The Pueblos -- Their Character for Sobriety, Honesty, and Industry --
Traditional Descent from Montezuma -- Their Languages -- Former and
present Population -- The Pueblo of Pecos -- Singular Habits of that
ill-fated Tribe -- Curious Tradition -- Montezuma and the Sun --
Legend of a Serpent -- Religion and Government -- Secret Council --
Laws and Customs -- Excellent Provisions against Demoralization --
Primitive Pastimes of the Pueblos -- Their Architecture -- Singular
Structures of Taos, and other novel Fortifications -- Primitive
state of the Arts among the Pueblos -- Style of Dress, Weapons, etc.
-- Their Diet -- The _Guayave_.
Allusion has so frequently been made to the aboriginal tribes of New
Mexico, known as _Los Pueblos_, that I think I shall not be
trespassing too much upon the patience of the reader, in glancing
rapidly at some of the more conspicuous features of their national
habits and character.
Although the term _Pueblo_ in Spanish literally means the _people_,
and their _towns_, it is here specifically applied to the
_Christianized Indians_ (as well as their villages)--to those
aborigines whom the Spaniards not only subjected to their laws, but to
an acknowledgment of the Romish faith, and upon whom they forced
baptism and the cross in exchange for {268} the vast possessions of
which they robbed them. All that was left them was, to each Pueblo a
league or two of land situated around their villages, the conquerors
reserving to themselves at least ninety-nine hundredths of the whole
domain as a requital for their generosity. [Pg055]
When these regions were first discovered it appears that the
inhabitants lived in comfortable houses and cultivated the soil, as
they have continued to do up to the present time. Indeed, they are now
considered the best horticulturists in the country, furnishing most of
the fruits and a large portion of the vegetable supplies that are to
be found in the markets. They were until very lately the only people
in New Mexico who cultivated the grape. They also maintain at the
present time considerable herds of cattle, horses, etc. They are, in
short, a remarkably sober and industrious race, conspicuous for
morality and honesty, and very little given to quarrelling or
dissipation, except when they have had much familiar intercourse with
the Hispano-Mexican population.
Most of these Pueblos call themselves the descendants of Montezuma,
although it would appear that they could only have been made
acquainted with the history of that monarch, by the Spaniards; as this
province is nearly two thousand miles from the ancient kingdom of
Mexico. At the time of the conquest they must have been a very
powerful people--numbering near a hundred villages, as existing {269}
ruins would seem to indicate; but they are now reduced to about
twenty, which are scattered in various parts of the territory.[18]
There are but three or four different languages spoken among them, and
these, indeed, may be distantly allied to each other. Those of Taos,
Picuris, Isleta, and perhaps some others, speak what has been called
the _Piro_ language. A large portion of the others, viz., those of San
Juan, Santa [Pg056] Clara, Nambé, Pojuaque, Tezuque, and some others,
speak _Tegua_, having all been originally known by this general name;
and those of Cochití, Santo Domingo, San Felipe, and perhaps Sandía,
speak the same tongue, though they seem formerly to have been
distinguished as _Queres_. The numerous tribes that inhabited the
highlands between Rio del Norte and Pecos, as those of Pecos, Ciénega,
Galisteo, etc., were known anciently as _Tagnos_, but these are now
all extinct; yet their language is said to be spoken by those of Jemez
and others of that section. Those further to the westward[19] {270}
are perhaps allied to the Navajoes. Though all these Pueblos speak
their native languages among themselves, a great many of them possess
a smattering of Spanish, sufficient to carry on their intercourse with
the Mexicans.[20]
The population of these Pueblos will average nearly five hundred souls
each (though some hardly exceed one hundred), making an aggregate of
nine or ten thousand. At the time of the original conquest, at the
close of the sixteenth century, they were, as has been mentioned,
much, [Pg057] perhaps ten-fold, more numerous.[21] Ancient ruins are
now to be seen scattered in every quarter of the territory: of some,
entire stone walls are yet standing, while others are nearly or quite
obliterated, many of them being now only known by their names which
history or tradition has preserved to us. Numbers were no doubt
destroyed during the insurrection of 1680, and the petty internal
strifes which followed.
Several of these Pueblos have been converted into Mexican villages, of
which that of _Pecos_ is perhaps the most remarkable instance. What
with the massacres of the second conquest, and the inroads of the
Comanches, they gradually dwindled away, till they found themselves
reduced to about a dozen, comprising all ages and sexes; and it was
only a few years ago that they abandoned the home of their fathers and
joined the Pueblo of Jemez.
Many curious tales are told of the singular habits of this ill-fated
tribe, which must no {271} doubt have tended to hasten its utter
annihilation. A tradition was prevalent among them that Montezuma had
kindled a holy fire, and enjoined their ancestors not to suffer it to
be extinguished until he should return to deliver his people from the
yoke of the Spaniards. In pursuance of these commands, a constant
watch had been maintained for ages to prevent the fire from going out;
and, as tradition further informed them, that Montezuma would appear
with the sun, the deluded Indians were to be seen every clear morning
upon the terraced roofs of their houses, attentively watching for the
appearance of the 'king of light,' in hopes of seeing him 'cheek by
jowl' with their immortal sovereign. I have [Pg058] myself descended
into the famous _estufas_, or subterranean vaults, of which there were
several in the village, and have beheld this consecrated fire,
silently smouldering under a covering of ashes, in the basin of a
small altar. Some say that they never lost hope in the final coming of
Montezuma until, by some accident or other, or a lack of a sufficiency
of warriors to watch it, the fire became extinguished; and that it was
this catastrophe that induced them to abandon their villages, as I
have before observed.
The task of tending the sacred fire was, it is said, allotted to the
warriors. It is further related, that they took the watch by turns for
two successive days and nights, without partaking of either food,
water, or sleep; while some assert, that instead of being restricted
to {272} two days, each guard continued with the same unbending
severity of purpose until exhaustion, and very frequently death, left
their places to be filled by others. A large portion of those who came
out alive were generally so completely prostrated by the want of
repose and the inhalation of carbonic gas that they very soon died;
when, as the vulgar story asseverates, their remains were carried to
the den of a monstrous serpent, which kept itself in excellent
condition by feeding upon these delicacies. This huge snake (invented
no doubt by the lovers of the marvellous to account for the constant
disappearance of the Indians) was represented as the idol which they
worshipped, and as subsisting entirely upon the flesh of his devotees:
live infants, however, seemed to suit his palate best. The story of
this wonderful serpent was so firmly believed in by many ignorant
people, that on one occasion I heard an honest ranchero assert, that
upon entering the village very early on a winter's morning, he saw the
huge trail of the reptile in the snow, as large as that of a dragging
ox. [Pg059]
This village, anciently so renowned, lies twenty-five miles eastward
of Santa Fé, and near the _Rio Pecos_, to which it gave name. Even so
late as ten years ago, when it contained a population of fifty to a
hundred souls, the traveller would oftentimes perceive but a solitary
Indian, a woman, or a child, standing here and there like so many
statues upon the roofs of their houses, with their eyes fixed on {273}
the eastern horizon, or leaning against a wall or a fence, listlessly
gazing at the passing stranger; while at other times not a soul was to
be seen in any direction, and the sepulchral silence of the place was
only disturbed by the occasional barking of a dog, or the cackling of
hens.[22]
No other Pueblo appears to have adopted this extraordinary
superstition: like Pecos, however, they have all held Montezuma to be
their perpetual sovereign. It would likewise appear that they all
worship the sun; for it is asserted to be their regular practice to
turn the face towards the east at sunrise.[23] They profess the
Catholic faith, however, of which, nevertheless, they cannot be
expected to understand anything beyond the formalities; as [Pg060]
but very few of their Mexican neighbors and teachers can boast of
more.
Although nominally under the jurisdiction of the federal government,
as Mexican citizens, many features of their ancient customs are still
retained, as well in their civil rule as in their religion. Each
Pueblo is under the control of a _cacique_ or _gobernadorcillo_,
chosen from among their own sages, and commissioned by the governor of
New Mexico. The cacique, when any public business is to be transacted,
collects together the principal chiefs of the Pueblo in an _estufa_,
or cell, usually under ground, and there lays before them the subjects
of debate, which are generally settled by the opinion of the majority.
No Mexican is admitted to these councils, nor do the {274} subjects of
discussion ever transpire beyond the precincts of the cavern. The
council has also charge of the interior police and tranquility of the
village.[24] One of their regulations is to appoint a secret watch for
the purpose of keeping down disorders and vices of every description,
and especially to keep an eye over the young men and women of the
village. When any improper intercourse among them is detected, the
parties are immediately carried to the council, and the cacique
intimates to them that they must be wedded forthwith. Should the girl
be of bad character, and the man, [Pg061] therefore, unwilling to
marry her, they are ordered to keep separate under penalty of the
lash. Hence it is, that the females of these Pueblos are almost
universally noted for their chastity and modest deportment.[25]
They also elect a _capitan de guerra_, a kind of commander-in-chief of
the warriors, whose office it is to defend their homes and their
interests both in the field and in the council chamber.[26] Though not
very warlike, these Pueblos are generally valiant, and well skilled in
the strategies of Indian warfare; and although they have been branded
with cruelty and ferocity, yet they can hardly be said to surpass the
Mexicans in this respect: both, in times of war, pay but little regard
either to age or sex. I have been told that when the Pueblos return
from their belligerent expeditions, instead of going directly to their
homes, they always visit their council cell first. Here {275} they
undress, dance, and carouse, frequently for two days in succession
before seeing their families.
Although the Pueblos are famous for hospitality and industry, they
still continue in the rudest state of ignorance, having neither books
nor schools among them, as none of their languages have been reduced
to rules, and very few of their children are ever taught in
Spanish.[27] A degree of primitiveness characterizes all their
amusements, which bear a strong similarity to those of the wilder
tribes. Before the New Mexican government had become so much [Pg062]
impoverished, there was wont to be held in the capital on the 16th of
September of every year, a national celebration of the declaration of
Independence, to which the Pueblos were invited. The warriors and
youths of each nation with a proportionate array of dusky damsels
would appear on these occasions, painted and ornamented in accordance
with their aboriginal customs, and amuse the inhabitants with all
sorts of grotesque feats and native dances. Each Pueblo generally had
its particular uniform dress and its particular dance. The men of one
village would sometimes disguise themselves as elks, with horns on
their heads, moving on all-fours, and mimicking the animal they were
attempting to personate. Others would appear in the garb of a turkey,
with large heavy wings, and strut about in imitation of that bird. But
the Pecos tribe, already reduced to seven men, always occasioned most
diversion. {276} Their favorite exploit was, each to put on the skin
of a buffalo, horns, tail, and all, and thus accoutred scamper about
through the crowd, to the real or affected terror of all the ladies
present, and to the great delight of the boys.
The Pueblo villages are generally built with more regularity than
those of the Mexicans, and are constructed of the same materials as
were used by them in the most primitive ages. Their dwelling-houses,
it is true, are not so spacious as those of the Mexicans, containing
very seldom more than two or three small apartments upon the ground
floor, without any court-yard, but they have generally a much loftier
appearance, being frequently two stories high and sometimes more. A
very curious feature in these buildings, is, that there is most
generally no direct communication between the street and the lower
rooms, into which they descend by a trap-door from the upper story,
the latter being accessible by means of ladders. Even the entrance to
the upper stories is frequently at the roof. This style of [Pg063]
building seems to have been adopted for security against their
marauding neighbors of the wilder tribes, with whom they were often at
war. When the family had all been housed at night, the ladder was
drawn up, and the inmates were thus shut up in a kind of fortress,
which bid defiance to the scanty implements of warfare used by the
wild Indians.
Though this was their most usual style of architecture, there still
exists a Pueblo of Taos, {277} composed, for the most part, of but two
edifices of very singular structure--one on each side of a creek, and
formerly communicating by a bridge. The base-story is a mass of near
four hundred feet long, a hundred and fifty wide, and divided into
numerous apartments, upon which other tiers of rooms are built, one
above another, drawn in by regular grades, forming a pyramidal pile of
fifty or sixty feet high, and comprising some six or eight stories.
The outer rooms only seem to be used for dwellings, and are lighted by
little windows in the sides, but are entered through trap-doors in the
_azoteas_ or roofs. Most of the inner apartments are employed as
granaries and store-rooms, but a spacious hall in the centre of the
mass, known as the _estufa_, is reserved for their secret councils.
These two buildings afford habitations, as is said, for over six
hundred souls.[28] There is likewise an edifice in the Pueblo of
Picuris[29] of the same class, and some of those of Moqui are also
said to be similar.
Some of these villages were built upon rocky eminences deemed almost
inaccessible: witness for instance [Pg064] the ruins of the ancient
Pueblo of San Felipe, which may be seen towering upon the very verge
of a precipice several hundred feet high, whose base is washed by the
swift current of the Rio del Norte. The still existing Pueblo of Acoma
also stands upon an isolated mound whose whole area is occupied by the
village, being fringed all around by a precipitous _ceja_ or cliff.
{278} The inhabitants enter the village by means of ladders, and by
steps cut into the solid rock upon which it is based.[30]
At the time of the conquest, many of these Pueblos manufactured some
singular textures of cotton and other materials; but with the loss of
their liberty, they seem to have lost most of their arts and
ingenuity; so that the finer specimens of native fabrics are now only
to be met with among the Moquis and Navajoes, who still retain their
independence. The Pueblos, however, make some of the ordinary classes
of blankets and _tilmas_,[31] as well as other woolen stuffs. They
also manufacture, according to their aboriginal art, both for their
own consumption, and for the purpose of traffic, a species of
earthenware not much inferior to the coarse crockery of our common
potters. The pots made of this material stand fire remarkably well,
and are the universal substitutes for all the purposes of cookery,
even among the Mexicans, for the iron castings of this country, which
are utterly unknown there. Rude as this kind of crockery is, it
nevertheless evinces a great deal of skill, considering that it is
made entirely [Pg065] without lathe or any kind of machinery. It is
often fancifully painted with colored earths and the juice of a plant
called _guaco_, which brightens by burning. They also work a singular
kind of wicker-ware, of which some bowls (if they may be so called)
are so closely platted, {279} that, once swollen by dampness, they
serve to hold liquids, and are therefore light and convenient vessels
for the purposes of travellers.[32]
The dress of many of the Pueblos has become assimilated in some
respects to that of the common Mexicans; but by far the greatest
portion still retain most of their aboriginal costume. The Taosas and
others of the north somewhat resemble the prairie tribes in this
respect; but the Pueblos to the south and west of Santa Fé dress in a
different style, which is said to be similar in many respects to that
of the aboriginal inhabitants of the city of Mexico. The moccasin is
the only part of the prairie suit that appears common to them all, and
of both sexes. They mostly wear a kind of short breeches and long
stockings, the use of which they most probably acquired from the
Spaniards. The _saco_, a species of woollen jacket without sleeves,
completes their exterior garment; except during inclement seasons,
when they make use of the tilma. Very few of them have hats or
head-dress of any kind; and they generally wear their hair
long--commonly fashioned into a _queue_, wrapped with some colored
stuff. The squaws of the northern tribes dress pretty much like those
of the Prairies; but the usual costume of the females of the southern
and western Pueblos is a handsome kind of small blanket of dark
color, [Pg066] which is drawn under one arm and tacked over the other
shoulder, leaving both arms free and naked. It is generally {280} worn
with a cotton chemise underneath and is bound about the waist with a
girdle. We rarely if ever see a thorough-bred Pueblo woman in Mexican
dress.[33]
The weapons most in use among the Pueblos are the bow and arrow, with
a long-handled lance and occasionally a fusil. The rawhide shield is
also much used, which, though of but little service against fire-arms,
serves to ward off the arrow and lance.
The aliment of these Indians is, in most respects, similar to that of
the Mexicans; in fact, as has been elsewhere remarked, the latter
adopted with their utensils numerous items of aboriginal diet. The
_tortilla_, the _atole_, the _pinole_,[34] and many others, together
with the use of _chile_, are from the Indians. Some of the wilder
tribes make a peculiar kind of _pinole_, by grinding the bean of the
mezquite tree into flour, which is then used as that of corn. And
besides the tortilla they make another singular kind of bread, if we
may so style it, called _guayave_, a roll of which so much resembles a
'hornets' nest,' that by strangers it is often designated by this
title. It is usually made of Indian corn prepared and ground as for
tortillas, and diluted into a thin paste. {281} I once happened to
enter an Indian hut where a young girl of the family was baking
_guayaves_. She was sitting by a fire, over which a large flat stone
was heating, with a crock of prepared paste by her side. She [Pg067]
thrust her hand into the paste, and then wiped it over the heated
stone. What adhered to it was instantly baked and peeled off. She
repeated this process at the rate of a dozen times or more per minute.
Observing my curiosity, the girl handed me one of the 'sheets,'
silently; for she seemed to understand but her native tongue. I found
it pleasant enough to the taste; though when cold, as I have learned
by experience, it is, like the cold tortilla, rather tough and
insipid. They are even thinner than wafers; and some dozens, being
folded in a roll, constitute the laminate composition before
mentioned. Being thus preserved, they serve the natives for months
upon their journeys.
FOOTNOTES:
[18] On the subject of Pueblo Indians, consult T. Donaldson, _Moqui
Pueblo Indians of Arizona and Pueblo Indians of New Mexico_
(Washington, 1893), extra bulletin of eleventh census; John T. Short,
North _Americans of Antiquity_ (New York, 1880); A. F. A. Bandelier,
Archæological Institute of America _Papers_, American Series, i-iv; N.
O. G. Nordenskiold, _Cliff-dwellers of the Mesa Verde_ (Chicago and
Stockholm, 1893); C. F. Lummis, _Land of Poco Tiempo_ (New York,
1893).--ED.
[19] Of these, the Pueblo of Zuñi has been celebrated for honesty and
hospitality. The inhabitants mostly profess the Catholic faith, but
have now no curate. They cultivate the soil, manufacture, and possess
considerable quantities of stock. Their village is over 150 miles west
of the Rio del Norte, on the waters of the Colorado of the West, and
is believed to contain between 1,000 and 1,500 souls. The "seven
Pueblos of Moqui" (as they are called) are a similar tribe living a
few leagues beyond. They formerly acknowledged the government and
religion of the Spaniards, but have long since rejected both, and live
in a state of independence and paganism. Their dwellings, however,
like those of Zuñi, are similar to those of the interior Pueblos, and
they are equally industrious and agricultural, and still more
ingenious in their manufacturing. The language of the _Moquis_ or
_Moquinos_ is said to differ but little from that of the
Navajoes.--GREGG.
_Comment by Ed._ For the Moki (properly Hopi), see Pattie's
_Narrative_, in our volume xviii, p. 130, note 64. The articles by
Frank H. Cushing in American Bureau of Ethnology _Reports_ first
directed attention to the Zuñi; consult also Bandelier, "Outline of
Documentary History of Zuñi Tribe," in _Journal of American Ethnology
and Archæology_ (Boston, 1891-94), iii.
[20] On the linguistic stocks of the pueblos, consult our volume xix,
p. 266, note 90 (Gregg).--ED.
[21] Bandelier, "Final Report," Archæological Institute of America
_Papers_, American Series, iii, pp. 121-136, considers the pueblo
population at the time of the Spanish conquest to have been about
twenty-five thousand. The present population of New Mexican pueblos,
exclusive of the Moki, is about nine thousand.--ED.
[22] The pueblo of Pecos was situated thirty miles southeast of Santa
Fé, and at the close of the seventeenth century had a population of
two thousand, being the largest pueblo in either New Mexico or
Arizona. It was visited as early as 1540 by Alvarado, a lieutenant of
Coronado. In 1598, the inhabitants rendered submission to Oñate, and a
mission was established among them for which a large church was built
in the seventeenth century, its ruins being still conspicuous. In the
revolt of 1680 the Pecos remained neutral; but soon thereafter decline
in numbers set in, and by 1837 but eighteen adults were left. A fever
swept away the majority of these, when in 1840 the remnant of five men
sold their lands to the government, and retired to their kinsmen at
Jemez. A son of the tribe was found in 1880 among the Mexicans of the
village of Pecos, a small, comparatively modern town. Bandelier
discredits the Montezuma myth, which he considers a Spanish-Mexican
importation. See Archæological Institute of America _Papers_, American
Series, i, pp. 110-125. He found among the ruins, however, evidences
of the existence of the sacred fire.--ED.
[23] The Pueblo Indians still cling to many features of aboriginal
worship. The sun-father and moon-mother are revered--not the orbs
themselves, but the spiritual beings residing therein. Consult on this
subject, Bandelier, _op. cit._, iii, pp. 276-316.--ED.
[24] The office of the cacique is in essence religious; but as
religion is interwoven with the entire life of the Pueblos, he is in a
sense a civil official as well. He is chosen because of fitness,
frequently on the nomination of his predecessor, and his education in
the mysteries and secrets of his people is exacting. The office is for
life, unless terminated by improper behavior, when the cacique may be
deposed. The candidate sometimes declines the office because of the
severity of the duties, which involve much fasting and abnegation.
The _estufa_ is not always subterranean. It originated before the
introduction of Christian family life, in a common home for the male
members of the pueblo. It has become the council house of the tribe.
Some pueblos contain more than one; unless rites are in progress, it
is a bare, rude room usually unornamented. For details, consult John
G. Bourke, _Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona_ (New York,
1884).--ED.
[25] Matrimonial relations among these people have been much modified
by the introduction of Christianity, and the requirements of the
friars, so that the monogamous family is now the rule among the
sedentary Indians; although there are still in force certain clan
restrictions in the choice of the mate.--ED.
[26] Although the Pueblos have, since the subjugation of the Apache,
engaged in no wars, a war-captain is each year selected by the
cacique, who has, as Gregg relates, certain protective and religious
functions.--ED.
[27] Primary schools were established for several pueblos, about 1872,
but met with opposition from priests, who did not desire Indian
children to learn English. There are in the territory at present
(1903), about eighteen day-schools, and two industrial boarding
schools.--ED.
[28] For a brief sketch of the history of Taos, see our volume xviii,
p. 73, note 44. The Taos communal architecture is of the primitive
type; after the Spanish conquest, the separate houses of the other
pueblos were gradually adopted.--ED.
[29] Picuries is one of the northern group. Like Taos, it is of Tiguan
stock, and participated in the history of the region, being visited by
one of Coronado's party in 1540. It yielded to Oñate in 1598, took
part in the revolts of 1680 and 1696, and in the uprising against the
Americans in 1848. The pueblo was formerly much larger than at
present, its population now consisting of only about a hundred poor
and rather unprogressive Indians. It is in Taos County about seventy
miles north of Santa Fé.--ED.
[30] Acoma is a Queres pueblo, built upon a cliff, about seventy miles
southwest of Santa Fé, in Valencia County. Because of its
inaccessibility, and the charm of its situation, it has been much
noted. Coronado described it in his journey of 1540--see George P.
Winship, _Journey of Coronado_ (New York, 1904); and here a great
battle was fought between Spaniards and Acomans in 1599. The pueblo
took part in the revolts of 1680 and 1696; but has since lived
quietly, and has at present a population of about six hundred.--ED.
[31] The _tilma_ of the North is a sort of small but durable blanket,
worn by the Indians as a mantle.--GREGG.
[32] Recent authorities do not consider the decline of domestic arts a
sign of deterioration among the Pueblos. They taught the Navaho to
weave, and now purchase blankets from the latter. Pottery is still
manufactured among the New Mexican pueblos. See on these subjects
Washington Matthews, "Navaho Weavers," in U. S. Bureau of Ethnology
_Report_, 1881-82, pp. 371-391; and William H. Holmes, "Pottery of the
Ancient Pueblos," _ibid._, 1882-83, pp. 265-358.--ED.
[33] The Pueblos still retain their native dress, which is
picturesque, healthful, convenient, and often relatively costly--a
woman's costume sometimes being worth as much as twenty-five
dollars.--ED.
[34] _Pinole_ is in effect the _cold-flour_ of our hunters. It is the
meal of parched Indian corn, prepared for use by stirring it up with a
little cold water. This food seems also to have been of ancient use
among the aborigines of other parts of America. Father Charlevoix, in
1721, says of the savages about the northern lakes, that they "reduce
[the maize] to Flour which they call _Farine froide_ (cold Flour), and
this is the best Provision that can be made for Travellers."--GREGG.