Early Western Travels
1748-1846
Volume XX
[Illustration: Indian alarm on the Cimarron River]
Early Western Travels
1748-1846
A Series of Annotated Reprints of some of the best
and rarest contemporary volumes of travel, descriptive
of the Aborigines and Social and
Economic Conditions in the Middle
and Far West, during the Period
of Early American Settlement
Edited with Notes, Introductions, Index, etc., by
Reuben Gold Thwaites, LL. D.
Editor of "The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents", "Original
Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition", "Hennepin's
New Discovery," etc.
Volume XX
Part II of Gregg's Commerce of the Prairies, 1831-1839
[Illustration]
Cleveland, Ohio
The Arthur H. Clark Company
1905
COPYRIGHT 1905, BY
THE ARTHUR H. CLARK COMPANY
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
The Lakeside Press
R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY
CHICAGO
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XX
COMMERCE OF THE PRAIRIES; or, The Journal of a Santa Fé
Trader, during Eight Expeditions across the Great Western
Prairies, and a Residence of nearly Nine Years in Northern
Mexico. (Part II: Chapters xii-xvi of Volume I, and all
of Volume II of original.) _Josiah Gregg._
Author's Table of Contents 13
Text of Part II: 21
ILLUSTRATIONS TO VOLUME XX
"Indian Alarm on the Cimarron River" _Frontispiece_
"Map of the Interior of Northern Mexico" _Facing_ 21
Medal of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Mexico (text cut) 40
"Camp Comanche" 123
Mule emerging from a mine; Still Hunting (text cuts in
original) 181
"'Dog Town,' or Settlement of Prairie Dogs" 279
PART II OF GREGG'S COMMERCE OF THE PRAIRIES, OR THE
JOURNAL OF A SANTA FÉ TRADER--1831-1839
Reprint of chapters xii-xvi of Volume I, and all of Volume
II of the second edition: New York, 1845
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XII
Government of New Mexico -- The Administration of Justice
-- Judicial Corruption -- Prejudices against Americans
-- Partiality for the English -- Anecdote of Governor
Armijo and a Trapper -- Outrage upon an American
Physician -- Violence suffered by the American Consul
and others -- Arbitrary Impositions upon Foreigners --
_Contribucion de Guerra_ -- The Alcaldes and their
System -- The _Fueros_ -- Mode of punishing Delinquents
and Criminals -- Mexican System of Slavery -- Thieves
and Thieveries Outrage upon an American Merchant --
Gambling and Gambling-houses -- Game of _Monte_ --
Anecdote of a Lady of Fashion -- _Chuza_ -- Cockpits --
_Correr el gallo_ -- _El Coleo_ -- Fandangoes --
_Cigarritos_, 21
CHAPTER XIII
Military Hierarchy of Mexico -- Religious Superstitions --
Legend of _Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe_ -- A profane
Version of the Story -- A curious Plan for manufacturing
Water -- Saints and Images -- Processions -- How to make
it Rain -- The Sacred Host -- Fanaticism and Murder --
Honors paid to a Bishop -- Servility to Priests --
Attendance at Public Worship -- New Mexicans in Church
-- The Vesper Bells -- Passion Week and the Ceremonies
pertaining thereto -- Ridiculous _Penitencia_ --
Whitewashing of Criminals -- Matrimonial Connexions and
Mode of Contracting them -- Restrictions upon Lovers --
Onerous Fees paid for Marriages and Burials -- Anecdote
of a _Ranchero_ -- Ditto of a Servant and of a Widow,
illustrative of Priestly Extortion -- Modes of Burial,
and Burial Ground of the Heretics, 37
CHAPTER XIV
The Pueblos -- Their Character for Sobriety, Honesty, and
Industry -- Traditional descent from Montezuma -- Their
Languages -- Former and present Population -- The Pueblo
of Pecos -- Singular Habits of that ill-fated Tribe --
Curious Tradition -- Montezuma and the Sun -- Legend of
a Serpent -- Religion and government -- Secret Council
-- Laws and Customs -- Excellent Provisions against
Demoralization -- Primitive Pastimes of the Pueblos --
Their Architecture -- Singular Structures of Taos, and
other novel Fortifications -- Primitive state of the
Arts among the Pueblos -- Style of Dress, Weapons, etc.
-- Their Diet -- The _Guayave_, 54
{xvi} CHAPTER XV
The wild Tribes of New Mexico -- Speculative Theories --
Clavigero and the _Azteques_ -- Pueblo Bonito and other
Ruins -- Probable Relationship between the _Azteques_
and Tribes of New Mexico -- The several Nations of this
Province -- _Navajóes_ and _Azteques_ -- Manufactures of
the former -- Their Agriculture, Religion, etc. --
Mexican Cruelty to the Indians and its Consequences --
Inroads of the Navajóes -- Exploits of a Mexican Army --
How to make a Hole in a powder-keg -- The _Apaches_ and
their character -- Their Food -- Novel Mode of settling
Disputes -- Range of their marauding Excursions --
Indian Traffic and imbecile Treaties -- Devastation of
the Country -- Chihuahua Rodomontades -- Juan José, a
celebrated Apache Chief, and his tragical End, etc. --
Massacre of Americans in Retaliation -- A tragical
Episode -- _Proyecto de Guerra_ and a 'gallant' Display
-- The _Yutas_ and their Hostilities -- A personal
Adventure with them, but no Bloodshed -- The Jicarillas, 67
CHAPTER XVI
Incidents of a Return Trip from Santa Fé -- Calibre of our
Party -- Return Caravans -- Remittances -- Death of Mr.
Langham -- Burial in the Desert -- A sudden Attack --
Confusion in the Camp -- The Pawnees -- A Wolfish Escort
-- Scarcity of Buffalo -- Unprofitable Delusion --
Arrival -- Table of Camping Sites and Distances --
Condition of the Town of Independence -- The Mormons --
Their Dishonesty and Immorality -- Their high-handed
Measures, and a Rising of the People -- A fatal Skirmish
-- A chivalrous Parade of the Citizens -- Expulsion of
the Mormons -- The Meteoric Shower, and Superstition,
etc. -- Wanderings and Improprieties of the 'Latter-day
Saints' -- Gov. Boggs' Recipe -- The City of Nauvoo --
Contemplated Retribution of the Mormons, 87
CHAPTER XVII {I of Vol. II, original ed.}
A Return to Prairie Life -- Abandonment of the regular
Route -- The Start -- A Suicide -- Arrest of a Mulatto
for Debt -- Cherokee 'Bankrupt Law' -- Chuly, the Creek
Indian -- The Muster and the Introduction -- An '_Olla
Podrida_' -- Adventure of a 'Down-Easter' -- Arrival of
U. S. Dragoons -- Camp Holmes, and the Road -- A Visit
from a Party of Comanches -- Tabba-quena, a noted Chief
-- His extraordinary Geographical Talent -- Indians set
out for the 'Capitan Grande,' and we through an
unexplored Region -- Rejoined by Tabba-quena and his
'_suite_' -- Spring Valley -- The Buffalo Fever -- The
Chase -- A Green-horn Scamper -- Prairie Fuel, 99
CHAPTER XVIII {II of Vol. II}
Travelling out of our Latitude -- The Buffalo-gnat -- A
Kiawa and Squaw -- Indian _crim. con._ Affair --
Extraordinary Mark of confidence in the White Man -- A
Conflagration -- An Espy Shower -- Region of Gypsum --
Our Latitude -- A Lilliputian Forest -- A Party of
Comanches -- A Visit to a 'Dog-Town' -- Indian Archery
-- Arrival of Comanche Warriors -- A 'Big Talk' and its
Results -- Speech of the _Capitan Mayor_ -- Project of
bringing Comanche Chiefs to Washington -- Return of
Lieut. Bowman, and our March resumed -- Melancholy
Reflections -- Another Indian Visit -- Mexican Captives
-- Voluntary Captivity -- A sprightly Mexican Lad --
Purchase of a Captive -- Comanche Trade and Etiquette --
Indians least dangerous to such as trade with them, 114
CHAPTER XIX {III of Vol. II}
Ponds and Buffalo Wallows -- Valley of the Canadian, and
romantic Freaks of Nature -- Formation of Ravines --
Melancholy Adventure of a Party of Traders in 1832 --
Fears of our being lost -- Arrival of a Party of
_Comancheros_, and their wonderful Stories -- Their
Peculiarities and Traffic -- Bitter Water, and the
_Salitre_ of New Mexico -- Avant-couriers for Santa Fé
-- Patent Fire-arms and their Virtues -- Ranchero Ideas
of Distance, and their Mode of giving Directions -- The
Angostura, and erroneous Notions of the Texans -- A new
Route revealed -- Solitary Travel -- Supply of
Provisions sent back -- Arrival at Santa Fé -- Gov.
Armijo, etc. -- A 'Flare-up' with His Excellency, 132
CHAPTER XX {IV of Vol. II}
Preparations for a Start to Chihuahua -- Ineptness of
Married Men for the Santa Fé Trade -- Annoying
Custom-house Regulations -- Mails in New Mexico --
Insecurity of Correspondence -- Outfit and Departure --
_Derecho de Consumo_ -- Ruins of Valverde -- 'Towns
without Houses' -- La Jornado del Muerto -- Laguna and
Ojo del Muerto -- A Tradition of the _Arrieros_ --
Laborious Ferrying and Quagmires -- Arrival at Paso del
Norte -- Amenity of the Valley -- _Sierra Blanca_ and
_Los Organos_ -- Face of the Country -- Seagrass --
Médanos or Sand-hills -- An accidental River -- Carrizal
-- Ojo Caliente -- Laguna de Encinillas -- Southern
Haciendas -- Arrival -- Character of the Route and Soil, 145
CHAPTER XXI {V of Vol. II}
Trip from Chihuahua to Aguascalientes, in 1835 -- Southern
Trade and _Ferias_ -- Hacienda de la Zarca, and its
innumerable Stock -- Rio Nazas, and Lakes without outlet
-- Perennial Cotton -- Exactions for Water and Pasturage
-- Village of Churches -- City of Durango and its
Peculiarities -- Fruits, Pulque, etc. -- Persecution of
Scorpions -- Negro-ship in the ascendant -- Robbers and
their _modus operandi_ -- City of Aguascalientes --
Bathing Scene -- Haste to return to the North -- Mexican
Mule-shoeing -- Difficulties and Perplexities -- A
Friend in time of need -- Reach Zacatecas -- City
Accommodations -- Hotels unfashionable -- _Locale_,
Fortifications, etc., of the City of Zacatecas -- Siege
by Santa Anna and his easy-won Victory -- At Durango
again -- Civil Warfare among the 'Sovereigns' --
Hairbreadth 'scapes -- Troubles of the Road -- Safe
Arrival at Chihuahua -- Character of the Southern
Country, 162
CHAPTER XXII {VI of Vol. II}
Visit to the Mining Town of Jesus-Maria -- Critical Roads
-- Character of the Town -- Losing Speculations -- Mine
of Santa Juliana -- Curious mining Operations --
Different Modes of working the Ore -- The Crushing-mill,
etc. -- _Barras de Plata_ -- Value of Bullion -- The
Silver Trade -- Return to Chihuahua -- Resumption of the
regular Narrative -- Curious Wholesales -- Money Table
-- Redundancy of Copper Coin -- City of Chihuahua and
its Peculiarities -- Ecclesiastical Architecture --
Hidalgo and his Monument -- Public Works, and their
present Declension -- _Fête_ in honor of Iturbide --
Illiberality towards Americans -- Shopping Mania --
Anti-Masonic _Auto de Fe_, 178
CHAPTER XXIII {VII of Vol. II}
Departure for Santa Fé -- Straitened for Food -- Summary
Effort to procure Beef -- Seizure of one of our Party --
Altercation with a _Rico_ -- His pusillanimous Procedure
-- Great Preparations in Chihuahua for our Arrest --
Arrival of Mexican Troops -- A polite Officer -- Myself
with three of my Men summoned back to Chihuahua --
Amiable Conduct of Señor Artalejo -- _Junta_
_Departmental_ and Discussion of my Affair -- Writ of
_Habeas Corpus_ not in vogue -- The Matter adjusted and
Passports granted -- The _Morale_ -- Impunity of savage
Depredations -- Final Start -- Company of _Paseños_ with
their Fruits and Liquors -- Arrival at Santa Fé, 193
CHAPTER XXIV {VIII of Vol. II}
Preparations for returning Home -- Breaking out of the
Small-pox -- The Start -- Our Caravan -- Manuel the
Comanche -- A new Route -- The Prairie on Fire -- Danger
to be apprehended from these Conflagrations -- A
Comanche Buffalo-chase -- A Skirmish with the Pawnees --
An intrepid Mexican -- The Wounded -- Value of a thick
Skull -- Retreat of the Enemy and their Failure -- A
bleak Northwester -- Loss of our Sheep -- The Llano
Estacado and Sources of Red River -- The Canadian River
-- Cruelties upon Buffalo -- Feats at 'Still Hunting' --
Mr. Wethered's Adventure -- Once more on our own Soil --
The False Washita -- Enter our former Trail -- Character
of the Country over which we had travelled -- Arrival at
Van Buren -- The two Routes to Santa Fé -- Some
Advantages of that from Arkansas -- Restlessness of
Prairie Travellers in civilized Life, and Propensity for
returning to the Wild Deserts, 203
CHAPTER XXV {IX of Vol. II}
CONCLUSION OF THE SANTA FE TRADE
Decline of Prices -- Statistical Table -- Chihuahua Trade
-- Its Extent -- Different Ports through which Goods are
introduced to that Market -- Expedition between
Chihuahua and Arkansas -- The Drawback -- The more
recent Incidents of the Santa Fé Caravans -- Adventures
of 1843 -- Robbery and Murder of Chavez -- Expedition
from Texas -- Defeat of Gen. Armijo's Van-guard -- His
precipitate Retreat -- Texan Grievances -- Unfortunate
Results of indiscriminate Revenge -- Want of discipline
among the Texans -- Disarmed by Capt. Cook -- Return of
the Escort of U. S. Dragoons, and of the Texans --
Demands of the Mexican Government -- Closing of the
Santa Fé Trade, 221
CHAPTER XXVI {X of Vol. II}
GEOGRAPHY OF THE PRAIRIES
Extent of the Prairies -- Mountains -- _Mesas_ or
Table-lands -- _El Llano Estacado_ -- _Cañones_ -- Their
Annoyance to the early Caravans -- Immense Gullies --
Coal Mines and other Geological Products -- Gypsum --
Metallic Minerals -- Salines -- Capt. Boone's
Exploration -- 'Salt Plain' and 'Salt Rock' -- Mr.
Sibley's Visit -- Saline Exudations -- Unhabitableness
of the high Prairies -- Excellent Pasturage -- Rich
border Country sufficient for two States -- Northern
Texas -- Rivers of the Prairies -- Their Unfitness for
Navigation -- Timber -- Cross Timbers -- Encroachments
of the Timber upon the Prairies -- Fruits and Flowers --
Salubrity of Climate, 237
CHAPTER XXVII {XI of Vol. II}
ANIMALS OF THE PRAIRIES
The Mustang or Wild Horse -- Capturing him by 'Creasing,'
and with the Lazo -- Horse-flesh -- The Buffalo -- Its
Appearance -- Excellence of its Meat -- General Utility
to the Indian and Traveller -- Prospect of its
Extinction -- Hunting the Buffalo with Bow and Arrows,
the Lance, etc. -- 'Still-hunting' -- The Buffalo
ferocious only when wounded -- Butchering, etc. -- The
Gray Wolf -- Its Modes of killing Buffalo -- Their great
numbers -- A 'Wolf scrape' -- The Prairie Wolf, or
'Jackal of the Prairies' -- The Elk, Deer and Bear --
The Antelope -- The Bighorn -- The Prairie Dog -- Owls
and Rattlesnakes -- The Horned Frog -- Fowls -- Bees,
etc., 259
CHAPTER XXVIII {XII of Vol. II}
ABORIGINES OF AMERICA
Indian Cosmogony -- Traditions of Origin -- Identity of
Religious Notions -- Adoration of the Sun -- Shawnee
Faith -- Anecdote of Tecumseh -- Legendary Traditions --
Missionaries, and Success of the Catholics -- The
Indian's Heaven -- Burial Customs -- Ancient Accounts --
Depositing the Dead on Scaffolds -- Superstition and
Witchcraft -- Indian Philosophy -- Polygamy and other
Matrimonial Affairs -- Abhorrence of Incest --
Difference in Character -- Indian Hospitality -- Traits
of the Ancient Asiatics -- Names -- Relationship of
Different Tribes -- Dreadful Decrease of the Indians, 283
CHAPTER XXIX {XIII of Vol. II}
THE FRONTIER INDIANS
Causes of Removal West -- Annuities, etc. --
Dissatisfaction of the Indians -- Their Melioration by
the Change -- Superiority of their present Location --
Lands granted to them -- Improvements, Agriculture,
etc. -- Their Slaves -- Manufactures -- Style of Living,
Dress, etc. -- Literary Opportunities and Improvements
-- Choctaw Academy -- Harpies and Frauds -- Games --
Systems of Government -- Polygamy -- Ancient Laws and
Customs -- Intemperance -- Preventive Measures -- A
Choctaw Enactment -- Marriage and Funeral Customs of the
Choctaws -- The Creeks -- Their Summary Executions --
Mourning -- Indian Titles -- The Northern Tribes --
Census of the Frontier Nations, 299
CHAPTER XXX {XIV of Vol. II}
INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES
System of Chiefs -- Mode of Warfare -- War-Council -- The
Scalp-dance -- The Calumet or Pipe of Peace -- Treaties
-- Public News-criers -- Arms of the Indians -- Bow and
Arrows, etc. -- Hunting -- Dancing -- Language of Signs
-- Telegraphs -- Wigwams or Lodges -- Pack-dogs --
Costumes -- Painting, Tattooing, etc. -- Indian Dandies
-- Manufactures, and Dressing the Buffalo Rug -- Indian
Diet, Fasting, etc. -- Primitive Thomsonians -- Their
domestic Animals, the Dog and the Horse -- Wampum --
Their Chronology, 318
CHAPTER XXXI {XV of Vol. II}
INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES
Intermediate Tribes -- Their Wigwams and their Hunting
Excursions -- Dress and Cut of their Hair -- The Pawnees
-- The Osages -- Their Roguery -- Matrimonial Customs --
Accomplished Mourners -- Their Superstitions -- The
Indian Figure -- The 'Pawnee Picts' -- Wild Tribes --
Census -- The Comanches -- Their Range -- Their Sobriety
-- Their Chiefs, etc. -- Female Chastity -- Comanche
Marriage -- Costumes -- Horsemanship -- Comanche Warfare
-- Predatory Forays -- Martial Ceremonies -- Treatment
of Captives -- Burial and Religious Rites, 336
GLOSSARY.
Containing such Spanish or Hispano-Mexican words as occur
undefined in this work, or recur without definition
after having been once translated 353
[Illustration: MAP OF THE INTERIOR OF NORTHERN MEXICO.]
COMMERCE OF THE PRAIRIES
{PART II}
CHAPTER XII[1]
Government of New Mexico -- The Administration of Justice --
Judicial Corruption -- Prejudices against Americans -- Partiality
for the English -- Anecdote of Governor Armijo and a Trapper --
Outrage upon an American Physician -- Violence suffered by the
American Consul and others -- Arbitrary Impositions upon Foreigners
-- _Contribucion de Guerra_ -- The Alcaldes and their System --
The _Fueros_ -- Mode of punishing Delinquents and Criminals --
Mexican System of Slavery -- Thieves and Thieveries -- Outrage upon
an American Merchant -- Gambling and Gambling-houses -- Game of
_Monte_ -- Anecdote of a Lady of Fashion -- _Chuza_ -- Cockpits --
_Correr_ _el gallo_ -- El Coleo -- Fandangoes -- _Cigarritos_.
Prior to the adoption of the _Sistema Central_ in the Mexican
republic, the province of New Mexico was under a territorial
government. The executive was called _Gefe Político_ (political
chief), and the _Diputacion Provincial_ very inefficiently supplied
the place of a legislature. Under the present system, however, New
Mexico being a _department_, the names of these powers have been
changed, but their functions remain very nearly the same. The
_Gobernador_ (governor) is appointed by the President for eight years.
The legislative power is nominally vested in a _Junta Departamental_,
a kind of state council, with very circumscribed {226} powers,
somewhat analogous to, and certainly not more extensive than, those of
a board of aldermen with us. But even this shadow of popular
representation was 'prorogued' by Gov. Armijo soon after his accession
to power (five or six years ago), and has never since been convened;
so that [Pg022] its functions have been arbitrarily exercised by the
governor ever since.
The administration of the laws in Northern Mexico constitutes one of
the most painful features of her institutions. Justice, or rather
judgments, are a common article of traffic; and the hapless litigant
who has not the means to soften the claws of the alcalde with a
'silver unction,' is almost sure to get severely scratched in the
contest, no matter what may be the justice of his cause, or the
uprightness of his character. It is easy to perceive, then, that the
poor and the humble stand no chance in a judicial contest with the
wealthy and consequential, whose influence, even apart from their
facilities for corrupting the court and suborning witnesses, is
sufficient to neutralize any amount of plebeian testimony that might
be brought against them.
The evil consequences arising from maladministration of justice in New
Mexico are most severely felt by foreigners, against whom a strong
prejudice prevails throughout the South. Of these, the citizens of the
United States are by far the most constant sufferers; an inevitable
result of that sinister feeling with which the 'rival republic' views
the advancement {227} and superiority of her more industrious
neighbors. It is a notorious fact, that while the English are
universally treated with comparative consideration and respect, the
Americans residing in the southern parts of the republic are
frequently taunted with the effeminacy of their government and its
want of decision. So openly has this preference for British subjects
been manifested, and so thoroughly conscious have the Americans become
of the humiliating fact, that when a mercantile firm, consisting of an
American and an Englishman, has occasion to present a memorial of any
description, or to sue either for an act of favor or of justice from
the nation, the application is sure [Pg023] to be made in the name of
the latter, knowing it will thus be more likely to command proper
attention.
Few men, perhaps, have done more to jeopard the interests of American
traders, or to bring the American character itself into contempt, than
Armijo, the present arbitrary governor of New Mexico. I am happy to
say, however, that in the midst of his many oppressions, he was once
at least obliged to 'knock under' to one of those bold and daring
spirits of the Rocky Mountains whom obstacles rather energize than
subdue. This was about the year 1828, during Armijo's previous
governorship. A law was then in existence which had been enacted by
the general Congress prohibiting foreigners from trapping beaver in
the Mexican territory, under penalty of confiscation, etc.; but as
there were no native {228} trappers in New Mexico, Gov. Baca and his
successor (Narbona) thought it expedient to extend licenses to
foreigners, in the name of citizens, upon condition of their taking a
certain proportion of Mexicans to learn the art of trapping. In
pursuance of this disposition, Gov. Narbona extended a license to one
Ewing Young, who was accompanied by a Mr. Sublette, brother of Capt.
Wm. Sublette, and almost equally celebrated for his mountain
adventures.[2] [Pg024] Previous to the return of this party from
their trapping expedition, Armijo had succeeded Narbona in office, and
they were informed that it was his intention to seize their furs. To
prevent this, they deposited them at a neighboring village, where they
were afterwards discovered, seized, and confiscated. The furs being
damp, they were spread out in the sun before the _Guardia_, in Santa
Fé, when Sublette, perceiving two packs of beaver which had been his
own property, got by honest labor, instantly seized them and carried
them away before the eyes of the whole garrison, and concealed both
them and his own person in a house opposite. The entire military force
was immediately put in requisition, and a general search made for the
offender and his prize; but in vain: indeed, if the truth must be
spoken, the troops seemed to have as little desire to find Sublette as
the latter had of being found; for his character was too well known to
leave any room for hope that his capture could be effected without a
great deal {229} of trouble. In the meanwhile, Armijo raved, and
threatened the Americans for not ferreting out their countryman and
delivering him over to justice. Failing to produce any impression by
blustering, however, he caused a couple of cannons to be pointed at
the house where the offender was supposed to be concealed, declaring
at the same time that he would batter it down; but all to no purpose.
Mr. Sublette finally conveyed his furs in safety to the frontier, and
thence to the United States. [Pg025]
The following anecdote affords another illustration of
Armijo's summary mode of dealing with Americans. In the fall of 1840,
a gross outrage was committed upon a physician from Massachusetts
(said to be a gentleman of unexceptionable deportment), who was
travelling through the country for his health. He had loaned nine
hundred dollars to a person of the name of Tayon, who afterwards
borrowed the same amount of another foreigner and repaid this debt.
The doctor then left for the South, where he intended to pass the
winter, being afflicted with a pulmonary disease. But the individual
who had lent Tayon the money, being informed that he was insolvent,
applied to Gov. Armijo for an order to compel the doctor to return,
expecting thereby to make him reimburse the money. The order overtook
him at the village of Algodones,[3] near forty miles from Santa Fé,
where he was at once arrested by the alcalde, and detained some time,
ignorant even of the offence for which he was doing penance. {230} In
the meantime, the American Consul at Santa Fé, having been informed of
what had taken place, procured a counter-order from the governor for
the release of the prisoner. When the alcalde of Algodones received
this document, he determined at once that so extraordinary an act of
justice should cost the foreigner some trifle. Accordingly, another
order was forged on the spot, commanding that he should be taken to
the capital--yet a 'gentle hint' was given, that his liberty might be
purchased by the payment of two hundred dollars. Being in a land of
strangers, among whom he had but little hope of receiving fair play,
the doctor resolved to pay the amount demanded, and fly to Chihuahua,
where he would at least be safe from Armijo's clutches. Having been
informed, however, of the fraud [Pg026] practised by the alcalde,
before he had proceeded far on his journey, he returned and made an
attempt to bring the delinquent officer to justice, but altogether
without success.
But perhaps the most glaring outrages upon American citizens were
committed in 1841, upon the occasion of the capture of the Texan Santa
Fé Expedition. In Taos, a poor deaf and dumb U. S. creole Frenchman
was beaten to death in open day. In San Miguel, the alcalde, at the
head of a mob, entered the store of a Mr. Rowland, whom he robbed of a
considerable amount of merchandise.[4] At the same time, the greatest
excitement raged in Santa Fé against Americans, whose lives appeared
in imminent danger; and a most {231} savage attack was made upon our
excellent Consul, Manuel Alvarez, Esq., who had always taken an active
interest in the welfare of American citizens.[5]
A few minutes after the governor had departed for San Miguel, to
encounter the Texans, a fellow named Martin, his nephew and
confidential agent, aided by a band of ferocious _sans culottes_, and
armed with a large knife, secretly entered the house of the Consul,
who perceived him in time, however, to avert the blow; yet he received
a severe wound in the face during the scuffle that ensued: the rabble
running in at the same time, and vociferating, "_Sáquenlo ajuera!
mátenlo!_"--Drag him out! kill him! Mr. Alvarez doubtless [Pg027]
owed his preservation partially to the consternation with which the
failure of their clandestine attempt at his life inspired the cowardly
ruffians. Instead of being punished for this diabolical act, the
principal assassin, on the contrary, was soon after promoted in the
army.
The outrage did not end here, however; for on the Consul's demanding
his passport for the United States, it was refused for nearly a month;
thus detaining him until the cold season had so far advanced, that, of
his party (about fifteen in number), two perished from the cold; and
not one arrived without being more or less frost-bitten--some very
severely--besides suffering a loss of about fifty animals from the
same cause.
Although these and other daring outrages have been duly represented to
our Government, {232} it does not appear that any measures of redress
have yet been taken.
With a view of oppressing our merchants, Gov. Armijo had, as early as
1839, issued a decree exempting all the natives from the tax imposed
on store-houses, shops, etc., throwing the whole burden of impost upon
foreigners and naturalized citizens; a measure clearly and
unequivocally at variance with the treaties and stipulations entered
into between the United States and Mexico. A protest was presented
without effect; when our Consul, finding all remonstrances useless,
forwarded a memorial to the American Minister at Mexico,[6] who,
although the vital interests of American citizens were at stake,
deemed the affair of too little importance, perhaps, and therefore
appears to have paid no attention to it. But this system of levying
excessive taxes upon foreigners, is by no means an original invention
of Gov. Armijo. In 1835, the government of Chihuahua having levied a
_contribucion de guerra_ for raising means to make [Pg028] war upon
the savages, who were laying waste the surrounding country, foreign
merchants, with an equal disregard for their rights and the
obligations of treaties, were taxed twenty-five dollars each per
month; while the native merchants, many of whom possessed large
haciendas, with thousands of stock, for the especial protection of
which these taxes were chiefly imposed, paid only from five to ten
dollars each. Remonstrances were presented to the governor, but in
vain. In his official {233} reply, that functionary declared, "_que el
gobierno cree arreglado el reparto de sus respectivas contribuciones_,"
--the government believes your respective contributions in accordance
with justice--which concluded the correspondence, and the Americans
paid their twenty-five dollars per month.
The only tribunals of 'justice' in New Mexico are those of the
ordinary _alcaldes_ or justices of the peace; and an appeal from them
is carried to the Supreme Court in the department of Chihuahua. The
course of litigation is exceedingly simple and summary. The plaintiff
makes his verbal complaint or demand before the alcalde, who orders
him to summon the defendant, which is done by simply saying, "_Le
llama el alcalde_" (the alcalde calls you) into his presence, the
applicant acting thus in the double capacity of constable and
complainant. The summons is always verbal, and rarely for a future
time--instant attendance being expected. Should the defendant refuse
to obey this simple mandate (which, by the bye, is a very rare
occurrence), the alcalde sends his _baston de justicia_, his staff of
justice, an ordinary walking-cane, distinguished only by a peculiar
black silk tassel. This never fails to enforce compliance, for a
refusal to attend after being shown the staff, would be construed into
a contempt of court, and punished accordingly. The witnesses are
sometimes sworn upon a cross cut on the _baston de justicia_, or more
frequently, perhaps, upon a cross [Pg029] formed with {234} the
finger and thumb. Generally speaking, however, the process of
examination is gone through without a single oath being administered;
and in the absence of witnesses, the alcalde often proceeds to
sentence upon the simple statements of the contending parties. By a
species of mutual agreement, the issue of a suit is sometimes referred
to _hombres buenos_ (arbitrators), which is the nearest approximation
that is made to trial by jury. In judicial proceedings, however, but
little, or rather no attention is paid to any code of laws; in fact,
there is scarcely one alcalde in a dozen who knows what a law is, or
who ever saw a law-book. Their decisions, when not influenced by
corrupt agencies, are controlled by the prevailing customs of the
country.
In the administration of justice, there are three distinct and
privileged jurisdictions, known as _fueros_:[7] the _eclesiástico_,
which provides that no member of the clergy, at least of the rank of
curate and upwards, shall ever be arraigned before a civil tribunal,
but shall be tried by their superiors in the order; the _militar_,
which makes a similar provision in favor not only of commissioned
officers, but of every common soldier from the ranks; and the _civil_
or ordinary courts, for all cases in which the defendants are laymen.
These _fueros_ have hitherto maintained the ecclesiastical and
military classes in perfect independence of the civil authorities. The
_civil_, in fact, remains in some degree subordinate to the other two
_fueros_; for it can, under no circumstances, {235} have any
jurisdiction whatever over them; while the lay plaintiff, in the
privileged tribunals of these, may, if unsuccessful, have judgment
entered up against him: a consequence that can never follow the suits
of the ecclesiastical or military orders before the civil tribunals.
The judgments of the latter, in [Pg030] such cases, would be void. It
is no wonder, then, that the cause of freedom in Mexico has made so
little progress.
Imprisonment is almost the only sort of punishment resorted to in the
North. For debt, petit larceny, highway robbery, and murder, the usual
sentence is "_A la cárcel_" (to jail), where a person is likely to
remain about as long for inability to pay _dos reales_, as for the
worst of crimes: always provided he has not the means to pacify the
offended majesty of the law. I never heard of but one execution for
murder in New Mexico, since the declaration of independence. The most
desperate and blood-stained criminals escape with impunity, after a
few weeks of incarceration, unless the prosecutor happens to be a
person of great influence; in which case, the prisoner is detained in
the _calabozo_ at will, even when the offence committed has been of a
trivial character. Notwithstanding this laxity in the execution of the
laws, there are few murders of any kind committed.
In case of debt, as before remarked, the delinquent is sent to
jail--provided the creditor will not accept his services. If he will,
however, the debtor becomes _nolens volens_ the {236} servant of the
creditor till the debt is satisfied; and, serving, as he does, at very
reduced wages, his expenses for clothing, and other necessaries, but
too often retain him in perpetual servitude. This system does not
operate, however, upon the higher classes, yet it acts with terrible
severity upon the unfortunate poor, whose condition is but little
better, if not worse indeed than that of the slaves of the South. They
labor for fixed wages, it is true; but all they can earn is hardly
sufficient to keep them in the coarsest clothing and pay their
contingent expenses. Men's wages range from two to five dollars a
month, and those of women from fifty cents to two dollars; in payment
of which, they rarely receive any money; but instead thereof, articles
of apparel and other necessaries at the most exorbitant prices. The
consequence is that the [Pg031] servant soon accumulates a debt which
he is unable to pay--his wages being often engaged for a year or two
in advance. Now, according to the usages, if not the laws of the
country, he is bound to serve his master until all arrearages are
liquidated; and is only enabled to effect an exchange of masters, by
engaging another to pay his debt, to whom he becomes in like manner
bound.
As I have already remarked, capital crimes and highway robberies are
of comparatively rare occurrence in the North, but in smaller
delinquencies, such as pilfering and petty rogueries of every shade
and description, the common classes can very successfully compete
{237} with any other people. Nothing indeed can be left exposed or
unguarded without great danger of its being immediately stolen. No
husbandman would think of leaving his axe or his hoe, or anything else
of the slightest value, lying out over night. Empty wagons are often
pillaged of every movable piece of iron, and even the wheels have been
carried away. Pieces of merchandise are frequently purloined from the
shelves, when they happen to be in reach. In Chihuahua, goods have
actually been snatched from the counter while being exposed to the
inspection of a pretended purchaser. I once had a trick of this kind
played upon me by a couple of boys, who made their escape through a
crowd of spectators with their booty exposed. In vain I cried
"_Agarren á los ladrones!_" (catch the thieves!) not a single
individual moved to apprehend them. I then proffered the goods stolen,
to any person who might succeed in bringing the rogues to me, but to
no purpose. In fact there seems to exist a great deal of repugnance,
even among the better classes, to apprehending thieves; as if the mere
act of informing against them was considered dishonorable. I heard a
very respectable caballero once remark that he had seen a man purloin
certain articles of merchandise, but he could not be induced to give
[Pg032] up his name; observing, "O, I can't think of exposing the poor
fellow!"
The impunity with which delinquencies of this description are every
day committed is {238} perhaps in some degree, the consequence of
those severe enactments, such as the _Leyes de las Indias_ (the laws
of the Indies), which rendered many thefts and robberies punishable
with death.[8] The magistracy contracted the habit of frequently
winking at crime, rather than resort to the barbarous expedients
prescribed by the letter of the law. The utmost that can be gained now
by public prosecution, is the recovery of the stolen property, if that
be anywhere to be found, and occasionally a short period of
imprisonment for the culprit. This is more particularly the case when
the prosecutor happens to be a foreigner; while on the other hand, if
he be the party accused, he is likely to be subjected to very severe
treatment. A remarkable circumstance of this kind occurred in
Chihuahua in the year 1835. One of our most respectable Missouri
merchants had bought a mule of a stranger, but the animal was soon
after claimed by a third person, who proved that it had been stolen
from him. The Missourian would have been perfectly satisfied to lose
the mule, and end the matter there; but to the surprise of all, he was
directly summoned before an alcalde, and forthwith sentenced to jail:
the partial judge having labored to fix the theft upon the innocent
purchaser, while the real culprit, who was a native, was permitted to
go at large.
The love of gambling also deserves to be noticed as a distinguishing
propensity of these people. Indeed it may well be said, without any
undue stretch of imagination, that [Pg033] shop-lifting, {239}
pocket-picking, and other elegant pastimes of the same kindred, are
the legitimate offspring, especially among the lower classes, of that
passion for gaming, which in Mexico more than anywhere else--to use
Madame Calderon's language[9]--"is impregnated with the
constitution--in man, woman, and child." It prevails in the lowly hut,
as well as in the glittering saloon; nor is the sanctity of the gown
nor the dignity of station sufficient proof against the fascinations
of this exciting vice. No one considers it a degradation to be seen
frequenting a _monte bank_: the governor himself and his lady, the
grave magistrate and the priestly dignity, the gay caballero and the
titled señora may all be seen staking their doubloons upon the turn of
a card; while the humbler ranchero, the hired domestic and the ragged
pauper, all press with equal avidity to test their fortune at the same
shrine. There are other games at cards practised among these people,
depending more upon skill; but that of _el monte_, being one
exclusively of chance, seems to possess an all-absorbing attraction,
difficult to be conceived by the uninitiated spectator.
The following will not only serve to show the light in which gambling
is held by all classes of society, but to illustrate the purifying
effects of wealth upon character. Some twelve or fifteen years ago
there lived (or rather roamed) in Taos a certain female of very loose
habits, known as _La Tules_. Finding it difficult to obtain the means
of living in that {240} district, she finally extended her wanderings
to the capital. She there became a constant attendant on one of those
pandemoniums where the favorite game of _monte_ was dealt _pro bono
publico_. Fortune, at first, did not seem inclined [Pg034] to smile
upon her efforts, and for some years she spent her days in lowliness
and misery. At last her luck turned, as gamblers would say, and on one
occasion she left the bank with a spoil of several hundred dollars!
This enabled her to open a bank of her own, and being favored by a
continuous run of good fortune, she gradually rose higher and higher
in the scale of affluence, until she found herself in possession of a
very handsome fortune. In 1843, she sent to the United States some ten
thousand dollars to be invested in goods. She still continues her
favorite 'amusement,' being now considered the most expert 'monte
dealer' in all Santa Fé. She is openly received in the first circles
of society: I doubt, in truth, whether there is to be found in the
city a lady of more fashionable reputation than this same Tules, now
known as Señora Doña Gertrudes Barceló.
Among the multitude of games which seem to constitute the real
business of life in New Mexico, that of _chuza_ evidently presents the
most attractions to ladies; and they generally lay very heavy wagers
upon the result. It is played with little balls, and bears some faint
resemblance to what is called _roulette_. Bull-baiting and
cock-fighting, about which so much has been said by every traveller in
Mexico, {241} are also very popular 'amusements' in the North, and
generally lead to the same excesses and the same results as gaming.
The cock-pit rarely fails to be crowded on Sundays and other feast
days; on which occasions the church, the ball-room, the
gambling-house, and the cock-pit look like so many opposition
establishments; for nothing is more common than to see people going
from one place to another by alternate fits, just as devotional
feeling or love of pleasure happens to prompt them.
One of the most attractive sports of the rancheros and the peasantry,
and that which, more than any other, calls for the exercise of skill
and dexterity, is that called _correr el gallo_, [Pg035] practised
generally on St. John's day. A common cock or hen is tied by the feet
to some swinging limb of a tree, so as to be barely within the reach
of a man on horseback: or the fowl is buried alive in a small pit in
the ground leaving only the head above the surface. In either case,
the racers, passing at full speed, grapple the head of the fowl, which
being well greased, generally slips out of their fingers. As soon as
some one, more dextrous than the rest, has succeeded in tearing it
loose, he claps spurs to his steed, and endeavors to escape with the
prize. He is hotly pursued, however, by the whole sporting crew, and
the first who overtakes him tries to get possession of the fowl, when
a strife ensues, during which the poor chicken is torn into atoms.
Should the holder of the trophy be able to outstrip his pursuers, he
carries {242} it to a crowd of fair spectators and presents it to his
mistress, who takes it to the fandango which usually follows, as a
testimony of the prowess of her lover.
Among the vaqueros, and even among persons of distinction, _el coleo_
(tailing) is a much nobler exercise than the preceding, and is also
generally reserved for days of festivity. For this sport the most
untractable ox or bull is turned loose upon a level common, when all
the parties who propose to join in the amusement, being already
mounted, start off in pursuit of him. The most successful rider, as
soon as he gets near enough to the bull, seizes him by the tail, and
with a sudden manœuvre, whirls him topsy-turvy upon the plain--to the
no little risk of breaking his own neck, should his horse stumble or
be tripped by the legs of the falling bull.
Respecting _fandangos_, I will observe that this term, as it is used
in New Mexico, is never applied to any particular dance, but is the
usual designation for those ordinary assemblies where dancing and
frolicking are carried on; _baile_ (or ball) being generally applied
to those of a higher grade. The former especially are very frequent;
for nothing is more [Pg036] general, throughout the country, and with
all classes than dancing. From the gravest priest to the buffoon--from
the richest nabob to the beggar--from the governor to the
ranchero--from the soberest matron to the flippant belle--from the
grandest _señora_ to the _cocinera_--all partake of this exhilarating
{243} amusement. To judge from the quantity of tuned instruments which
salute the ear almost every night in the week, one would suppose that
a perpetual carnival prevailed everywhere. The musical instruments
used at the _bailes_ and _fandangos_ are usually the fiddle and
_bandolin_, or _guitarra_, accompanied in some villages by the _tombé_
or little Indian drum. The musicians occasionally acquire considerable
proficiency in the use of these instruments. But what most oddly
greets, and really outrages most Protestant ears, is the accompaniment
of divine service with the very same instruments, and often with the
same tunes.
Of all the petty vices practised by the New Mexicans, the _vicio
inocente_ of smoking among ladies, is the most intolerable; and yet it
is a habit of which the loveliest and the most refined equally
partake. The _puro_ or _cigarro_[10] is seen in the mouths of all: it
is handed round in the parlor, and introduced at the dinner
table--even in the ball-room it is presented to ladies as regularly as
any {244} other species of 'refreshment;' and in the dance the
señorita may often be seen whirling round with a lighted _cigarrito_
in her mouth. The belles of the Southern cities are very frequently
furnished [Pg037] with _tenazitas de oro_ (little golden tongs), to
hold the cigar with, so as to prevent their delicate fingers from
being polluted either with the stain or scent of tobacco; forgetting
at the same time its disagreeable effects upon the lips and breath.
Notwithstanding their numerous vices, however, I should do the New
Mexicans the justice to say that they are but little addicted to
inebriety and its attendant dissipations. Yet this doubtlessly results
to a considerable degree from the dearness of spirituous liquors,
which virtually places them beyond the reach of the lower classes.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Chapter xii of volume i of the original edition.--ED.
[2] Both Bartolomé Baca (Vaca) and Narbona were Mexican officers. The
former, whose term of office was from 1823 to September, 1825,
belonged to a New Mexican family, and was one of the captains of the
companies organized in 1808. Antonio Narbona came (1805) from the
province of Chihuahua, as lieutenant of soldiers sent to repel a
Navaho raid. He was governor, September, 1825, to May 1827. In 1843 he
was colonel of an expedition against the Apache in Arizona.
Ewing Young was a native of Knox County, Tennessee. He early went west
for hunting and trapping, having passports for Mexican territory
signed at Washington in 1828-29. In these years he made his first
overland trip from New Mexico to California, where he aided the padres
of San José in an expedition against revolted neophytes. In 1829 he
returned to New Mexico, married a Taos woman, and again (1831) set out
for California. There in 1834 he met Hall Kelley, and was persuaded to
accompany him to Oregon, where he formed one of the first American
settlements in the Chehalem Valley, tributary to the Willamette. A
journey to California in 1836, to purchase cattle, resulted in
stocking the Oregon pioneers. Young's Oregon settlement prospered; he
erected saw and grist mills, and upon his death (1841) the
administration of his estate was the occasion of the first tentative
experiment in civil government in Oregon. In after years, a son
Joachim came from New Mexico, and laid successful claim to the
property, which was paid by the state.
Milton J. Sublette was a younger brother of William (for whom see our
volume xix, p. 221, note 55, Gregg) and himself a noted trapper and
trader, operating chiefly in the Rocky Mountains. In 1833 he entered
into arrangements with Nathaniel Wyeth (see our volume xxi), but the
next year was compelled to retire because of injury to a leg, which
caused his death at Fort Laramie, December 19, 1836.--ED.
[3] Algodones is a small Mexican town in Sandoval County, about
fifteen miles above Albuquerque. It is now a station on the Atchison,
Topeka, and Santa Fé Railway, and has promise of becoming a junction
with the Santa Fé Central.--ED.
[4] Thomas Rowland, a native Pennsylvanian, had been a resident of New
Mexico for a number of years, and had married there. His brother John
was accused of complicity with the Texans, which led to the attack
upon Rowland's property. This was shortly restored to him, as his
friends were influential in official circles. See George W. Kendall,
_Narrative of the Texan Santa Fé Expedition_ (New York, 1844), i, pp.
271, 272, 332. John Rowland led a party of immigrants to California
(1841), where he became a leading American pioneer.--ED.
[5] Manuel Alvarez was a native of Spain, who showed much enterprise
in establishing the trade between the United States and New Mexico. In
1839 he was appointed United States consul at Santa Fé, an office
which he held until the American conquest. In 1849 he took part in the
new state movement, and was by the suffrages of the people elected
governor; but Congress having erected New Mexico into a territory, the
state government lapsed.--ED.
[6] Powhattan Ellis, for notice of whom, see our volume xix, p. 274,
note 100 (Gregg).--ED.
[7] Originally a _fuero_ was any form of charter or privilege granted
to a kingdom, province, town, or person. _Fueros_ played great part in
the constitutional development of Spain and her colonies.--ED.
[8] The "Laws of the Indies," or the codification of the ordinances,
acts, etc., passed by the Council of the Indies and other
administrative Spanish authorities for the government of the colonies,
was first issued at Madrid in 1681, under the title _Recopilacion de
Leyes de los Reynos de Indias_. A fourth edition, under the direction
of the Council of the Indies, issued in 1791.--ED.
[9] Madame Frances Erskine Inglis Calderon de la Barca was a
Scotchwoman married to a Spaniard who was minister to the United
States, and later to Mexico. While in the latter country, she
published _Life in Mexico_ (London, 1843), an interesting, racy series
of letters on the manners and customs of Spanish America.--ED.
[10] The _puro_ is a common cigar of _pure_ tobacco; but the term
_cigarro_ or _cigarrito_ is applied to those made of cut tobacco
rolled up in a strip of paper or corn-husk. The latter are by far in
the most general use in New Mexico, even among the men, and are those
only smoked by the females. In this province cigarros are rarely sold
in the shops, being generally manufactured by every one just as they
are needed. Their expertness in this 'accomplishment' is often
remarkable. The mounted vaquero will take out his _guagito_ (his
little tobacco-flask), his packet of _hojas_ (or prepared husks), and
his flint, steel, etc.,--make his cigarrito, strike fire and commence
smoking in a minute's time--all while at full speed: and the next
minute will perhaps lazo the wildest bull without interrupting his
smoke.--GREGG.