/Those/ greens will appear to approach nearest to blue which are
of the darkest shade when remote. This is proved by the seventh
proposition[83], which says, that blue is composed of black and white
seen at a great distance.
/Chap. CCCXXVIII./--_The Colour of the Sea from different Aspects._
/When/ the sea is a little ruffled it has no sameness of colour; for
whoever looks at it from the shore, will see it of a dark colour, in a
greater degree as it approaches towards the horizon, and will perceive
also certain lights moving slowly on the surface like a flock of sheep.
Whoever looks at the sea from on board a ship, at a distance from the
land, sees it blue. Near the shore it appears darkish, on account of
the colour of the earth reflected by the water, as in a looking-glass;
but at sea the azure of the air is reflected to the eye by the waves in
the same manner.
/Chap. CCCXXIX./--_Why the same Prospect appears larger at some Times
than at others._
/Objects/ in the country appear sometimes larger and sometimes smaller
than they actually are, from the circumstance of the air interposed
between the eye and the horizon, happening to be either thicker or
thinner than usual.
Of two horizons equally distant from the eye, that which is seen
through the thicker air will appear farther removed; and the other will
seem nearer, being seen through a thinner air.
Objects of unequal size, but equally distant, will appear equal if the
air which is between them and the eye be of proportionable inequality
of thickness, viz. if the thickest air be interposed between the eye
and the smallest of the objects. This is proved by the perspective of
colours[84], which is so deceitful that a mountain which would appear
small by the compasses, will seem larger than a small hill near the
eye; as a finger placed near the eye will cover a large mountain far
off.
/Chap. CCCXXX./--_Of Smoke._
/Smoke/ is more transparent, though darker towards the extremities of
its waves than in the middle.
It moves in a more oblique direction in proportion to the force of the
wind which impels it.
Different kinds of smoke vary in colour, as the causes that produce
them are various.
Smoke never produces determined shadows, and the extremities are lost
as they recede from their primary cause. Objects behind it are less
apparent in proportion to the thickness of the smoke. It is whiter
nearer its origin, and bluer towards its termination.
Fire appears darker, the more smoke there is interposed between it and
the eye.
Where smoke is farther distant, the objects are less confused by it.
It encumbers and dims all the landscape like a fog. Smoke is seen to
issue from different places, with flames at the origin, and the most
dense part of it. The tops of mountains will be more seen than the
lower parts, as in a fog.
/Chap. CCCXXXI./--_In what Part Smoke is lightest._
/Smoke/ which is seen between the sun and the eye will be lighter and
more transparent than any other in the landscape. The same is observed
of dust, and of fog; while, if you place yourself between the sun and
those objects, they will appear dark.
/Chap. CCCXXXII./--_Of the Sun-beams passing through the Openings of
Clouds._
/The/ sun-beams which penetrate the openings interposed between clouds
of various density and form, illuminate all the places over which they
pass, and tinge with their own colour all the dark places that are
behind: which dark places are only seen in the intervals between the
rays.
/Chap. CCCXXXIII./--_Of the Beginning of Rain._
/When/ the rain begins to fall, it tarnishes and darkens the air,
giving it a dull colour, but receives still on one side a faint light
from the sun, and is shaded on the other side, as we observe in clouds;
till at last it darkens also the earth, depriving it entirely of the
light of the sun. Objects seen through the rain appear confused and of
undetermined shape, but those which are near will be more distinct. It
is observable, that on the side where the rain is shaded, objects will
be more clearly distinguished than where it receives the light; because
on the shady side they lose only their principal lights, whilst on
the other they lose both their lights and shadows, the lights mixing
with the light part of the rain, and the shadows are also considerably
weakened by it.
/Chap. CCCXXXIV./--_The Seasons are to be observed._
/In/ Autumn you will represent the objects according as it is more or
less advanced. At the beginning of it the leaves of the oldest branches
only begin to fade, more or less, however, according as the plant is
situated in a fertile or barren country; and do not imitate those who
represent trees of every kind (though at equal distance) with the same
quality of green. Endeavour to vary the colour of meadows, stones,
trunks of trees, and all other objects, as much as possible, for Nature
abounds in variety _ad infinitum_.
/Chap. CCCXXXV./--_The Difference of Climates to be observed._
/Near/ the sea-shore, and in southern parts, you will be careful not to
represent the Winter season by the appearance of trees and fields, as
you would do in places more inland, and in northern countries, except
when these are covered with ever-greens, which shoot afresh all the
year round.
/Chap. CCCXXXVI./--_Of Dust._
/Dust/ becomes lighter the higher it rises, and appears darker the less
it is raised, when it is seen between the eye and the sun.
/Chap. CCCXXXVII./--_How to represent the Wind._
/In/ representing the effect of the wind, besides the bending of trees,
and leaves twisting the wrong side upwards, you will also express the
small dust whirling upwards till it mixes in a confused manner with the
air.
/Chap. CCCXXXVIII./--_Of a Wilderness._
/Those/ trees and shrubs which are by their nature more loaded with
small branches, ought to be touched smartly in the shadows, but those
which have larger foliage, will cause broader shadows.
/Chap. CCCXXXIX./--_Of the Horizon seen in the Water._
/By/ the sixth proposition[85], the horizon will be seen in the water
as in a looking-glass, on that side which is opposite the eye. And
if the painter has to represent a spot covered with water, let him
remember that the colour of it cannot be either lighter or darker than
that of the neighbouring objects.
/Chap. CCCXL./--_Of the Shadow of Bridges on the Surface of the Water._
/The/ shadows of bridges can never be seen on the surface of the water,
unless it should have lost its transparent and reflecting quality,
and become troubled and muddy; because clear water being polished and
smooth on its surface, the image of the bridge is formed in it as in
a looking-glass, and reflected in all the points situated between the
eye and the bridge at equal angles; and even the air is seen under the
arches. These circumstances cannot happen when the water is muddy,
because it does not reflect the objects any longer, but receives the
shadow of the bridge in the same manner as a dusty road would receive
it.
/Chap. CCCXLI./--_How a Painter ought to put in Practice the
Perspective of Colours._
/To/ put in practice that perspective which teaches the alteration, the
lessening, and even the entire loss of the very essence of colours,
you must take some points in the country at the distance of about
sixty-five yards[86] from each other; as trees, men, or some other
remarkable objects. In regard to the first tree, you will take a glass,
and having fixed that well, and also your eye, draw upon it, with the
greatest accuracy, the tree you see through it; then put it a little
on one side, and compare it closely with the natural one, and colour
it, so that in shape and colour it may resemble the original, and that
by shutting one eye they may both appear painted, and at the same
distance. The same rule may be applied to the second and third tree
at the distance you have fixed. These studies will be very useful if
managed with judgment, where they may be wanted in the offscape of a
picture. I have observed that the second tree is less by four fifths
than the first, at the distance of thirteen yards.
/Chap. CCCXLII./--_Various Precepts in Painting._
/The/ superficies of any opake body participates of the colour of the
transparent medium interposed between the eye and such body, in a
greater or less degree, in proportion to the density of such medium and
the space it occupies.
The outlines of opake bodies will be less apparent in proportion as
those bodies are farther distant from the eye.
That part of the opake body will be the most shaded, or lightest, which
is nearest to the body that shades it, or gives it light.
The surface of any opake body participates more or less of the colour
of that body which gives it light, in proportion as the latter is more
or less remote, or more or less strong.
Objects seen between lights and shadows will appear to have greater
relievo than those which are placed wholly in the light, or wholly in
shadow.
When you give strength and precision to objects seen at a great
distance, they will appear as if they were very near. Endeavour that
your imitation be such as to give a just idea of distances. If the
object in nature appear confused in the outlines, let the same be
observed in your picture.
The outlines of distant objects appear undetermined and confused,
for two reasons: the first is, that they come to the eye by so small
an angle, and are therefore so much diminished, that they strike the
sight no more than small objects do, which though near can hardly be
distinguished, such as the nails of the fingers, insects, and other
similar things: the second is, that between the eye and the distant
objects there is so much air interposed, that it becomes thick; and,
like a veil, tinges the shadows with its own whiteness, and turns them
from a dark colour to another between black and white, such as azure.
Although, by reason of the great distance, the appearance of many
things is lost, yet those things which receive the light from the sun
will be more discernible, while the rest remain enveloped in confused
shadows. And because the air is thicker near the ground, the things
which are lower will appear confused; and _vice versâ_.
When the sun tinges the clouds on the horizon with red, those objects
which, on account of their distance, appear blueish, will participate
of that redness, and will produce a mixture between the azure and red,
which renders the prospect lively and pleasant; all the opake bodies
which receive that light will appear distinct, and of a reddish colour,
and the air, being transparent, will be impregnated with it, and appear
of the colour of lilies[87].
The air which is between the earth and the sun when it rises or sets,
will always dim the objects it surrounds, more than the air any where
else, because it is whiter.
It is not necessary to mark strongly the outlines of any object which
is placed upon another. It ought to detach of itself.
If the outline or extremity of a white and curved surface terminate
upon another white body, it will have a shade at that extremity, darker
than any part of the light; but if against a dark object, such outline,
or extremity, will be lighter than any part of the light.
Those objects which are most different in colour, will appear the most
detached from each other.
Those parts of objects which first disappear in the distance, are
extremities similar in colour, and ending one upon the other, as the
extremities of an oak tree upon another oak similar to it. The next to
disappear at a greater distance are, objects of mixed colours, when
they terminate one upon the other, as trees, ploughed fields, walls,
heaps of rubbish, or of stones. The last extremities of bodies that
vanish are those which, being light, terminate upon a dark ground; or
being dark, upon a light ground.
Of objects situated above the eye, at equal heights, the farthest
removed from the eye will appear the lowest; and if situated below
the eye, the nearest to it will appear the lowest. The parallel lines
situated sidewise will concur to one point[88].
Those objects which are near a river, or a lake, in the distant part of
a landscape, are less apparent and distinct than those that are remote
from them.
Of bodies of equal density, those that are nearest to the eye will
appear thinnest, and the most remote thickest.
A large eye-ball will see objects larger than a small one. The
experiment may be made by looking at any of the celestial bodies,
through a pin-hole, which being capable of admitting but a portion
of its light, it seems to diminish and lose of its size in the same
proportion as the pin-hole is smaller than the usual apparent size of
the object.
A thick air interposed between the eye and any object, will render the
outlines of such object undetermined and confused, and make it appear
of a larger size than it is in reality; because the linear perspective
does not diminish the angle which conveys the object to the eye. The
aerial perspective carries it farther off, so that the one removes it
from the eye, while the other preserves its magnitude[89].
When the sun is in the West the vapours of the earth fall down again
and thicken the air, so that objects not enlightened by the sun remain
dark and confused, but those which receive its light will be tinged
yellow and red, according to the sun's appearance on the horizon.
Again, those that receive its light are very distinct, particularly
public buildings and houses in towns and villages, because their
shadows are dark, and it seems as if those parts which are plainly seen
were coming out of confused and undetermined foundations, because at
that time every thing is of one and the same colour, except what is
enlightened by the sun[90].
Any object receiving the light from the sun, receives also the general
light; so that two kinds of shadows are produced: the darkest of the
two is that which happens to have its central line directed towards the
centre of the sun. The central lines of the primitive and secondary
lights are the same as the central lines of the primitive and secondary
shadows.
The setting sun is a beautiful and magnificent object when it tinges
with its colour all the great buildings of towns, villages, and the top
of high trees in the country. All below is confused and almost lost in
a tender and general mass; for, being only enlightened by the air, the
difference between the shadows and the lights is small, and for that
reason it is not much detached. But those that are high are touched
by the rays of the sun, and, as was said before, are tinged with its
colour; the painter therefore ought to take the same colour with which
he has painted the sun, and employ it in all those parts of his work
which receive its light.
It also happens very often, that a cloud will appear dark without
receiving any shadow from a separate cloud, according to the situation
of the eye; because it will see only the shady part of the one, while
it sees both the enlightened and shady parts of the other.
Of two objects at equal height, that which is the farthest off will
appear the lowest. Observe the first cloud in the cut, though it
is lower than the second, it appears as if it were higher. This is
demonstrated by the section of the pyramidical rays of the low cloud at
M A, and the second (which is higher) at N M, below M A. This happens
also when, on account of the rays of the setting or rising sun, a dark
cloud appears higher than another which is light.
[Illustration]
/Chap. CCCXLIII./--_The Brilliancy of a Landscape._
/The/ vivacity and brightness of colours in a landscape will never bear
any comparison with a landscape in nature when illumined by the sun,
unless the picture be placed so as to receive the same light from the
sun itself.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
/Chap. CCCXLIV./--_Why a painted Object does not appear so far distant
as a real one, though they be conveyed to the Eye by equal Angles._
[Illustration]
/If/ a house be painted on the pannel B C, at the apparent distance of
one mile, and by the side of it a real one be perceived at the true
distance of one mile also; which objects are so disposed, that the
pannel, or picture, A C, intersects the pyramidical rays with the same
opening of angles; yet these two objects will never appear of the same
size, nor at the same distance, if seen with both eyes[91].
/Chap. CCCXLV./--_How to draw a Figure standing upon its Feet, to
appear forty Braccia_[92] _high, in a Space of twenty Braccia, with
proportionate Members._
/In/ this, as in any other case, the painter is not to mind what kind
of surface he has to work upon; particularly if his painting is to be
seen from a determined point, such as a window, or any other opening.
Because the eye is not to attend to the evenness or roughness of the
wall, but only to what is to be represented as beyond that wall; such
as a landscape, or any thing else. Nevertheless a curved surface, such
as F R G, would be the best, because it has no angles.
[Illustration]
/Chap. CCCXLVI./--_How to draw a Figure twenty-four Braccia high, upon
a Wall twelve Braccia high._ Plate XXII.
/Draw/ upon part of the wall M N, half the figure you mean to
represent; and the other half upon the cove above, M R. But before
that, it will be necessary to draw upon a flat board, or a paper, the
profile of the wall and cove, of the same shape and dimension, as that
upon which you are to paint. Then draw also the profile of your figure,
of whatever size you please, by the side of it; draw all the lines to
the point F, and where they intersect the profile M R, you will have
the dimensions of your figure as they ought to be drawn upon the real
spot. You will find, that on the straight part of the wall M N, it will
come of its proper form, because the going off perpendicularly will
diminish it naturally; but that part which comes upon the curve will be
diminished upon your drawing. The whole must be traced afterwards upon
the real spot, which is similar to M N. This is a good and safe method.
[Illustration:
_Page 196_.
_Chap. 346_.
_Plate 22_.
_London, Published by J. Taylor High Holborn._]
/Chap. CCCXLVII./--_Why, on measuring a Face, and then painting it of
the same Size, it will appear larger than the natural one._
A B is the breadth of the space, or of the head, and it is placed on
the paper at the distance C F, where the cheeks are, and it would have
to stand back all A C, and then the temples would be carried to the
distance O R of the lines A F, B F; so that there is the difference C
O and R D. It follows that the line C F, and the line D F, in order
to become shorter[93], have to go and find the paper where the whole
height is drawn, that is to say, the lines F A, and F B, where the true
size is; and so it makes the difference, as I have said, of C O, and R
D.
[Illustration]
/Chap. CCCXLVIII./--_Why the most perfect Imitation of Nature will not
appear to have the same Relief as Nature itself._
/If/ nature is seen with two eyes, it will be impossible to imitate it
upon a picture so as to appear with the same relief, though the lines,
the lights, shades, and colour, be perfectly imitated[94]. It is proved
thus: let the eyes A B, look at the object C, with the concurrence of
both the central visual rays A C and B C. I say, that the sides of the
visual angles (which contain these central rays) will see the space G
D, behind the object C. The eye A will see all the space FD, and the
eye B all the space G E. Therefore the two eyes will see behind the
object C all the space F E; for which reason that object C becomes as
it were transparent, according to the definition of transparent bodies,
behind which nothing is hidden. This cannot happen if an object were
seen with one eye only, provided it be larger than the eye. From all
that has been said, we may conclude, that a painted object, occupying
all the space it has behind, leaves no possible way to see any part of
the ground, which it covers entirely by its own circumference[95].
[Illustration]
/Chap. CCCXLIX./--_Universality of Painting; a Precept._
/A painter/ cannot be said to aim at universality in the art, unless
he love equally every species of that art. For instance, if he delight
only in landscape, his can be esteemed only as a simple investigation;
and, as our friend Botticello[96] remarks, is but a vain study; since,
by throwing a sponge impregnated with various colours against a wall,
it leaves some spots upon it, which may appear like a landscape. It is
true also, that a variety of compositions may be seen in such spots,
according to the disposition of mind with which they are considered;
such as heads of men, various animals, battles, rocky scenes, seas,
clouds, woods, and the like. It may be compared to the sound of bells,
which may seem to say whatever we choose to imagine. In the same manner
also, those spots may furnish hints for compositions, though they do
not teach us how to finish any particular part; and the imitators of
them are but sorry landscape-painters.
/Chap. CCCL./--_In what Manner the Mirror is the true Master of
Painters._
/When/ you wish to know if your picture be like the object you mean to
represent, have a flat looking-glass, and place it so as to reflect the
object you have imitated, and compare carefully the original with the
copy. You see upon a flat mirror the representation of things which
appear real; Painting is the same. They are both an even superficies,
and both give the idea of something beyond their superficies. Since you
are persuaded that the looking-glass, by means of lines and shades,
gives you the representation of things as if they were real; you being
in possession of colours which in their different lights and shades are
stronger than those of the looking-glass, may certainly, if you employ
the rules with judgment, give to your picture the same appearance of
Nature as you admire in the looking-glass. Or rather, your picture will
be like Nature itself seen in a large looking-glass.
This looking-glass (being your master) will shew you the lights and
shades of any object whatever. Amongst your colours there are some
lighter than the lightest part of your model, and also some darker
than the strongest shades; from which it follows, that you ought to
represent Nature as seen in your looking-glass, when you look at it
with one eye only; because both eyes surround the objects too much,
particularly when they are small[97].
/Chap. CCCLI./--_Which Painting is to be esteemed the best._
/That/ painting is the most commendable which has the greatest
conformity to what is meant to be imitated. This kind of comparison
will often put to shame a certain description of painters, who pretend
they can mend the works of Nature; as they do, for instance, when
they pretend to represent a child twelve months old, giving him eight
heads in height, when Nature in its best proportion admits but five.
The breadth of the shoulders also, which is equal to the head, they
make double, giving to a child a year old, the proportions of a man of
thirty. They have so often practised, and seen others practise these
errors, that they have converted them into habit, which has taken so
deep a root in their corrupted judgment, that they persuade themselves
that Nature and her imitators are wrong in not following their own
practice[98].
/Chap. CCCLII./--_Of the Judgment to be made of a Painter's Work._
/The/ first thing to be considered is, whether the figures have their
proper relief, according to their respective situations, and the light
they are in: that the shadows be not the same at the extremities of
the groups, as in the middle; because being surrounded by shadows, or
shaded only on one side, produce very different effects. The groups in
the middle are surrounded by shadows from the other figures, which are
between them and the light. Those which are at the extremities have
the shadows only on one side, and receive the light on the other. The
strongest and smartest touches of shadows are to be in the interstice
between the figures of the principal group where the light cannot
penetrate[99].
Secondly, that by the order and disposition of the figures they appear
to be accommodated to the subject, and the true representation of the
history in question.