Read the _History_ of Procopius[239] the rhetorician in eight books.
He relates the wars of the Romans in the reign of Justinian against
the Vandals, Persians, and Goths, chiefly conducted by Belisarius,
whose intimate friend the writer was and whom he accompanied on
his campaigns, setting down in writing events of which he was an
eye-witness.
The following is the contents of the first book. Arcadius, emperor of
the Romans, in his will appointed Yezdegerd, king of Persia, guardian
of his son Theodosius. Yezdegerd accepted the trust, fulfilled his
duties as guardian conscientiously and kept his ward’s throne intact.
On the death of Yezdegerd, Vararanes his successor made war against
the Romans, but after Anatolius, master-general of the East, had
been sent by Theodosius on an embassy to Persia, he concluded a
treaty and returned home. After this Perozes, king of Persia, who
succeeded another Yezdegerd, son of Vararanes, waged war on the Huns
called Ephthalites or “White” Huns from their complexions. They are
not ill-looking and do not resemble the other Huns. They do not
lead a wild or nomadic life, but enjoy the protection of the laws
under their kings. They were the neighbours of Persia on the north,
which induced Perozes to invade their territory in order to settle
the question of boundaries. The Ephthalites cunningly led him into
difficult country, from which he barely escaped after concluding a
disgraceful peace. He was forced to do homage to the king of the
Ephthalites, and was only allowed to depart on taking an oath that
he would never attack them again. Subsequently, however, he broke
his word and, having again made war upon them, was ignominiously
destroyed together with his whole army, which fell into pits and
ditches cunningly prepared by the enemy. He died in the twenty-fourth
year of his reign, on which occasion the famous pearl which he wore
in his right ear was lost.
Perozes was succeeded by his youngest son Cabades,[240] who was
accused of violating the laws and imprisoned by the Persians in the
fortress of Lethe. Having escaped with the assistance of his wife he
took refuge with the Ephthalites, whose ruler betrothed him to one
of his daughters and lent him a large army, with which he marched
against the Persians and recovered his throne without a fight. His
brother Blases,[241] who was ruling in his stead, was abandoned by
his soldiers, seized, and blinded by boiling oil poured into his
open eyes, in accordance with a long-established Persian custom. An
account of the dispute between Pacurius, king of Persia, and Arsaces,
king of Armenia, and the advice hostile to Arsaces, given by the magi
to Pacurius, follows next. It seems probable, however, that this
story is fictitious.
The above-mentioned Cabades, who was heavily in debt to the
Ephthalites, endeavoured to obtain a loan from Anastasius, but met
with a refusal. Thereupon Cabades, without any further excuse,
suddenly overran Armenia and besieged Amida. When he was on the point
of abandoning the siege in despair, a gross insult on the part of
some women among the besieged induced him to turn back and continue
operations. He attacked with furious impetuosity, took the city by
storm, and carried off the inhabitants as slaves. A large number of
them were subsequently released without ransom, and treated with
great kindness by Anastasius.
Anastasius, hearing that Amida was besieged, sent a very large
force against the Persians, under four commanders--Areobindus,
master-general of the East (son-in-law of Olybrius, the former
emperor of the West), Celer, captain of the imperial household,
Patricius the Phrygian, and his own nephew Hypatius. With them
were associated Justin, who succeeded Anastasius, and many other
experienced soldiers. It is said that so large an army had never
been brought into the field against the Persians, but owing to its
delay in arriving, the city was taken; further, there was no unity
of operation and the different detachments acted independently, with
the result that they were ignominiously defeated with heavy loss. At
last they reached Amida and besieged the city, but while they wasted
time, the Persians within, who were in great straits, concluded a
seven years’ treaty, which was arranged by Celer and Asperedes as
representatives of Persia and Rome.
Mount Taurus in Cilicia first passes through Cappadocia, Armenia,
Persarmenia, Albania, Iberia, and all the other independent countries
which had become subject to Persia. Just over the frontiers of Iberia
there is a narrow path about fifty stades in length, ending in a
steep and inaccessible height; there is apparently no way through,
except by means of a natural exit which looks as if it had been
made by the hand of man, called in ancient times the Caspian gate.
Beyond this gate there are plains suitable for riding, and full of
natural springs, and there is an extensive tract of gently-sloping
country which provides an excellent pasturage for horses; it is
nearly all inhabited by Huns as far as the Palus Maeotis.[242]
Whenever they invade Persian or Roman territory through the Caspian
gate, they ride at full speed on vigorous horses, since all who
desire to enter Iberia have only to contend with difficult country
for the fifty stades mentioned; if, on the other hand, they choose
another passage, it is only with great trouble that they reach their
destination. Alexander, the son of Philip, perceiving this, built
gates there and erected a fortress. During the reign of Anastasius,
this fortress was occupied by a Hun named Ambazuces, a friend of the
Romans and Anastasius, to whom he offered to hand over control of
the gates.[243] Anastasius thanked him for his goodwill, but refused
to accept the responsibility. After the death of Ambazuces, Cabades
forcibly ejected his sons and took possession of the gates. Thereupon
Anastasius, after the treaty had been concluded with Cabades, built a
stronghold in the neighbourhood of Daras, in spite of the objections
of the Persians, and also another city in Armenia, on the frontiers
of Persarmenia, which was formerly called Theodosiupolis, since
Theodosius had bestowed upon it the rank of a city instead of a
village.
On the death of Anastasius, although many of his kinsmen were worthy
to succeed him, they were rejected and Justin elected emperor. Soon
after his accession, Cabades, in order to secure the throne for his
youngest son Chosroës, wrote a letter to Justin proposing that he
should adopt Chosroës. Justin and his sister’s son Justinian, the
heir-presumptive, welcomed the proposal, but in consequence of the
advice of Proclus the quaestor, who argued that sons were the lawful
heirs and successors of their fathers,[244] they changed their minds
and the adoption was not ratified. Subsequently, Seoses (who had once
saved the life of Cabades) and Beodes[245] were sent by the Persians,
and Rufinus and Hypatius by the Romans, to discuss the terms of peace
and the adoption of Chosroës. Seoses was accused of various offences
by Beodes, tried by his countrymen and condemned to death. Rufinus
also accused Hypatius to the emperor, who deprived him of his office.
The country between Bosporus and Cherson, which are a twenty days’
journey apart, is inhabited by Hunnish tribes, who were formerly
independent but had recently submitted to Justin, Cherson being the
last city in Roman territory. The Iberians also, being ill-treated
by the Persians, declared themselves vassals of Justin together with
their king, Gurgenes. This was the cause of war between the Romans
and the Persians.
During his lifetime, Justin had made Justinian his partner in the
empire, who, after his uncle’s death, became sole ruler. Belisarius
and Sittas were the two army commanders under Justinian. Belisarius
had been appointed to the command of the troops in Daras, when
Procopius, the writer of this history, became his secretary. When
Justinian was sole emperor, Belisarius was made general of the
East and ordered to undertake an expedition against the Persians.
Perozes, the _mirran_,[246] had been appointed to the command of
the Persian army by Cabades. While both armies were encamped near
Daras, Perozes sent a message to Belisarius, bidding him prepare a
bath in the city, since he intended to bathe there on the following
day. The Romans accordingly prepared vigorously for battle. During
the engagement, one Andrew, a Byzantine, a gymnastic instructor,
master of a wrestling school in Constantinople, and one of the
bath-attendants of Buzes (who was associated with Belisarius in the
command), when challenged to a duel, made his way through the ranks
unnoticed, and defeated and slew his challenger. Then the battle was
discontinued. In a subsequent engagement, the Persians, having been
completely defeated with heavy losses, decided not to risk any more
pitched battles with the Romans, and both sides confined themselves
to skirmishes.
Cabades then sent another army into Roman Armenia, consisting of
Persarmenians, Sunites and Sabirites, under the command of Mermeroës.
Dorotheus, general of Armenia, and Sittas, who was in command of the
whole army, joined battle, and although greatly inferior in numbers,
defeated the Persians, who thereupon returned home. The Romans then
took possession of some Persian territory, including the district of
Pharangium, the gold mines of which furnish a revenue for the king.
The Tzani (formerly called Sani), an independent people who lived by
plundering their neighbours, were defeated by Sittas and submitted to
Rome. They embraced Christianity, and were drafted into the ranks of
the Roman army.
After the defeat of both his armies, Cabades was at a loss what to
do. Then Alamundarus, chief of the Persian Saracens, an experienced
and vigorous soldier, who for fifty years had harassed the Romans,
suggested to him that he should attack Antioch, which was
unprotected, and ravage the neighbouring country. But Belisarius,
hearing of his intention, set out with all speed against him with a
force of Isaurians and Saracens, the latter under Arethas, a Saracen
chief who was on the side of Rome. Alamundarus and Azarethes retired
in alarm, closely followed by Belisarius, who did not intend to
force an engagement, but only pretended to be pursuing them. But the
soldiers reproached him, at first secretly and then openly, so that
against his will he consented to give battle. At first, after both
sides had suffered heavily, the issue remained in doubt; but after
the forces of Arethas and the Isaurians had given way, the Persians
gained a decided victory. Had not Belisarius dismounted and gone
to the assistance of those who remained, they would all have been
destroyed. Azarethes, the Persian commander, on his return received
no thanks from Cabades for his victory. For he himself had lost a
large number of men, although the enemy’s losses had been greater,
and was accordingly regarded as disgraced.
Belisarius was recalled to Byzantium by Justinian to command the
expedition against the Vandals, the protection of the East being
entrusted to Sittas. At this time, while the Persians were attacking
the Romans, Cabades died and was succeeded by Chosroës. Hearing of
this, the Romans sent Rufinus, Alexander, Thomas, and Hermogenes on
an embassy to him, with offers to conclude an “endless peace” and
also to pay a sum of 110 centenars.[247] At first the negotiations
were unsuccessful, and it was not till later that the “endless peace”
was concluded in the sixth year of the reign of Justinian. According
to its terms, the Persians received the money agreed upon, and the
district of Pharangium and the fortress of Bolon were restored to
them; on the other hand, they abandoned the fortresses captured in
Lazica, and exchanged Dagaris, an excellent soldier, for a Persian of
rank.
Soon afterwards, their subjects conspired against both Chosroës and
Justinian. The Persians hated Chosroës as turbulent and restless,
and were minded to bestow the crown on Cabades, the son of Chosroës’
brother Zames. But the plot was discovered, and Chosroës put to
death Zames and his other brothers, and all who had taken part in
it. Thus the conspiracy was put down. Cabades the son of Zames, who
was very young, escaped death through the prudence and compassion of
Khanaranges Adergadunbades,[248] who was afterwards put to death on
this account by Chosroës.
The people of Rome also rose against Justinian and declared Hypatius,
the nephew of Anastasius, emperor against his will. The rising had
its origin in the circus factions.[249] Belisarius and Mundus, by
order of Justinian, put Hypatius to death together with a number of
conspirators and 30,000 of the people. Justinian also had the support
of his nephews Boraïdes and Justus. In the same book Procopius gives
an account of the avaricious and wily Tribonian, a Pamphylian by
birth, who held the office of quaestor, and also of John, prefect of
Cappadocia, notorious for villainy, greed, drunkenness, and vice of
every kind. He relates how Antonina, the wife of Belisarius, making
use of John’s daughter Euphemia, deceived him and convicted him of
conspiring against the emperor; also how, when Eusebius, bishop of
Cyzicus, was treacherously murdered, John, being suspected of the
crime, was scourged and ignominiously banished.
The contents of the second book is as follows. Chosroës, being
anxious to break the treaty with the Romans, whose conquest of Libya
had roused his jealousy, was further incited by Witigis, king of the
Goths, who sent an embassy to him, composed of certain Ligurians and
Bassacus, an Armenian chief. The Armenians had revolted from Rome and
joined the Persians, and the Roman commander Sittas had been killed
while fighting against them. Chosroës thereupon decided to break the
“endless” truce and make war on the Romans. When he heard of this,
Justinian sent Anastasius to Chosroës to advise him not to do so. In
the meantime Witigis had been taken prisoner by Belisarius, and sent
to Constantinople. Chosroës, however, crossed the Roman frontiers,
took the town of Sura, and made the inhabitants slaves. Soon
afterwards, Candidus, bishop of Sergiopolis, having offered to ransom
the captives, 1200 in number, he let them go free on receipt of a
bond for two centenars. But Candidus, failing to keep his promise,
was justly punished. Chosroës next marched against Hierapolis, and
was preparing to lay siege to it, when the bishop of Beroea offered
him 2000 pounds of silver if he would abandon the blockade. Chosroës
consented, and even promised to evacuate the whole of the Roman
territory in the East for 1000 pounds of gold. Meanwhile Buzes,
general of the East, not thinking himself strong enough to oppose
Chosroës, kept moving from place to place. Chosroës then advanced to
Beroea, from whose inhabitants he demanded a ransom of 2000 pounds of
silver, afterwards increased to twice that amount; when they failed
to pay, he laid vigorous siege to the city. But Megas, bishop of
Beroea, appealed to Chosroës and induced him to let the inhabitants
go free, wherever they wished. Most of the soldiers voluntarily went
over to Chosroës, because their pay was greatly in arrears. In like
manner Chosroës demanded ransom from the inhabitants of Antioch, and
when they refused, besieged it. While he was vigorously attacking,
Theoctistus and Malatzes,[250] with the soldiers from the Lebanon,
secretly made their way out of the city and fled. Thus Chosroës
easily compelled Antioch to surrender and reduced the inhabitants to
slavery. Ambassadors from Rome were then sent to him, John the son
of Rufinus and Julian his private secretary. After a long discussion
as to terms, it was agreed that the Romans should pay Chosroës 5000
pounds of gold down, and 500 pounds every year in the future by
way of tribute, on his promise to cease ravaging their territory;
and that ambassadors should be sent from Justinian to confirm the
agreement. But in spite of this arrangement, Chosroës proceeded to
Apamea, and demanded a large sum of money from its bishop, Thomas;
finally, he carried off all the sacred vessels and offerings and
left the town. It was here that the miracle of the precious and
life-giving cross took place.[251] Chosroës is also said to have
attended the circus games in the same place. He then went on to
Chalcis, and after exacting from the inhabitants 200 pounds of gold,
retired without besieging it. He next visited Edessa, from which
he exacted the same amount, but, being alarmed by certain divine
warnings, left this city also unbesieged. Edessa is the city which is
connected with the story of Augarus[252] and the miracle performed
by Christ. Augarus was a great friend of Augustus, at whose court
he remained some time, and only succeeded by stratagem in obtaining
permission to return to his own country. Chosroës then left Edessa.
At the same time Justinian wrote to his ambassadors, expressing
himself ready to confirm the treaty. Nevertheless, Chosroës exacted
ransom from Constantina, and, going on to Daras, proceeded to besiege
it. Its commander, Martin, prepared to defend it, and Chosroës,
seeing no hope of taking it by siege, retired to his own country on
payment of 1000 pounds of silver. The inhabitants of Antioch were all
transferred to a city called Antioch of Chosroës, which he had built
in Assyria, a day’s journey from Ctesiphon. He treated them with
great kindness and favour, ordered that they should be exempt from
all jurisdiction but his own, constructed a hippodrome, and provided
them with other amusements.
Belisarius, who had been recalled from Italy to take command, set
out against Chosroës at the beginning of spring. On his arrival in
Mesopotamia, he armed and encouraged the soldiers, who were almost
without equipment and dreaded the name of the Persians. Chosroës, on
the invitation of the Lazians, who with their ruler Gubazes[253] had
joined the Persians, owing to the extortions and jobbery of John,
Roman commandant,[254] rapidly advanced against Petra, a city of
Colchis on the shore of the Euxine. As long as John was in command
of the fortress, the siege was unsuccessful, but after he had been
killed by a shot in the neck, it surrendered. The inhabitants were
allowed to depart unharmed, subject to an agreement. Only the large
amount of money accumulated by John through the monopoly was seized
by Chosroës. In the meantime Belisarius, after an abortive attack on
Nisibis, laid siege to the fortress of Sisauranum and compelled it to
surrender. Its commander Blischames[255] and the most distinguished
Persians were made prisoners and sent to Byzantium. Arethas also,
who had been sent with an army against the Assyrians, ravaged their
country; but his companions, who had secured large sums of money,
refused to return to Belisarius. The latter, whose army had been
attacked by sickness, was in ignorance of what Arethas had done;
Recithangus and Theoctistus were eager to return home to defend
Phoenicia, which was being ravaged by Alamundarus. Belisarius
accordingly withdrew his forces from Persian territory, and was soon
afterwards summoned by Justinian to Constantinople.