that he may never fall back into the disgrace of
brutishness, and fear and hope belong to the state of brutishness.
“Moreover: I drew nearer, and upon me came the blessing of the Lord,
such as I never had heard before;” that is: I received the revelation,
the true words of the self-existent, necessary Being: and his speech
is not like that of creatures by letters and sounds; no! his speech is
evidence of knowledge, by itself pure, communicating to the spirit
what he wills in a universal not a particular way.
“Further: The command came: ‘Say thy prayer:’ I replied: I cannot; for
thou art thyself such as thou hast said.” This means: When he was able
to perceive the excellence of the belief in the unity of God, he found
the truth of the words of the self-existing necessary Being; he then
felt such delight as he had never experienced before; he knew that the
self-existing necessary Being is worthy of all prayers, but he felt at
the same time that he could not express his prayers with the tongue,
because an arrangement of letters is required for every thing which
falls from the tongue, but that which has no connection except that of
parts and the whole, is not suitable to the true, necessary, and
self-existing Being, as he is not conceivable, either in parts or in a
whole. The prophet knew that his prayer could not properly come from
the tongue, as it is no business of the senses, but belongs properly
to reason; but reason knew that an object highly deserving to be
praised requires a praiser worthy of it, one whose knowledge may be
adequate to the power of the being to be praised, so that the speech
may prove suitable to the intention. The self-existent necessary Being
is an object of unity without an equal, therefore the praise of any
one will never be worthy of him. Besides, the prophet trusted also to
God’s knowledge, for he is all knowledge, and the knowledge of him is
the theme of prayers to his being without letters and sound, and not
by reason: he himself is his own ornament; he himself is his
eloquence.
What the prophet further said: “The word came to me: ‘What dost thou
wish?’ I said: ‘Leave to ask whatever comes into my mind, so that my
difficulties may be removed.’” This means: that when God asked: “What
dost thou wish,” and I said “leave,” it was knowledge I wished:
because in this journey no other consideration but that of pure reason
had remained, which was to approach the majesty of the self-existent
Being, and to understand his unity, which cannot be obtained but by
the gift of knowledge. The prophet wished to be rendered worthy of
him, and by full knowledge to acquire the dignity required, that he
might then exhibit every difficulty that occurred, and receive a
categorical answer. For the guidance of mankind, he composed the rules
of the law in words which came suitably to the ears of men, so that at
the same time the meaning of them was fixed, and the veil of advice
remained upon such things as are not required _to be known_; what
proved also an assistance to that knowledge, was the journey,
consequently to which the law was given, and the account of which was
drawn up for publication in such a manner, that the sense of it was
obvious to none but to the investigators of truth.
The prophet also said: “When I had performed all this, and returned
home, on account of the rapidity of my journey, I found the
bed-clothes still warm.” That is: he performed a journey of
reflection, and travelled with his mind; the purpose of this voyage
was, by the consideration of the created beings to attain at the
self-existent necessary Being; and when he had completed his mental
task, he returned back into himself; he needed not a day for this
business, but in less than in the twinkling of an eye recovered his
former state; whoever knows, understands why he went; and whoever
knows not, looks in vain for an expedient. It is not right to
communicate these words to an ignorant or low person, because the
enlightened alone can enjoy this fruit.”
So far the words of the example of the wise, the Shaikh Abú-âlí Sína.
In the book of the investigators of truth is to be found, and from the
tongue of the intelligent the information has been received, that the
moon is one of the archangels, and cherubim of God. Being a celestial
body, he cannot be cleft, and the supremacy of his power is not
subject to absurd changes of form, nor does he undergo them.
Conseqently, the fissure of the moon, which is mentioned in the Koran,
is an evident allegory, the sense of which is obvious; because every
star and sphere has an internal foundation, called “reason,” so that
of the moon among all bears the title of “superior wisdom.” It is also
established in the fundamentals of the philosophers among this sect,
that the utmost dignity and perfection of man, attributable to
corporeity, is that which unites and coalesces into one, “with
superior wisdom;” whoever attains that degree, comprehends also any
other to which he may proceed, without any new study for it; and no
degree of human perfection and no knowledge is excluded from it.
Hence, whenever this matter is understood, the fissure of the moon
typifies nothing else but renunciation of the external for the
internal, which is the “superior wisdom.” As the lord prophet (the
peace of God be upon him!) is the master of the lunar sphere, to
cleave (or divide) the moon means to attain to the innermost recess of
the moon. But this creed belongs to the learned of the _Masháyin_,
“peripatetics;” the _Ishrákían_ say, the true solution of this enigma
is contained in their fundamental science; viz.: light is the type of
the primitive creation of the world, and they divided whatever is
contained in it, in two parts: the first is a light, in which there is
not the least mixture of obscurity and darkness, proper to corporeal
matter; the second sort of light can be mixed with some material
darkness. The first sort of light, pure in a general and real
acceptation, originates from primitive matter, and, according to their
showing, emerged absolutely free from parts; but the second sort of
light is mixed with obscurity, and throws rays on all sides; its
knowledge can be comprehended by generalities and particularities,
whence by its power it passes into action. In their metaphysics it is
also settled, that the furthermost stretch and connection of beings,
and the utmost term of completion, consist in this, that knowledge,
may become manifest in the whole by generalities and particularities,
so that nothing may remain deficient in any degree of power. Whenever
this matter is settled, then the moon in their language signifies a
mixed light, with this property, that it brings into action all the
knowledge hidden in its efficacy, and by means of the reflection of
rays elicits perfection.
Whoever is well founded in these notions acquires the faculty that all
sciences, whatsoever they may be, come forth from him. It is then the
moon which signifies mixed light, and the rending asunder of it means
the arising of sciences and excellence, and their manifestation; that
is, bringing forth all that is within, by means of breaking its
exterior form.
As to fixing the seal of the prophetic office, and to completing the
apostleship, so that after the prophet of Arabia no other may appear,
they said what follows: The seal of the prophetic office means the
acquisition of _âkl fâal_, “superior wisdom;” that is: whoever obtains
it, and makes the proper use of it, possesses the seal of the
prophetic office: because the first prophetic dignity is his
intelligence, which is the _real (intrinsic) Adam_, “man.” The
prophetic seal is the tenth rank of intelligences,[147] and that which
is reared up by superior wisdom renders the prophet’s knowledge vain,
and takes his color: that is to say, if one hundred thousand prophets
like himself realise in themselves the person of superior wisdom, they
are possessors of the seal, the last prophets, because it is superior
wisdom, which is the seal, and they know themselves to be _mahu_,
“effaced,” and superior wisdom to be existing.
But the Ashrákían say, that the first prophet is the majesty of the
_cherubic light_, that is the first intelligence, and _the possessor
of the prophetic seal_ is the Lord God of the human race, that is, the
intelligence which legislates the human race. Further, whoever found
grace with the Lord of mankind, and became his near attendant, his
_Káim makám_, “vice-regent,” although the authority of such a person
be vain by itself _as delegate_, yet he, too, is called _the possessor
of the prophetic seal_ (the last prophet): so, as Azizi said:
“From head to foot, my person became my friend: hence, if I
wish
To see the friend, I place the mirror before me.”
Kásam Khan said:
“I will in such a manner make myself one with thee, that if
one day
Thou seekest thyself, thou mayest find me within thy tunic.”
As to the interpretation of what they say, that the prophet had no
shade――this refers to an able son: as after Muhammed (the peace of the
Highest be upon him!) the prophetic mission did not devolve upon a son
of his: hence the saying that he had no shade. It is also said, that
never a fly sat upon the body of the prophet; which means that he
never was tainted by avarice.
[126] معجزة, _mâjezet_, is an extraordinary thing, operated
by prophets for the confirmation of their prophecy.
[127] كرامة, _kerámet_, signifies a prodigy, or sign,
manifested by any pious person without his claiming
prophetic dignity.――(See Pococke, _Specim. Hist. Arab._, p.
186. 1st edit.)
The Asiatic Doctors admit that extraordinary things may be
operated by men who pretend to be _deities_, _prophets_,
_Valis_ (Saints, of whom more hereafter), and _magicians_,
who are supposed to command demons. Thus they quote Pharaoh,
who arrogated divinity to himself, and performed miracles,
and thus it shall be with the Antichrist. Celestial favors
granted to Valis are believed by the orthodox Muhammedans,
upon the strength of the Koran and authentic traditions. To
these are added innumerable tales accredited among the
superstitious, some of which are ingeniously combined with a
moral lesson. Jâmi, in his _Lives of Sufis_, quotes the
following words of another illustrious personage, whom he
does not name: “The principle on which all is comprised is,
that, when a man performs an extraordinary action,
renouncing something which other men are wont to do, or
which he himself was wont to do, God also, on his part, by a
sort of compensation, changes, in that man’s favor,
something in the ordinary course of nature. It is that which
the vulgar call _Kerámet_. But distinguished men understand
by this word the divine favor which gave a man aid and force
to renounce the things to which he was accustomed. This is
what we understand by _Keramet_.” This explanation differs
from that given above. The whole doctrine relative to this
subject is united with that of Sufism, which is hereafter to
be developed.――(See _Notices et Extraits des MSS._, vol.
XII. pp. 357-369.)
[128] الهام, _ilhám_, means what is thrown in a man’s mind
by way of _emanation_, or with the exclusion of diabolical
suggestions; that is, not by way of thought and reflection.
It is also explained, a knowledge which rises in a man’s
heart and excites him to action without his demanding a
prodigy, or the investigation of a proof for believing the
truth of what is so revealed to him.――(See _Definitions of
Jorjáni, Ext. et Not. des MSS._, vol. X. pp. 76-77.)
[129] Avisenna. (See, upon this celebrated personage, vol.
II. pp. 168-175.) He and Al Fárábi, before-mentioned (p.
170, note 1) are, according to the concurring opinions of
the Arabs, the most distinguished chiefs of the Arabian
philosophers, properly so called. The logic of Avisenna has
been translated by Vattier, 1658.
[130] The ascent of Muhammed to Heaven has been mentioned
(vol. II. p. 339). The prophet gave no explicit account of
it in the Koran, yet traditions of what he himself had
related of it, although not without various versions, are
preserved, and believed with equal faith as the verses of
the sacred book themselves, in which frequent allusions
occur to the circumstances and events of which Muhammed’s
voyage to Heaven is composed. These, indeed, however absurd
they may appear to unbelievers, contain the fundamentals of
the Muhammedan mysticism. On account of this importance, I
shall add to the notice given above, by Avisenna, some
particulars contained in the narration published from
original sources by the Baron of Hammer Purgstal
_Gemäldesaal moslimischer Heersher. III^{ter} Band. 1837,
Seite 81, etc._)
[131] Muhammed was sleeping in the house of Omm Hani, the
daughter of Abu Thaleb, in the sanctuary of the Kâba, when
Jabríl awakened him; the angel called Mikail to bring him a
cup full of water from the sacred well Zemzem (see vol. III.
pp. 14-15. note 1). Jabríl cleft Muhammed’s breast, drew his
heart out, washed it, and, with three cups from the sacred
fountain, infused into him faith, knowledge, and wisdom. He
then conducted him out of the sanctuary to a place between
Safa and Merva, where he made the prophet bestride Borak
(see vol. II. p. 339), which, as the Angel said, was mounted
by Abraham.
[132] The ride proceeded to Jerusalem; a troop of Angels
surrounded them on all sides. On the way Muhammed was called
to successively by two men, the one of whom was a Jew, the
other a Christian, and by a seductive female; the prophet
did not stop at the voice of either.
[133] This obscure passage appears to allude to a glose
found in the Desátir, English transl., p. 183. After having
said that there are four elements, the Commentator subjoins:
“The water is of the shape of a ball, the half of which
being broken, is filled with water, so that the water and
earth together compose one ball. And as the elements
penetrate into and affect each other, a sort of middle
nature is produced, which is called _constitution_ or
_temperament_. If a body that is united with a temperament
has the probability of subsisting for a protracted time, and
of retaining its compound substance, it is called
‘permanent,’ or ‘perfect;’ if not, ‘imperfect,’ or ‘wanting
permanence.’”――Lower down: “And there can be no temperament
so equalised that the elements in it should be exactly of
the same quantity and mode. And in proportion as a
temperament more nearly approaches equality, the soul
bestowed on it by the Originator of being is more perfect.”
[134] In the temple of Jerusalem, Muhammed was saluted by
choirs of angels and prophets, as the first of interceders
before God, the last of prophets, and as one who will
assemble the people on the day of judgment.
[135] From the temple, the prophet was conducted by Jabrííl
to the rock upon which Abraham was ready to sacrifice his
son Isaac. From them rose a ladder to heaven; not only were
the steps alternately of gold and silver, but also, on one
side shone edifices of emerald, and on the other palaces of
ruby.
[136] Here Jabrííl took Muhammed upon his wings and flew
with him to the gate of Paradise, which was guarded by a
legion of Angels. In the first heaven he saluted Adam, who
sat between two gates, and was looking now to the right, now
to the left; when to the right, he laughed, when to the
left, he wept; for the right hand led to heaven, the left to
hell: the first father’s joy or sadness followed his
children going to either side.
[137] In the second heaven, Muhammed saw Jesus and St. John
at his side. They returned his salute.
[138] In the third heaven was Joseph, the ideal of beauty.
[139] In the fourth heaven was Idris (Enoch).
[140] In the fifth heaven resided Aaron.
[141] In the sixth heaven appeared Moses.
[142] In the seventh heaven, Muhammed saluted Abraham, as he
saluted the holy persons before-named, who returned his
salute.
[143] Jabrííl then conducted Muhammed to his own usual
residence. There was the heavenly lotus tree (the tree of
knowledge), around which a divine light was diffused, and
legions of angels were ranged. Beneath the roots of the tree
four sources were flowing: the first, _Kawser_, spirituous,
like wine; the second, _Selsebil_, sweet, like clarified
honey; the third, _the source of mildness_, like the purest
milk; and the fourth, _the source of mercy_, like liquid
crystal. Jabrííl offered to the prophet three cups, made of
diamond, saphir, and ruby; the first filled with honey, the
second with milk, the third with wine. The prophet tasted
the first, drank the second, and declined the third, in
which he was approved by the angel.
[144] I followed here the manuscript of Oude, which reads: و
شناسد وحدت او چنانکہ دروی کثرت نکنجد
[145] From the mansion of Jabrííl they proceeded to the
heavenly tabernacle, called _baitúl mâmur_, “the house of
delightful culture,” and formed upon the model of the
ancient Kâba, which, during the deluge, was carried by
angels up to heaven and placed perpendicularly above the
modern sanctuary of Mecca. Seventy thousand angels were
always going out and in to worship. In entering it, Jabrííl
gave the precedence to the prophet; they arrived at a golden
veil, which the angel touched. Here the Angels sang: “There
is no God but God; and from behind the veil the voice of God
answered: “I am God, and no God exists but me.” The Angels
added: “Muhammed is the prophet of God;” and God confirmed
it by the words: “My servants say the truth; I have sent
Muhammed as my apostle.” Now, Muhammed was raised up by
angelic hands; Jabrííl remained behind. The prophet
proceeded through seventy thousand veils of light and
darkness; each veil had the opacity of a thousand years, and
as many years separated the one from the other.
[146] Now he had attained the green rail with green
cushions, illumed with a green light clearer than that of
the sun. Muhammed was then called to approach; he adored;
saw the Lord in the most beauteous form; and received the
revelation of the Koran; before all three objects: 1. the
five daily prayers; 2. the final verses of the second Sura
of the Koran; 3. forgiveness of all sins, except that of
idolatry, for his people. Here the Almighty pronounced the
words: “If it had not been for thee, the world would never
have been created.”――(See vol. I. pp. 2-3). A drop flowed
from the throne into the mouth of the prophet, who by it
imbibed all the knowledge of the anterior and posterior
world. All the Angels joined in a chorus, singing: “There is
no God but one God, and Muhammed is his prophet;” and the
great concert terminated with the words of the Koran, (chap.
II. v. 285): “The Apostle believeth in that which has been
sent down unto him from his Lord, and the faithful also.
Every one of them believeth in God and his Angels, and his
Scriptures, and his Apostles. And they say: ‘We have heard
and do obey; we implore thy mercy, O Lord! for unto thee
must we return.’”
[147] See page 143 of this volume.
SECTION III.――OF THE SUCCESSORS OF THESE PHILOSOPHERS, AND THE CHIEF
FOLLOWERS OF THIS CREED.
Of this class, several learned men were personally known to the author
of this book, but he will give an account of those only who were well
founded and skilled in this creed. First, the doctor in theology,
Hírbed, whom the author visited in Lahore. This doctor was a
descendant from the family of Zardúsht, the prophet of God; he was
conversant with Persian, showed great proficiency in Arabic, and in
other sciences, in Shiraz, and held intercourse with learned Frangis.
At last he came to India; always devoted to austerity, he led a pure
and holy life. He composed hymns in Persian, Hindi, and Arabic, to the
majesty of the light of lights, the powerful luminaries, and the
stars. He acknowledged as a Kiblah the splendor-shedding bodies, and
made his own, in spirit and word, the work of the lord Shaikh Maktul.
Secondly, the doctor Manír was met by the writer of this work, in the
year of the Hejira 1053 (A. D. 1643-4), in Kabul; he was one of the
Sáíds of Shiraz, but entered the elemental world in Irâk Ajem; he was
skilful in sciences, and lived as a chaste independent and pious man;
like Hirbed, he abstained from all sorts of animal food, and sang the
hymns which go under the name of Shaikh Maktul, in praise of the
luminaries, and venerated the stars; and both these persons paid
homage with the sun, refulgent with light. The third was _Hakím
dostúr_, who in 1054 of the Hejira (A. D. 1644-5) came to Lahore. He
drew his origin from Ispáhan, but was born in Balkh; he studied in the
service of the followers of Mulla Mírza Khan; then, having gone to
Iran, he held intercourse with Mír Muhammed Báker dámád, with Shaikh
Baháv-ed-din Muhammed, with Mír Abúl Kásem Kandersaki, and with other
learned men and Ulamá of Shiraz, not without great profit to himself;
he attached himself to the rule of the _Masháyín_, “peripatetics,” and
repeated the prayers which were written by the chief of this
persuasion in praise of the self-existent Being, the intelligences,
and spirits, and stars; and he was very zealously addicted to the
worship of the heavenly bodies; although without pious austerity, yet
he abstained from wickedness, and kept the way of moderation;
according to the custom of merchants, he travelled a great deal. A
fourth was _Kámrán_, of Shíraz. He also followed the creed of the
Masháyín; he possessed the natural and revealed sciences; and after
having acquired excellence, he happened to find himself at the
mountain which is near the sea-ports of the Frangis; he took a great
liking to their society, and was attracted by the religion of the
Nasáreans: on that account he studied the Gospel, and derived great
profit from their doctrines. Afterwards he went to India, where he
contracted friendship with some Rájas; he became fond of their
religion; read, with learned Brahmans, the sástras of the Hindús, that
is, their scientific books, and in these also he became a master of
art among the learned of India. Although ostensibly he adopted the
said faith, yet he remained attached to the religion of the ancient
philosophers. He showed great aversion to lying, thieving, debauchery,
and unnatural love; and, according to the custom of the wise, forbore
from killing animals; but now and then he indulged in a draught of
wine, saying that it is very salutary. He was wont to sing hymns,
which are in use among the Yúnian philosophers, and are now
translated, in praise of God, the high intelligences and spirits, and
the stars. He accepted no gift from any body; he was employed in
trade, but he contented himself with a competent capital. Mír Abú ’l
Kásem Kandarsakí called him “a brother dear as life,” nay, wrote to
him as to an “elder brother.” In the year of the Hejira 1050 (A. D.
1640-1) he retired to solitude at the _Serai Fargh_, “the fortunate
palace,” near the heaven-built town of _Akbarabad_. It is said that,
in his malady, he bestowed all he possessed in gift upon the
Durvishes, and the ready money upon the Brahmans of Vichnu, and the
like, who never hurt a living being. He delivered garments into the
care of one named Muhammed, that this man might distribute them among
the poor upon the road of Kachmir and Kabul, where the cold is severe,
which Muhammed did; he there collected forage and provisions, which
were given to cows, asses, to travellers, and the indigent, because
they carry loads; he also confided scientific books to one called
Húshíar, that he might give them to doctors devoted to science, and
Húshíar so disposed in Agra of the works which he had received, and
sent them to his friends. During his mortal malady he was constantly
engaged in reading the _Alhíyát shafá_, “the hymns of recovery,” and
in translating the _Asúlújía_,[148] “Theologia,” and he sang
cheerfully: “I believe in the divinity of the most high Creator, the
prophecy of intelligence, the Imámet of the spirit, the heaven as a
Kiblah, and the liberation of philosophy, and I detest the
free-thinkers, and other religions.” At the moment of death, he
pronounced the names of the self-existent Being, of the intelligence
and spirit, and of the stars, and the by-standers also joined him in
chorus, until he had left the mortal garment. His life exceeded one
hundred years, and he had preserved his strength and his faculties
entire. He gave these directions to Húshíar, that after death to be
burnt would be preferable, but, if the people prevented it, Húshíar
should bury him with his feet to the West, as all distinguished
personages, such as Aristotle and his followers, repose in the same
way. Húshíar executed his will, and also, according to his direction,
burnt at the head of his tomb, during a whole week, every day and
every night, a lamp to the honor of the star which at that time ruled
over him, and distributed the food and raiment which are appropriated
to that star among the Brahmans and necessitous, who all prayed to
render the star propitious, in order that the soul of Hakím Kámrán
might be united with the pure spirits. Húshíar went afterwards to
Agra, and I saw a book in the hand-writing of Húshíár, in which was
stated, that he, after Kámrán’s death, saw him in a dream clothed in a
fine garment, and sitting by the side of the lord _Mashterí_,
“Jupiter.” Húshíar asked him: “How camest thou to this place?” He
answered: “The pure spirits, when they saw me free from worldly
desires, drew me to them, and by the aid of their intercession, I was
made one of the angels.”
The creed of the Hakíms Hírbed and Manír, with regard to the reality
of inspired persons, was, that these celebrated men were perfect
sages, and masters of an excellent condition; by their words and deeds
they reached the state of perfection, on which account they treated
mysterious questions relative to theoretical and practical wisdom with
the confidence of pure truth; but for the sake of the vulgar, they
used a typical and allegorical language, leaving it to other sages,
the able chiefs and saints of their persuasion, to explain the law and
the religion: this is the creed of philosophers.
The prophets of Persia, such as Abád, Zardusht, and the like, are
called _Vakhshúr_; the apostles of the _Yonán_ and of Rome are _Aghásá
daimún_ (Agatho demon);[149] _Hermes_, and the like, whom they name
“possessors of fame;” the prophets of the Hindus, such as Ráma,
Krishna, and the like, are entitled _Ava társ_; and the prophets of
the Turks, such as _Aghríres_ and _Aghúrkhan_, are distinguished by
the name of _Abulmas_. The prophets of Islám, from Adam, the father of
mankind, to Muhammed, are called _resul_. In like manner the prophets
of other nations were distinguished by titles such as _buzerg_,
“great,” or _sádik_, “pure.” They said: it is right that no other
prophet should come after the one: which is signified by the _seal of
the prophetic mission_, that is, “the utmost dignity of mankind.” _Ibn
Makanâ Sáheb-i-Mah Kashgher_,[150] also was reckoned among the
prophets, and such was the controversy which arose about the
head-khaláfet, the distinction, precedence, and rejection of the lords
among each other, that it has not yet been brought to a satisfactory
conclusion. They said that there were four celebrated doctors; if a
controversy arose, this is nothing less than what is proper to
mankind, as no man can be free from the attributes of his race; on
that account they abstained from reviling the case of Môávíah, but
they said that he was a great personage. But the creed of the Hakím
Dostur was, that the prophets of the Persians, Hindus, Yonans, Turks,
and Arabs, and such people, were promoting the establishment of a sort
of knowledge and of some sorts of sciences; the philosophers, exerting
themselves by the aid of the reasoning faculty, become founders of
theoretical schools, and also lend their assistance with respect to
theology. The scope of an _Hakím_ is, that his reason may direct its
laborious efforts towards all quarters, and, inasmuch as may be in its
power, to bear a resemblance to the Lord God, the self-existent Being.
The utmost endeavor of the prophets is, that the order of the world
may be evident to them, so that they may, according to this order,
arrange the affairs of society. But this order of affairs cannot be
exempt from the excitement of desire, terror, and dubiousness;
although, certainly, whatever the masters of law and religion have
combined into a system, may be explained by what certain eminent
philosophers have exhibited. Among other things it is said, that the
world is very ancient, and its eternity without beginning and end
indubitable. In the sequel, a learned Hakím raises pretensions to
inspiration, excites others to the adoption of a creed which he
endeavors to render firm. But Hakím Kámzán assented to no inspiration,
he said:――In ancient times, sages established customs and regulations
for the order of the world, and, as long as the inhabitants conformed
to them, there was not the least oppression in their doings; until
finally they collected into a nation, worshipping pleasure and bent
upon worldliness; then arose concealment of truth from the people,
union by the strength of parentage, combination by fraud, and
enveigling by means of enchantment and the like, by which idiots were
drawn into a net. When those who implored protection were seized by
the oppressors, helpless, the prudent among them bent down their
heads; because when the strong become masters of the day, men submit
to them on account of their being superior to the weak people, who
have timid souls; thus they accepted their dominion by force, and
contention ensued in the world. Moises was held to be an enchanter,
and called _rabí Moises_; rabí being the name given by the Jews to the
learned; Jesus was accounted a physician, and entitled _Hakím Jesus_,
son of Joseph, the carpenter; Muhammed bore the name of “the prophet
of God, the king of the Arabian poets;”[151] Krishna went under the
name of _Avátar chahnál_,[152] that is, the “incarnation of the lewd,
and devoted to women.” And thus the celebrated prophets were
distinguished. The intelligent know well that the most high Creator
does not articulate words, but the sacred dictates which the vulgar
receive are to be thus considered――that, if those books which they
call “heavenly,” such as the Koran, were really the words of God,
which were delivered in time past to our ancestors, such as to Adam
and Noah, it would be right that they should be also communicated in
time to come to future generations, expressing, viz.: that in such a
time and year, and month and week, on such a day, at such an hour, a
person shall appear, in such a town and such a street, tribe sprung
from such a one, with such a name, and such an aspect. But such an
account is not to be found in the Koran; it is only by the
interpretation of his followers that many traditions about Muhammed
are current. The same may be said of other prophets. For if it were
stated in the book of Jesus, that at the determined time, as we have
just shown, there shall appear a person whose name in Arabia shall be
Muhammed, sprung from the father Abd ’ulla and the mother Amíná, from
the children Hashem and Korésh, inhabitants of Mecca; and he shall be
the last prophet of the age; all the Christians should acknowledge and
believe in him. And in the same manner there should have been, in the
book of Moses, a prediction of Jesus, and a further account of events
which took place at his appearance. But this is not the case, except
that the followers of Jesus seize, in figurative language, on whatever
may suit their persuasion. Thus it happened that one of the Afgháns
applied the words: “Say, there is but one God,” to himself.
He further said: “If I agree to their prophetic mission, whence was it
shown that this people were prophets? for, if pursuant to their claim
to prophetic office and legislation, we adopt what at every time is
held out as legal, why are their fundamental articles of faith in
contradiction to each other with respect to the knowledge of the
self-existent Being? Thus, in the Pentateuch of the Jews, God has a
body, and corporeity; and the Christians believe Jesus a son of God,
and the Muhammedans according to the Koran believe God to be without
an equal, and not to be described. If God be similar to what he is
represented in all these books, he is not unlike a man who does not
know himself, and at each time gives an account of himself, which he
varies, and of which he repents. If they say, the real sense is the
same, the figurative expression and interpretation only change, it is
not less evident, that the books and the prophets have been sent for
the purpose of leading men to God, and not to instigate them to rebel;
or, after having proclaimed his word, to combat each other by
controversy. He commands the sacrifice of their blood and property for
the common good. And if they say, the servants cannot disagree about
the knowledge of God, why then is it written in the books that they
must know him in that, and in no other way? and why do we perceive
such a contradiction in the deeds, and frequently in the words, of the
celebrated prophets? The intelligent man can no longer recognise them
by their noble actions.
Somebody said to the Hakím Kámrán: “Give me in substance the belief of
the Sonnites and the Shíâhs.” He replied: “The creed of the Sonnites
is, after the praise of God the most high, and the attributes of the
prophet, blessing and mercy of God upon all transgressors and sinners,
men, and women; and the creed of the Shíâhs is after the praise of
God, and the attributes of the prophet, the curse of God upon all
believers, men and women; and Muselmans, men and women.” And he had
much to say about this subject.
_Abu ’l Hassan Taheraní_, surnamed _Isfahán_, son of _Gháib báig_,
surnamed _Iâtimad eddoulah_, became a follower of Kámrán, by the
persuasion of the friends of the latter, as the author of this book
perceived in a letter, written by _Rafiâ ’l Kader_ to Hakím Kámrán, in
which the former declared himself the disciple of Kámrán, whom he
called his master, and addressed in a suitable style. Thus was also
Zemán Baig born, in Arghún, his father, a native of Kabul, was
surnamed Mahábet Khán, who, by his gravity, bravery, and wisdom,
acquired a high rank among the Omras of the Indian Sultans. He was in
a friendly connection with Kámrán, and in the letters which the mighty
khan wrote to Hakím Kámrán, he showed him great respect, and professed
himself his disciple. It is said that, at a banquet, Mahábet Khan
declared the saying of the prophetic asylum――
“I was a prophet, and Adam in water and mud――”
to be without sense. Further, whoever acknowledges the prophetic
mission of Muhammed accounts it to begin after the prophet’s fortieth
year, and whoever does not acknowledge it, is free in this opinion.
Muhammed said: “_I was a prophet, and Adam in water and mud._” Kámrán
went seldom into the houses of this sect, and kept himself at a
distance from them. When, yielding to a thousand entreaties, he
visited them, he changed his usual dress, sat only a moment with them,
and rose immediately; he never ate with them, nor accepted he any
thing from one of this sect. When asked upon his keeping himself at a
distance from them, he said: “The spirit of brutishness and savagery
holds its mastership over you, and I cannot always associate with
brutes and beasts of prey.” He remained even a long time without
seeing them. But _Abd ul rasul_ frequented him, and, conformably to
Kámrán’s advice, detached himself from worldly desires, and crushed
anger and lust in his mind. On that account Hakím Kámrán, having
conceived friendship for him, taught him first the rules of grammar
and etymology, then the _Sherah Shamsíyah_, “Commentary upon
Shamsiyah;”[153] besides the physiological part of the Commentary upon
_Hedáyah al hikmet_, “the Guide to Science,” composed by _Hossain_,
son of _Mâyin eddin Maibedí_;[154] further, matters relating to the
Commentary upon _Hikmet al âin_, “the Science of what is
“essential,”[155] and afterwards the Commentary upon _Tajeríd_,[156]
“Divestment of what is accessory,” with marginal notes; also the
physiological part of the Commentary upon _Isháret_,[157] “Indications
(allegorical, symbolical, and others);” and, finally, the _Ilahyat
shafa_, “the Hymns of Recovery.” Thus also, Mulla Yacúb read with him
the _Taherir_, “Writings” of Euclid, and a Commentary upon
_Tazkerah_,[158] “Commemoration;” and was attached to him. Likewise
Mír Sheríf, having read the _Mutavel_,[159] “Development,” and the
_Tafsir_, “Explanation,” of Baízavi,[160] resolved to follow his
school; and, what is more astonishing, Mulla Usám read with him the
illustrations and demonstrations which are in the fundamentals of
Hanifa’s religious law, and adopted his faith. But Mulla Sultan,
although he acknowledged his high rank of excellence, never adhered to
him. And Hakím Kámrán said: “What is not understood, becomes a subject
of dispute.” Thus Mulla Sultán followed with intense application the
study of the soul, and the chain of demonstrations relative to it, but
he said: “I am not able to understand its nature, and am, in that
respect, like a parrot.” Among the able disciples of Hakím Kámrán was
Hakím Mershed, who passed through all degrees of science before him,
and possessed his entire confidence.[161] Hakím Kámrán was wont at
that time, when he gave lessons of science, to wash his head, hands,
and feet, to burn sweet perfumes, and to turn his face towards the
sun, in which his disciples imitated him. He did not confer his
instruction upon every body, but refused it to the depraved, the
oppressors, and the voluptuous; nor did he hold intercourse with low
persons.
[148] اسو لوجي is supposed to be one of Aristotle’s works,
which is said to have been translated by _Abenama_, a
Saracen, from Greek into Arabic. This translation was found
in the library of Damascus, by _Franciscus Roseus_, and at
his request rendered into Latin, by _Moses Koras_, a Jew,
but in a very barbarous style. This interpretation has
perhaps never been published. Soon after, or about the same
time, _Petrus Nicolaus ex Castellaneis Faventinus_, a
medical man and philosopher, translated the same work from
Arabic into Latin; this new version was published with a
dedication to Leo X., in 1718, by the above-said Franciscus
Roseus. As it did not appear a sufficiently neat
composition, _Jacobus Carpentarius Claromontanus
Bellovacus_, a Parisian philosopher, who was ignorant of
Arabic, published, in 1571, an emendated edition, or rather
a meta-phrase of this work, under the title: _Aristotelis
libri XIV de secretiore parte divinæ sapientiæ secundum
Ægyptios_. Some preferred to the latter the more exact
although less elegant version of Petrus Nicolaus, new
editions of which appeared in 1591 and 1593――(see upon this
subject the _Bibliotheca Græca_ of _Fabricius_, edit. of
Harles, vol. III. pp. 278-279, and the preface of the
edition of Carpentarius). The Arabic text of the work is in
the Royal library of Paris, under the title ثيو لوجيا.
[149] See pp. 105-106.
[150] See pp. 3 and 80.
[151] ملک اشعرای عرب. This is not quite correct: Muhammed
introduces in his Koran (ch. XXXVI. v. 69) the Lord saying:
“We have not taught Muhammed the art of poetry; nor is it
expedient for him to be a poet. This book is no other than
an admonition from God, and a perspicuous Koran.” The
Arabian prophet, according to the best accounts, liked to
hear poetry read, but never perused any himself, although he
frequently spoke in the metre called رجز _rijez_. The only
Arabic verse which he often repeated was the celebrated one
from the poem of Lebid:
_Is not every thing, except God vain?_
Aisha, his favorite consort, declares in the traditions,
that he hated verses, and never recited one correctly. One
day he attempted to quote the known verse of an Arabian
poet:
_The days bring to thee news that thou dost not know;
And some man brings news the spirit of which he doth not
understand._
But he altered somewhat the order of the last words.
“Prophet of God!” said Abu bekr, “the verse runs not so.”
Muhammed answered: “I am no poet.”――(_Gemäldesaal Mosl.
Herrscher, I^{ter} Band, Seite 230._)
[152] छलन _chhalana_, “tricking, deceiving.”
[153] _Shamsiyah_, “the sun’s course, ecliptic,” is the
title of a treatise composed upon logic by _Nagmeddin Ali
Ben Omar al Kazvíní_, who was a disciple of Nusir-eddin
al-Túsí. The said work is dedicated to _Khogiah Shams-eddîn
Muhammed_, perhaps one of the twelve princes called
_Sarbedarian_, who reigned thirty-five years in the town of
_Sebzvar_, in Khorassan, and in other places which they had
conquered.――(Herbelot.)
[154] _Maibed_ is a town of Persia, the native place of
_Kází Mir Hossaín Ibn Mâyin eddin_, above-mentioned. He is
one of the commentators of the work above quoted, which is
divided into three parts, comprising logic, physiology, and
theology, and was composed by the Shaikh _Asir eddin
Mifazzel_, son of _Omar al Abheri_. The author died in the
year of the Hejira 660 (A. D. 1261).
[155] The author of _Hikmet al âin_ was _Najem eddin Abu ’l
Hassan Ali_, son of _Muhammed_, surnamed _Dabiran al Katebí
al Kazvíni_. He was a disciple of the celebrated Nasir-eddin
Tusi, and died in the year of the Hejira 675 (A. D. 1276).
[156] We find, in the Bibliographical Dictionary of _Haji
Khalfa_, several titles of books beginning by the word
_Tajerid_.
[157] There exists a work entitled _Isháret_, composed by
_Asir-eddin Mifazzel_, before-mentioned.
[158] The _Tazkerah_ was written by Nasir-eddin Tusi.
[159] The _Mutavel_ denotes a Commentary, the author of
which is _Sâad-eddin Taftarani_ (or “Tagtarani,” according
to Herbelot), upon the work _Meftah al alúm_, “the Key of
Sciences,” and which is entitled _Talkhís al Meftah_,
“Explanation of the Key.”
[160] Baizaví is the surname of _Nasir eddin Abu Said
Abdalla Ben Omar_, a native of the town _Baizah_, in the
province of _Fars_, about forty-five miles distant from
_Shiraz_. He was a _Kází_, “judge,” of the last-named town,
from which he passed to _Tauris_, where he died in the year
of the Hejira 685 or 692 (A. D. 1286 or 1292). He composed a
literal Commentary in two volumes upon the Koran.
[161] Here a play upon a name is omitted: جون كامران بہ تجرد
کامران است: as Kámrán, in business, is _Kámrán_,“fortunate.”
CHAPTER XII.
OF THE RELIGION OF THE SUFIAHS,[162] CONTAINED IN THREE SECTIONS.
SECTION I.――Some of their tenets.
SECTION II.――The open interpretation of their open confessions.
SECTION III.――Some individuals among them.
SECTION I.――OF SOME OF THEIR TENETS.
These sectaries, like other philosophers, always were, and are,
scattered among all nations of the world, and are called in Persian
_vèzhahderún_, “internally pure,” or _róuchen-dil_, “enlightened
minds,” or _Yékána-bín_, “seers of unity;” in the Hindu language,
_Rakhísher_ (Rakshasas) and _Tapísher_ (Tapasis), _Gyanisher_ and
_Gyáni_ (Jnánis), or _Atma-jnánis_. The lord _Maulavi Jámi_, in his
work entitled _Resálah-i-vajudíah_, “treatise upon existence,”[163]
states, that the universal Being is distinct from any intellectual and
exterior existence, inasmuch as every individual from among the
intellectual and exterior beings belongs to some class of beings; but
the universal Being is not subordinate to the condition of any thing;
he is absolute and sovereign, and not general, not partial, not
special, not common, and not one by (the number of) unity; for, it is
neither a substance nor an accident, but by itself one, and not a
multiple. These things however are necessary in the sovereign being,
according to their degrees and stations,[164] but the real Being,
under the condition of no substance whatever, is distinguished by the
name _martibah-ahadiyat_,[165] “degree of unity,” and all names and
attributes are (as it were) consumed by this degree, which the Yogis
express by the title _hakiket al hakáyek_,[166] “reality of
realities.” But the real Being, under the condition of all things
which are necessarily himself, according to generalities and
specialities, is called by names and attributes of the divine degree,
and this degree is entitled _Vahedet-i-mokam_,[167] “solitariness of
station,” and _jamah_,[168] “union.” The real Being, under no
condition of “a thing” (_shí_),[169] and under no condition of
“nothing” (_láshi_),[170] is called _húvíyat_,[171] “essence, absolute
being, objectivity,” and it is manifesting itself[172] in all
existences, and under the condition of “a thing and nothing,” is the
form of the universe.[173]
Some of the sagacious have stated that, in the same manner as the sun
is radiant, so the real Being manifests himself at once for in
opposition to it is _âdem_, “non-entity,” and from the superabundance
of manifestation the tongue and language (in the effort) to express
and to describe, to define and to explain, become dumb. The final
explanation of the two words, _vojud_, “existence,” and _âdem_,
“non-entity” may be, that existence is the negation of non-entity, and
non-entity the negation of existence; and the Lord of unity is the
grand origin of the multiplicity of names and attributes. The first
attribute, which emerged into manifestation by this Lord from within,
was intelligence; and in this degree all _aâyán sabitah_, “fixed
realities,”[174] were under intellectual forms, and in this degree the
Súfís give to the true highest and absolute Being the name of
“All-Wise.” The impulsion of divine wisdom to procure to his fixed
ideals the superiority over non-entity is by them entitled
_irádet_,[175] “providence,” and the name of _murid_, “he who wills,”
attached to God. As often as the divine knowledge becomes joined to
accomplishment and victory, as having given to the existence of
knowledge the superiority over contingencies, in this degree they call
this victory _kadaret_, “might;” and in this degree originated the
name of _Kadir_, “Almighty.” With respect to the seeing of God, as the
meaning of knowledge is his presence in face of the existing external
figures of contingencies, in this degree, the name of _Básír_, “the
All-Seeing,” offered itself. Likewise, the meditation upon God, by
those who, praying, recite his emblematic attributes, is the time of
propitiating; and the granting of these prayers is called _samíâ_,
“hearing:” whence proceeded the name samíâ, “hearer.” Further, the
will of God, the Highest, becoming concentrated in this state, having
joined the letter _kaf_ (k) to the letter _nún_ (n), so as to manifest
by action _kun faíkun_,[176] “Be, and it is:” this state they called
_kalám_, “the word,” and the name of _mutkalem_, “speaker,” was
produced on this account.
The lord Shaikh Muhammed Shosterí,[177] in his treatise _Hak al
yakín_,[178] “the truth of conviction,” has stated, that the action of
choice prevails with the self-existent Being over necessity, because
choice is presupposed in the nature of might, and provident choice, as
well as vicissitudes and excitement, are parts suitable to a purpose,
and providence came to succour every one of the necessitous crowd, by
procreating remedies against the evils without number which are
determined by necessity, in opposition to that necessity whence pure
procreation proceeds. When the free agent is straightened in his
choice, then choice assumes the nature of necessity. Thus _Ibn Mâyín
eddin Maibedí_[179] relates, in his _Favátah_, “Prolegomena,” that the
Súfis say: The wished for, but never-found Being proceeds from the
field of pure non-entity, and the bare negation puts no foot into the
station of evidence and habitation of bodily existence, in the same
manner as the wished-for but never-found Being never assumes the color
of bodily existence; certainly, the real Being also does not take the
color of non-entity. The substance of any thing cannot be caused to
vanish into non-existence; thus, if thou consumest a stick in the
fire, its substance is not annihilated although its form changes, and
becomes manifest in the form of ashes. The self-existent Being is an
essence which is stable in all conditions, and in the accidents of
existence, in the forms and states which undergo changes, the divine
procreation of the world is the manifested light of his absolute
reality, under the shape of divers combinations which thou beholdest.
“Certainly God made the heaven and earth to shine.”
In the book of the sagacious is found that the beautiful of this world
enjoys the advantage of his beauty, when he beholds and considers its
reflexion in a looking-glass; on that account, the absolute Being,
having been revealed in the mirror of existences and appropriate
places, and having seen his beauty in various mirrors, and in every
one of them being exhibited under a shape worthy of himself, become
manifest in a series of multitudinous appearances.
The Súfis further say: God is pure, conformable to his essence, above
all purity and comparison, and in the gradations of names and
attributes praised in both ways. Whoever dispenses with the comparison
of something which has no equal, does not know that, declaring God to
be without an equal, is comparing him with pure beings. The friends of
God say that his name is of three kinds, viz.: he is _itlák_,
“absolute,” by his essence, or considered as an unsubstantial
(abstract) thing;[180] and they give him the name of _zát_, “essence,”
like that of _kadus_, “pure, holy;” that is, considered as a
substance, he is the Being the meaning of which is not dependent upon
the meaning of another; they call him _sifet_, “excelling in
attributes,” and _háí_, “living;” that is, considered as a substance,
he is a Being whose meaning is dependent upon that of another. They
name him _fâl_, “action,” like _khálik_, “Creator,” which is the
general name of God, as well as _rahmen_, “mercy;” but the great name
is at last _khafá_, “the concealed (mysterious).” A person asked the
lord Shaikh _Bayezíd Bastámí_:[181] “Which is the great name of God?”
The Shaikh answered: “Communicate thou to me his least name, that I
may give thee in return his greatest:” that is to say, the names of
God are all great.
The sagacious say: Every era is the epoch of the fame and dominion of
a name, and when this epoch expires, it becomes concealed under the
name which it had at the epoch of its flourishing state.[182]
They say, the names of the Deity contain the distinct forms in the
divine science, and these are called _aâyan sábitah_, “fixed
substances,”[183] whether general or partial, and these intellectual
forms received existence in eternity without beginning,[183] by
_fayz_,[184] “emanation,” from the essence of God endowed with most
holy emanation. Further, the intellectual forms rise into evidence
with all dependencies and necessary consequences of the most holy
emanation. The fixed substances have a relation to the names of
bodies, and to the external substances[185] of spirits, and between
all beings there arises an interposition dependent on the degree of
excellence which it has with respect to God. All the reality of
accidental beings lies in the external existence; the reality of
individuals is dependent upon fixed times, and every one emerges into
existence at his time.[186]
The Súfis maintain that all attributes of perfection are necessarily
inherent in the supreme holy essence; that is, are fixed by the purity
of his essence. What in the accidental substance is fixed by
properties, for instance, thy substance, is not sufficient for the
revelation of thyself; as long as the attribute of God’s essence,
which is the principle of that revelation, has not taken firm hold of
thee, this revelation cannot be obtained. On the contrary, God, the
most High, stands not in need of that revelation of things, on account
of the purity which is inherent in him; but his essence is the
principle of that revelation; that is, his essence and attributes are
one. On this account, the Amir of the believers, Alí, said:
“The perfection of the belief in the unity of God consists in
the negation of attributes.”
The lord Shaikh Dáud Kaiśerí says in the _Sherah-fes us_, “Commentary
upon the bezels:”[187] the knowledge of God the most High, in his
essence, is the identity of the essence, and the knowledge of this
world is that of the forms of things in it, whether generally or
partially; and if one essence is _said to be_ the receptacle of
manifold things, this _acceptation_ is not to be feared, as the things
are identic with God according to the acceptation of “existence,” and
in truth are different _only_ according to the acceptation of being
either involved or manifested. Further, in reality, there is neither
state nor place, but there is one object exhibited under forms of
decoration and portraiture by external appearances. _Kasá_, “God’s
universal judgment or decree (predestination)” is the summary decision
of the conditions of existence, as the decision for the death of all
mankind; and _Kadr_[188] is “the interpretation of that decision by
determined means, and in consequence of results conformable to the
faculties;” for instance, the decision of the death of Záid, on such a
day, by such a malady. _Kas a_, “predestination,” is the eternal
knowledge concerning existences, and this knowledge is dependent on
the _âyán sábitah_, “fixed substances.” Each thing demands, by
disposition,[189] a peculiar emanation of God.
The Súfis say, according to the sacred text:
“God created man according to his image.”
We have the power of acting on account of our being the mirror of the
supreme essence; if we say: “The action is ours,” it may be right; and
if we say: “It is of God,” it is equally true. The master of the
rose-bower says:
“_Masnavi._ Recognise the mark of God in every place,
Never place the foot without its own limit.
Whoever has a faith other than that of Jabr[190]
Is, according to the word of the prophet, to be accounted a Guéber.
In like manner as that Guéber said: ‘Yezdán, Aherman,’
So was it as if that ignorant blockhead had said: ‘He and me;’
The actions have but a metaphorical connection with us,
A connection with him in reality is a ludicrous play.
How came it, O man without intelligence, that, from eternity,
This man should be Muhammed, and the other Abú Jehel?”
It is written in the glorious Koran:
“If any thing good happens to them, they say: ‘It comes from
God;’ and if any thing bad, they say: ‘It comes from me,’
say: ‘Every thing comes from God.’”
The Súfis say that the whole heaven is a body, the first intelligence
its soul, the breath of the whole his heart, and the spirits of the
seven planets, of the fixed stars and the rest, are his power.
“Your creation and your resurrection are as those of one man.”
The Shaikh Mohí eddin[191] says in his _Faś hawdí_, “chapter of
repentance:” The world is the image of God, and he the soul and
governor of the universe, further he is the great mankind. The lord
Maulavi Jámí, in the _Nakd-al faśus_, “the ready money of bezels,”
states, that there are two divisions of the beings of the universe:
the first consists of those who on no account have any sort of
connection with the bodily world, in conformity to office and
direction; these, called _Cherubim_, are divided into two classes: the
one take not the least notice of the world and its inhabitants, and
are named “the great Angels;” the other, although not connected with
the bodily world, are yet entranced in astonishment as witnesses and
valuers _of God’s power_, standing at the curtain of the divine court,
and being the ministers of the supreme bounty; before them is an angel
entitled “the great spirit,” greater than whom no angel exists.
According to another interpretation he is said to be “the highest
secretary and first intelligence.” This great spirit (the blessing of
God be upon him!) holds the first rank of this class. The spirit, who
is called _Jabríil_, follows after him in this legion.
“The rank which he possesses is a place known.”
Another division is composed of those who have connection with the
bodily world according to order and office; these are named “spirits,”
also divided into two classes: the one are spirits who perform their
office in the heavens, and these are entitled “the high angels;” the
other class are those who perform their office upon earth, and these
bear the name of “lower angels.” Many thousands of them are appointed
to the human race, and many thousands to minerals, to plants, and the
animal kingdom. The people of the revelation (prophets) say: “There,
where seven angels are not assembled, not a leaf can germinate from a
branch;” the seven angels are meant to be seven divine powers. Thus,
the spirits of fire, who are called _Jin_ and _Siátín_, “genii and
demons,” belong to the kind of lower angels, and _Iblis_ is their
chief and ruler. The lord Shaikh Mahmúd Shósterí says, that Iblis is
the power of imagination, which the learned call “the material.” The
Súfis give it the name of “the foundation of material substance,” or
_Enka_.[192] According to the Súfis, _matter_ is _mâdum_, “not
eternally existent.” They call the absolute body “the universal body.”
The Súfis say, as is found in the _Favátah_, that the spirit of
mankind is the absolute spirit of the divinity; thus the spirit of
mankind, for the sake of elocution――that is, excellence――expresses
itself by sound; and sound, for the sake of elocution, by various
distinct modulations, which in utterance are made sensible, becomes a
word, and by the combination of words a language acquires reality. The
Shaikh Muhammed _Láhaji_[193] says, in his Commentary on _Gulshen
raz_,[194] “the Mystery of the Rosebower,” that the meaning of the
expression “the divine spirit,” is “the revelation of truth in the
circus of multiplicity,” and in the _Sharh mahtaśer_, “abridged
Commentary (epitome)” on _Gulshen_, is found that, in like manner as
the spirit of mankind becomes sound, and sound a word, so also the
divine spirit becomes _jawher_, “substance,” and substances become
spirits and forms; thus human nature is determined in a manner that
its hidden conditions proceed from the interior to manifestation.
The presence of the universal deity, which is expansive in the divine
spirit and soul), is fivefold. The first is _hazeret ghaib mut´lak_,
“the presence of the absolute mystery,” and this is one with the
_aâyían sábatah_, “the invariable prototypes (realities of things).”
The second is the _hazeret ghaib muśáf_,[195] “the presence of the
relative mystery,” which is nearest the absolute mystery, and this
belongs to pure intellects and spirits. The third is the _hazeret
musáf ghaib_,[196] “the presence of the mysterious relation,” which is
nearest the absolute evidence; this is the world of similitude, or
dream. The fourth is the _hazeret shahádet mut´lak_,[197] “the
presence of the absolute evidence,” which reaches from the centre of
the earth to the middle of the ninth empyrean heaven. The fifth is the
_hazerát jámâh_,[198] “the presence of the vest,” and this is the
universe in an extensive, and mankind in a restricted, acceptation.[199]
The Súfis besides say: The world is life and intellect, as far as the
mineral kingdom; but the manifestation of intellect in every body is
determined by the temperature of the human constitution. Sometimes
bounty attains an excellence which is uttered with ecstacy, and
becomes a modulation more powerful than that which strikes the ear:
and this is the mode of the prophet (blessing upon him!). Thus is it
commonly related that Jabrííl brought to the blessed prophet the happy
news, that his poor followers will enter heaven five hundred years
sooner than the rich. The prophet, full of joy, said: “Can none of you
recite a verse?” A person proffered these distichs:
“The serpent of desire bit my heart:
There is, to cure me, neither doctor nor magician,
If not the friend whom I adore:
He alone possesses the theriac and the amulet suitable to my cure.”
Upon this the lord prophet, with his companions, moved about in
ecstacy, with such a violence that the cloak fell from his
shoulder.[200]
Further, the sagacious say that the forms of the sensible world are
shades of seeming forms. The Súfis also maintain that a spirit cannot
exist without a body;[201] when it breaks forth from a body, it
obtains, according to its deeds and actions, an apparent body, which
they call _acquired_.
[162] Several derivations are given to the word _Sufí_; it
may be here sufficient to adduce the three most specious of
them. Some derive the name from the verb صفا, _Safá_, “he
was sincere, pure;” this derivation is claimed by these
sectaries themselves, who frequently call themselves اصفيا,
_Asfíá_, “pure,” as may be seen in Jami’s work, _Tohfat ol
ebrar_, “a present offered to the pious:” and in
_Gulshenraz_ (work quoted). To this etymology is objected,
that a substantive derived from the said verb should be
صفى, and not صوفى. Others deduce it with grammatical
strictness from صوف _súf_, “wool,” and _sufí_ signifies
therefore “wool-dressed.” But the fact is, that not all
wool-dressed persons are Súfis, and not all Súfis are
wool-dressed: a Súfi may wear a Durvish’s patched coat, or
satin, as it was said by a true Súfi. If, of the two
etymologies quoted, the first does not answer the
grammatical construction, the second does not render the
meaning to be expressed. The latter appears to me so much
more important, that I am disposed to pass over an anomalous
construction, which in other names is not without numerous
examples. Nor would I be averse to derive the word, with
other etymologists, from the Greek σοφος, “wise,” or σαφες,
“pure;” notwithstanding the general use of representing in
words of Greek derivation the _sigma_, Σ, by a _sin_, س, and
not by a _sad_, ص, if I did not perceive a great difference
between the doctrine of a _Sofos_ and that of a _Súfi_,
which latter bears most especially an Asiatic character, and
the origin of which remounts to the kings Mahabad and
Jemshid (_Dasá tir_, Eng. Transl., pp. 23, 97). Our author
says: “Súfism is to be found among all nations.” The first
Muhammedan Súfi is said to have been _Abu Hashem_, a native
of Kufa, who died in the year of the Hejira 150 (A. D.
767).――(See _Notices et Extraits des manuscrits de la
bibliothèque du Roi et d’autres bibliothèques_, vol. X. p.
290.) The origin of such a character among Muselmans, if not
in name, yet in fact, may be traced further back to the
first century of the Hejira.――(See note 2, p. 18.)
[163] The more correct title of this work is _Resalah fil
vujud_.――(See _Geshichte der Schönen Redekünste Persiens von
Joseph von Hammer, S. 314_).
[164] بحسب مراتب و مقامات.
[165] مرتبه احديت.
[166] حقيقت الحقايق.
[167] وحدت مقام.
[168] جمع.
[169] شيء.
[170] لاشى.
[171] هويت, a substantive formed from هو, _hu_, “he is”
(_Yahu Yehovah_).
[172] I interpret in this place the word _sárí_ in the sense
which is given to it by the commentator of the Gulshen Raz,
in a passage of that work which will be quoted hereafter.
[173] The above _shí_ and _láshí_ is evidently the _sad
asat_, “being, not being,” of the Hindus, an attribute of
the divinity, combined with its unity. “For,” says the
author of Gulshen Raz (see German Transl., p. 17), “unity
exists in non-existence as well as in existence;
multiplicity proceeds but from relation; difference and
variety of things proceed from the change of the possible:
as the existence of both is but one, they furnish the proof
that God is but one.”
[174] اعيان الثابته. _Aâyan_ signifies “substances:” these
are things which maintain themselves by themselves; or
realities, which occupy a space by themselves, without their
existence in space depending upon the concomitant existence
of another thing. This is the contrary of accidents, the
existence of which depends upon the concomitant existence of
the substance which serves to support them, or which is the
place by which they are supported. _Aâyán sabitah_, that
is, “fixed substances,” are realities of things inclosed in
the science of God, that is to say, the figures of realities
of divine names in the _scientific presence_. They are
posterior to God only as to essence, and not as to time; for
they are eternal, as much on the side of the past as on the
side of the future. When it is said, that God produces them
by emanation, the posteriority which is thereby expressed,
refers but to essence, and is not true in any other
sense.――(See _Jorjani’s Definitions in Ext. et Not. des
MSS._, vol. X. p. 65.)――We may, in a language more familiar
to us perhaps, express them by “eternal ideals,” or
“prototypes of realities.” Silvestre de Sacy adds to
Jorjani’s explanation, that the question is here about
divine names, that is, attributes of God as emanating from
his essence, and residing in him, but not yet produced
externally by any action. _The scientific presence_
mentioned in this explanation appears, to him, to signify
the divine majesty, inasmuch as manifesting its presence to
beings which have no other existence but in the science of
God.
[175] ارادت, “inclination, design, will,” According to
_Jorjáni’s Definitions_ (see _Ext. et Not. des MSS._, vol.
X. p. 37), _iradet_ is a quality which produces in a living
being a state, the effect of which is that he acts in one
manner rather than in another. In its exact sense, it is a
faculty which has no other object in view but that which
does not exist; for “the will” is an attribute, the special
object of which is to give existence to any thing, and to
produce it conformably with the words of the Koran: “_When
he wills a thing he says to it: “Be,” and it is._” _Iradet_
is also interpreted an inclination to any thing which
follows the opinion of utility, and in this sense I have
translated it above “providence.”
[176] كن فيكون.
[177] I think it ought to be _Shabisteri_ instead of
_Shosteri_, as I find in Baron von Hammer’s _Gulshen-raz_
(pp. 27-32) a treatise entitled _Hak ol yakin_, as above,
attributed to the before quoted Mahmud Shebisteri (vol. I.
p. 82), of whom more hereafter. The whole title of the
above-mentioned work is _Hak ol yukin fi mâarifet-i-rebbil
âalemin_, “the truth of conviction in the knowledge of the
Lord of the world.”
[178] The word _yakin_ signifies “an intuitive certainty,”
produced by energy of faith, and not by arguments and
proofs.
[179] See page 217, note 2.
[180] The original text has here باعتبار امر ادمى _ba
itibár-i-amr âdemí_. _Itibar_ has in the Dictionary, among
other significations, that of “reasoning or computing by
comparison; considering with attention; calculating
properly,” which appears to me the only meaning applicable
in this place; _ba itibar_ may perhaps here be better
interpreted by “in the acceptation (assumption) of.” This
word occurs twice with امور, _amur_ (the plural of _amr_),
in the following important passage of _Gulshen raz_:
وجود اندر كالش حويش ساريست
تعينها امور اعتباريست
امور اعتبارى نيست موجود
عدو بسيار و يكجيزست معدود
جهانرا نيست هستى جز مجازي
سراسر حال او لهوست و بازي
Baron von Hammer interprets _amúri itibarí_ by “Gegenstande
der Erscheinung,” that is “objects of appearance;” I dare
differ somewhat in the expression, but not in the meaning of
these words: “Existence manifests itself (see p. 222, note
9) in its own place; things perceived by senses are mere
objects of acceptation; things of acceptation are not real.
There are many numbers, but one only is numbered (that is,
numbers are only one unit, repeatedly employed). The world
has no existence but as a metaphoric image: its state is
entirely a farce and a play.”
[181] Bastam is a town of Khorassan, the native place of
_Abu Yezid Taifer ben Issa_, one of the most celebrated
Súfis of Persia. He had inherited the frock of another
mystical personage, called Habib Ajemi. Bastami attained the
supreme degree of spirituality――perfect union with God. He
occasionally branched out into all the enthusiasm
imaginable, saying that God was with him and near him, nay
in the sleeve of his garment; and then again he came at
times into the regular order of piety and devotion, hoping
that God would forgive him his sins, and let his latter end
be that of the righteous. It is said of him (see the third
_Majalis_, “conference,” of Sâdi) that, having once called
out to God for union with the supreme Being, he heard the
voice from above: “Abu Yezid, thy _thou_ is still with thee;
if thou wilt come to me, abandon thyself and come.” He died
in the year of the Hejira 261 (A. D. 874).――(See Transact.
of the Lit. Soc. of Bombay, vol. I. p. 100; Malcolm’s Hist.
of Persia, p. 395; _Pend nameh_, edit. and transl. by
Silvestre de Sacy, p. 231.)
[182] Silvestre de Sacy, in the translation of a part of the
Definitions of Jorjáni, gives the following note as
translated from the Persian (see _Notices et Extraits des
MSS._, vol. X. p. 67): “The Súfis declare that every time is
the turn of the manifestation of a name (divine); when the
turn of this name is terminated, it conceals itself under
another name, for which the turn of denomination is arrived.
The periods of the seven planets, each of one thousand
years, are attached to it; and the words of the Koran,
speaking of God: “_Every day he is in action_, indicate it;
_because one day of thy Lord is equivalent to one thousand
years of yours_. Verse. _O thou whose light manifests itself
in the vest of the world, thy names are manifested in the
nature of man; thy science shows itself by the science of_
(Muhammed) _the seal_ (of prophets); _thy bounty is
manifested by the bounty of khatem_ (the seal). The divine
names are distinct forms, which are called _aâyan sabitah_,
“fixed realities.”――Extracted from the Diván of Alí.)
[183] The word in the text is ازل, _azl_, which means
duration of existence during a series of _finite_ times, and
_infinite_ on the side of the _past_, as ابد, _abad_,
signifies duration of existence during a series of _finite_
times, and _infinite_ on the side of the _future_.――(See
Definitions of Jorjáni, in _Not. et Ext. des MSS._, vol. X.
p. 39.)
[184] فيض is translated by Silvestre de Sacy “emanation;”
and فيض اللقدس _fayz al kudis_, by “émanation très sainte”
(see _Ibid._, p. 66). In common acceptation, _fayz_
signifies “plenty, abundance, bounty, grace;” _fayz-al
akdes_ means also “communication of divine grace made to
angels, prophets, and other superior intelligences without
the intervention of the Holy Ghost.”
[185] اعيان خارجيه, _aâyan kharjíah_. The scholastics have
distinguished fixed and external substances; the Súfis
distinguish substances in and without God.
[186] The word وقت, _wakt_, “time,” has a technical
signification.――According to Jorjáni, it means: “Your state,
that is, that which is required by your actual disposition,
and is not produced by design.” _Shehab eddin Omar
Sohrawerdi_ (who died A. D. 1234) says: “_Time_ is what
dominates man; man is not dominated by any thing more than
by his _time_; for time is like a sword, it executes its
decrees and cuts. By _time_ is therefore meant what comes
forcibly upon a man without being the fruit of his action;
so that, subject to its power, he is constrained to conform
to it. It is said: ‘_Such a one is under the dominion of
time_,’ that is, he is retired from things which are his
own, and transported to things which belong to God.”
[187] _Feśuś ol hikem_, “the bezels of philosophemes,” is
one of the most celebrated works composed by Mohi eddin Ibn
Arabi, upon whom see a subsequent note. This work was
commented, not only by the above-mentioned Daúd Kaiśieri (of
Cæsarea), but also by Anif-eddin Telmesani, and others.――See
Baron von Hammer’s _Geschichte des Osm. Reiches, II^{ter}
Band, Seite 657._)
[188] Upon Kaśa and Kadr see vol. II. pp. 352-353, note 1.
[189] استعداد, _istidad_, “disposition,” that is, when a
thing possesses the near or remote quality for
action.――(Jorjáni’s Definitions.)
[190] The name of _Jabr_ is common to several doctors of
Muselmanism. The most ancient of them is _Abu Abd-allah Jabr
Ben Abd allah al Ansari_, a native of Medina, as it is
indicated by his surname. Jabr, according to Mirkhond, first
a pagan, after having examined the sacred books of all other
nations, Jews and Christians, was vanquished by Muhammed’s
eloquence, and adopted his faith.
Another Jabr is _Abu Mussa Jabr Ben Haíían al Sufi_, author
of the book _Kitab al Jafr_, and of many other, some say
five hundred, works upon the philosopher’s stone. He lived
in the middle of the third century of the Hejira (about A.
D. 864).
A third Jabr, an Andalusian, is surnamed _Shems-eddin_.
[191] _Mohi-eddin_, “he who makes religion revive and
flourish,” is a surname borne by several Muselman doctors.
The above-mentioned is _Mohi-eddin Ibn al Arabi_, born in
Kordua, in Spain, of an Arabian family, called _Tayí_, in
the year of the Hejira 560 (A. D. 1164). He studied in the
academy of Seville, and then visited Asia Minor, Syria, and
Egypt, where he heard the most distinguished Shaikhs of his
time. He became the founder of a mystic school from which,
among other remarkable disciples, the great _Maulana
Jelal-eddin Rumí_ issued; he is called “the Pole of the
mystic world.” He died in the year of the Hejira 638 (A. D.
1240), in his seventy-sixth year, and was buried at the foot
of mount Cassius, near Damascus, where his sepulchral
monument is still well preserved. He left thirty-three
works, which are enumerated by Baron von Hammer, the
illustrious historian of the Ottoman empire.――(See vol. II.
pp. 490. 657 of the German work.)
The Muselmans in India revere, under the name of Mohi-eddin,
a saint, son of Zangui and Bibí Fatima, called also Shaikh
Saddo. He lived at Sambhal, in Rohilkunt, according to
others, at Amroha, in the province of Delhi, where his tomb
still exists. There the devotees assemble every year, on the
11th day of the 2nd Rabiâ (the 4th month of the Arabian
year) and celebrate the saint’s memory, by particular
fatihas, “prayers,” addressed to him, and other acts of
devotion.――(See _Mémoire sur les particularités de la Relig.
Muselm. dans l’Inde, par M. Garcin de Tassy_, pp. 46-54.)
[192] See hereafter an explanatory note upon Enka.
[193] See page 141, note 3.
[194] A work already quoted (vol. I. p. 82) composed by
_Mahmud Shebisterí_. His native place was _Shebister_,
distant eight parasangs (about twenty-eight miles) from
Tabriz, near which place he was buried in A. D. 1320. He
wrote the _Gulshen-raz_ three years before his death, as an
answer to fifteen questions addressed to him by the great
Shaikh Hussein, of Khorassan, who died A. D. 1318, one year
after the composition of the just-mentioned most celebrated
didactical work upon the doctrine of the Súfis.
[195] حضرت غيب مضاف.
[196] حضرت مضاف غير.
[197] حضرت شهادت مطلقه. _Shahádet_, interpreted in common
acceptation by “testimony, attestation, witnessing,
confession, evidence,” is translated by Silvestre de Sacy,
in a note of Jorjáni (see a subsequent note), by
“assistance.” It takes in the terminology of Súfis, a
meaning varying according to the particular opinion of their
sects; thus it coincides sometimes with “presence,” whether
with the qualifications of attentive expectation, whether
with that of perfect intuition.
[198] حضرت جامعه.
[199] This is a very abstruse doctrine. To throw more light
upon it, I shall subjoin the explanation given by Jorjáni
upon this subject, according to the French translation of
Silvestre de Sacy (see _Not. et Ext. des MSS._, vol. X. p.
66): “The five divine presences are: 1. _the presence of the
absolute absence_ (or mystery); its world is the world of
_the fixed substances in the scientific presence_ (see pp.
223, 224, note 2). To the presence of the absolute mystery
is opposed:――2. _the presence of the absolute assistance_;
its world is that named _Aalem al mulk_ (that is, the world
of the throne or seat of God, of the four elemental
natures); 3. _the presence of the relative absence_; this is
divided into two parts: the one, 3. _nearer the presence of
the absolute mystery_; the world of which is that of
spirits, which belong to what is called _jabrut_ and
_malkut_, that is, of intelligences and of bare souls; the
other: 4. _nearer the presence of the absolute assistance_;
and the world of which is that of models (images), called
_Aalem al mulkut_; 5. the presence which comprises the four
preceding ones; and its world is the world of mankind, a
world which reunites all the worlds, and all they contain.”
This statement differs somewhat from that of our text; to
exhibit and to develop, in all their variations, the systems
of Súfism is far beyond the compass of these notes, and
would require a separate work.
[200] Such a tradition existing, we cannot wonder that, from
early time to our days, among the religious practices of
Durvishes, Súfis, and monastic congregations, there are
different kinds of dances, accompanied by song, with or
without instrumental music.
[201] The celebrated Leibnitz entertained a similar opinion
in consequence of his great principle of “_the sufficient
reason_,” he was persuaded that all souls, after death,
remain united to an organic whole: “Because,” says he, in
his _Théodicée_ (§ 90), “there is no appearance, that there
be, in the order of nature, souls entirely separate from any
sort of body.”――(See on this subject _La Palingénésie
philosophique, par C. Bonnet_, tome II. p. 24 _et seq._)