that purpose in Massachusetts is about 27,000,000 feet, in Michigan
practically the same quantity, in Illinois 34,000,000, and varying
quantities in many other states. Michigan converts nearly 100,000,000
feet a year into flooring and other planing mill products, and Wisconsin
and other hemlock states follow it in lesser amounts. The wood is
employed by car builders, slack coopers, manufacturers of
refrigerators, silos, and farm implements; but the largest demand comes
from those who use the rough lumber.
Hemlock bark is the most important tanning material in this country. It
has long been used by leather makers who generally mix it with some
other bark or extract because leather tanned with hemlock alone has a
redder color than is desired.
Large areas of hemlock forests have been cut for the bark alone.
Formerly the wood was of so little value that it was cheaper to leave it
in the forest than to take it out. The peelers worked in early summer,
cutting trees and removing the bark in four-foot lengths, which was
measured by the cord, though often sold by weight. Care was taken that
the bark be removed from the slashings before the dry weather of autumn,
for fire was to be expected then, and anything combustible in the woods
at that time was likely to be lost. The tracts on which bark peelers
worked were called “slashings,” and they were fire traps of the worst
kind with their tangled masses of tops and branches.
Large quantities of hemlock bark are still peeled every summer, but the
practice is less destructive than formerly. The trunks are worth taking
out, and when the fire comes late in the season it consumes little
valuable hemlock. A permanent decline in the annual production of this
wood has not yet begun, but it must soon set in, for the demand cannot
be indefinitely met.
[Illustration]
WESTERN HEMLOCK
[Illustration: WESTERN HEMLOCK]
WESTERN HEMLOCK
(_Tsuga Heterophylla_)
When this wood began to go to market, its promoters found difficulties
in securing a trial for it in eastern states, because of its name. The
eastern hemlock was known to be a substantial wood, but a rough one with
many faults linked with its virtues. It was naturally supposed that the
western hemlock had all the faults of its eastern relative with possibly
some of the good qualities left out; and there was general hesitancy to
put the new comer to a trial. That caused a movement among western
lumbermen to sell their hemlock under some other name. They were
confident the wood had only to be given a trial and it would win its
way, after which the name would make little difference. Accordingly, it
was started to market under the name of Alaska pine, although Alaska has
no pine large enough for good lumber. Other lumbermen thought it
advisable to choose a name less likely to excite suspicion, and they
called it Washington pine. Others designated it as spruce, and still
others as fir. It was more likely to pass for fir than for pine or
spruce.
The lumber is now generally known as western hemlock, but in California
some call it hemlock spruce or California hemlock spruce. In Idaho,
Washington, and Oregon the name hemlock usually suffices; while western
hemlock spruce, and western hemlock fir, and Prince Albert’s fir are
names used in speaking of lumber and of the tree in the forest.
Western hemlock’s range extends north and south a thousand miles, from
southern Alaska to California south of San Francisco. It grows from the
Pacific coast eastward to Montana, five hundred miles or more. It
ascends to altitudes of 6,000 feet, but it is not at its best on high
mountains, but in the warm, damp region near the coast in Washington and
Oregon. Trees 200 feet high and eight or ten in diameter are found, but
the average size is much less.
The leaves of western hemlock are dark green and very lustrous above.
The flowers are yellow and purple. Cones are one inch or less in length,
and the small seeds are equipped with wings which carry them some
distance from the base of the parent tree. The seeds will germinate and
develop a root system without touching mineral soil. Their ability to do
so assists them greatly in maintaining the tree’s position in the damp
climate where this hemlock reaches its best development. The ground in
the forest, with all objects that lie upon it, is often covered with wet
moss a foot or more thick. The seeds of most trees would inevitably
perish if they fell upon such a bed of moss; but the seeds of western
hemlock germinate, and the rootlets strike through the moss until they
reach the soil beneath, and seedling trees are soon growing vigorously.
Seeds often germinate in the moss on logs and stumps, but the roots
strike for the ground, and generally reach it. In this habit the western
hemlock resembles the yellow birch of the East whose seeds seem to
germinate best on mossy logs and stumps.
Western hemlock has one of the bad habits of its eastern relative: it
does not prune itself very well, even in dense forests, and the lumber
is apt to be knotty, but the knots are usually sound, though dark in
color.
The wood of western hemlock is moderately light, but twenty per cent
heavier than eastern hemlock; stronger than the wood of other American
hemlocks, and nearly twenty-five per cent stronger than the eastern
commercial species, and nearly fifty per cent stiffer. It is tough and
hard, but has little of the flinty texture of other hemlocks. Its color
is pale brown, tinged with yellow, the thin sapwood nearly white. It is
fairly durable in contact with the soil. Its growth is usually rapid,
and trees live to a great age. Some of the largest are said to reach 800
years. The summerwood often constitutes half of the yearly ring, and is
dark yellow. The medullary rays are numerous and rather prominent. When
cut radially, the appearance, size, and arrangement of the exposed
medullary rays suggest those of sugar maple when exposed in the same
way.
The annual sawmill output of western hemlock is about 170,000,000 feet.
The largest market for it is in the region where it grows, and it is
used as rough lumber for ranch purposes and for buildings in towns; but
a considerable quantity is further manufactured. About one-fourth of the
entire sawmill output goes to the factories of Idaho, Washington, and
Oregon. A list of the wood’s principal uses in those states shows its
intrinsic value. The largest quantity is demanded by box factories. The
wood’s nail-holding power commends it for that use, but of no less
importance is its strength. Eighty-three per cent of all the wood used
for boxes in Washington is western hemlock. Cooperage calls for much of
this wood also. Fruit and vegetable barrels are made of it. Its place in
furniture manufacture corresponds to that of the other hemlock in the
East. The pulp business is not very extensive on the Pacific coast, but
western hemlock is a respectable contributor. It is suitable for burial
boxes, and probably ranks about third among the woods within its range,
those used in larger amounts being Sitka spruce and western red cedar.
It is coming into use as interior finish, particularly as door and
window frame material. Fixture manufacturers employ it for drawers and
shelves. It is made into flooring, ceiling, molding, and wainscoting.
Door makers use a little of it as core material over which to glue
veneers. It is made into veneer, but of the cheaper sorts, such as are
suitable for crates and berry boxes.
The Pacific coast is so abundantly supplied with excellent softwoods
that only those of good quality have any chance in the local markets.
The fact that western hemlock has won and is holding an important place
in active competition with such woods as western red cedar, yellow
cedar, Sitka spruce, and Douglas fir, is proof that it is valuable
material. It is winning its way in the central part of the United States
also, but not as rapidly as it has won in the West.
The bark of western hemlock is rated high as a tanning material. The
bark on young trees is thin, but as the trunks increase in size and age
the bark thickens. It is richer in tannin than the bark of eastern
hemlock, but is not so extensively used because the demand is less on
the Pacific coast.
The future of the western hemlock is fairly well assured. Its range is
extensive and varied, and lumbermen will be a long time in cutting the
last of the present stand. Reproduction is satisfactory. It will be
important in future forestry, when people will grow much of the timber
they need; but this tree will stick pretty close to the range where
nature planted it.
MOUNTAIN HEMLOCK (_Tsuga mertensiana_) is a near relative of western
hemlock, and occupies the same geographical ranges but higher on the
mountains. Near Sitka, Alaska, it occurs at sea level, but southward it
rises higher until on the Sierra Nevada mountains in California it is
10,000 feet above sea level. It is one of the timber line trees in many
parts of its range, though it is nowhere above all others. It is a
difficult matter to state what its average size is. That depends upon
the particular region considered. At its best it is 100 feet high or
even more; at its poorest it sprawls on the rocks like a shrub.
Specimens of fair size are from twenty-five to sixty feet high, and ten
to twenty inches in diameter. Cones vary in size fully as much as the
trunks. Some are one-half inch in length, others are three inches. The
leaves vary no less, some being a one-twelfth inch long, others one
inch. The leaves stand out on all sides of the twig, and fall during the
third and fourth years. They are bluish-green. The seeds fall in
September and October, and are provided with large wings. The wood is
light in weight, soft, and pale reddish-brown. The mountain hemlock is
nearly always spoken of as spruce by persons who are not botanists. The
arrangement of the leaves on the twigs gives the impression that it is a
spruce, and among the names by which it is known in its native region
are Williamson’s spruce, weeping spruce, alpine spruce, hemlock spruce,
Patton’s spruce, and alpine western spruce. There is little prospect
that this tree will ever become important as a source of lumber. It is
nowhere very abundant, and what timber there is generally stands so
remote from mills that little of it will ever be taken out. Botanists
and mountain travelers who have made the acquaintance of the mountain
hemlock in the wildness of its natural surroundings have spoken and
written much in its praise. It has been called the loveliest
cone-bearing tree of the American forest. That praise, however, applies
only when the tree is at its best, with its broad, pyramidal crown,
balanced and proportioned with geometrical accuracy, outlined against a
background of rocks, peaks, snow, or sky. Its other form, prostrate and
angular where the tree occurs on cold, bleak mountains, has never
inspired praise from anybody, though its defiance of the elements and
its persistence in spite of adversity, cannot but challenge the
admiration of all who like a fair and square fighter. There are many
intermediate forms. On mountains facing the Pacific, and at altitudes of
6,000 or 7,000 feet, the young hemlocks are buried under deep snow weeks
or months at a time. They are pressed down by the weight of tons, and it
might be supposed that not a whole branch would be left on them, and
that the main stems would be deformed the rest of their lives. But when
the early summer sun melts the snow, the young trees spring back to
their former faultless forms, without a twig missing or a twisted
branch.
[Illustration]
WESTERN YEW
[Illustration: WESTERN YEW]
WESTERN YEW
(_Taxus Brevifolia_)
The Pacific yew is an interesting tree, useful for many minor purposes,
but it is not procurable in large quantities. Its north and south range
covers more than 1,000 miles, from Alaska to central California; while
the species occurs from the Pacific coast eastward to Montana. It
approaches sea level on some of the Alaskan islands, and toward the
southern part of its range it reaches an altitude of 8,000 feet.
In Idaho it is called mountain mahogany, but apparently without good
reason. Its color may bear some resemblance to that wood, but it is
different in so many particulars that the name is not appropriate. The
names western yew and Pacific yew are used interchangeably. Sometimes it
bears the simple name yew; but since there is a yew in Florida, and
another in Europe, it is well to give the western species a name which
will distinguish it from others. The northwestern Indians called it
“fighting wood,” which was the best description possible for them to
give. They made bows of it, and it was superior to any other wood within
their reach for that purpose. In fact, if they could have picked from
all the woods of the United States they could scarcely have found its
equal. It is very strong, though in elasticity its rating is under many
other woods. It is of interest to note that five hundred or more years
ago, the European yew (a closely related but different species) had
nearly the same name in England that the northwestern Indians gave the
western yew. It was called “the shooter yew,” because it was the bow
wood of that time, and “bow staves,” which were rough pieces to be
worked out by the bow makers, were articles of commerce. The search for
it was so great, and so long-continued, that yew trees were well-nigh
exterminated in the British Isles. It was, next to oak, and possibly
above oak, the most indispensable wood in England at that time. It is
instructive to observe that Indians who used the bow found the western
yew as indispensable in their life as the English armies found the
European yew at a time when the bow was the best weapon.
The northwestern Indians put this remarkable wood to other uses. They
made spears of it, and sometimes employed them as weapons of war, but
generally as implements of the chase, particularly in harpooning salmon
which in summer ascend the northwestern rivers from the Pacific ocean in
immense schools. The Indians whittled fishhooks of yew before they were
able to buy steel hooks from traders. Some of those unique hooks are
still in existence, and speak well of the inventive genius of the wild
fisherman of the wilderness. A proper crook was selected where a branch
joined the trunk, and serviceable fish hooks were made without any cross
grain. They were strong enough to hold the largest fish that ascended
the rivers. Sometimes a bone barb was skillfully inserted. The Indians
found a further use for this wood as material for canoe paddles. It is
so strong that handles can be made small and blades thin without passing
the limit of safety. The manufacture of boat paddles from yew continues.
More is used for fence posts than for any other one purpose. It is one
of the most durable woods known where it must resist conditions
conducive to decay. The name yew is said to be derived from a word in a
north Europe language meaning everlasting. Yew fence posts are not named
in statistics, and it is impossible to quote numbers. Their use is
confined to the districts where they grow.
The manufacturers of small cabinets draw supplies from this wood, but
the fact is not mentioned in Pacific states wood-using statistics. It is
particularly liked for turnery, such as small spindles used in furniture
and in grill work. It takes an exceptionally fine polish, and the wood’s
great strength makes the use of slender pieces practicable. Experiments
have shown that this wood may be stained with success, but its natural
color is so attractive that there is little need of staining unless the
purpose is to imitate some more costly wood. If stained black it is an
excellent substitute for ebony.
Western yew figures little in lumber output. It is not listed in the
markets. The few logs which reach sawmills are never again heard of, but
probably most of the lumber is disposed of locally to those who need it.
The tree is not of good form for saw timber. Burls are said to make
beautiful veneer. Trunks are seldom round, but usually grow lopsided.
Most of them are too small for sawlogs. The largest are seldom two feet
in diameter, and generally not half that large. They are short and
branched, the tree often dividing near the ground in several stems. The
average tree is scarcely thirty feet high, but a few are twice that. Its
growth is very slow. A six-inch trunk is seventy-five or 100 years old,
and the largest sizes are from 200 to 350 years. It is evident,
therefore, that efforts to grow western yew for commercial purposes will
be few. Wild trees will be occasionally cut as long as they last, and
they will probably last as long as any of their associates, for they are
scattered sparingly over several hundred thousand square miles of
country, and some of it rough and almost inaccessible. The best
development of the species is in western Oregon, Washington, and British
Columbia.
The leaves of western yew are one-half or five-eighths inch long. The
fruit consists of red pulp enclosing a hard seed. Birds devour it
eagerly. The fruit is not poisonous, as the yew berries of the Old World
are. It ripens in September and falls in October. The wood is fine
grained, clear rose red, becoming gradually duller on exposure. It
weighs 39.83 pounds per cubic foot. Its fuel value is high.
FLORIDA YEW (_Taxus floridana_) is extremely local in its range, and
small in size. Few trees are more than twenty-five feet high and one
foot in diameter. They are bushy and of poor form for manufacturing. The
only reported use is as fence posts. The wood’s durability fits it for
that place. The species is found in Gadsden county, Florida. The leaves
are one inch or less in length; flowers appear in March, and the fruit
ripens in October. The wood is moderately heavy, hard, and
narrow-ringed, for the trees grow slowly. Its color is dark, tinged with
red, the thin sapwood being whiter. There is little prospect that the
wood of this yew will ever be more important than it is now. It is often
spoken of locally as savin, which name is likewise given to the red
cedar (_Juniperus virginiana_), which is abundant in this yew’s range.
CALIFORNIA NUTMEG (_Tumion californicum_) is an interesting tree which
ranges over a considerable portion of California, but is at its best in
Mendocino county and the coast region north of San Francisco. It occurs
also on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada mountains, in central
California, at altitudes up to 5,000 feet. It receives its name from the
resemblance of its seeds to nutmegs. Their surface is shriveled, but
they do not have the nutmeg odor. The wood and the leaves, when bruised,
give off an odor not altogether pleasing. On account of this, the tree
has been called stinking cedar. In some localities it is called yew, and
in others California false nutmeg, and coast nutmeg. Trees are generally
small, with trunks of irregular form. The crown is open and usually
extends to the ground; but in crowded situations, a rather shapely bole
is developed, and the crown is small. The usual size of the tree does
not exceed a height of fifty feet and a diameter of twenty inches. More
trees are below than above that size; but in extreme cases the tree may
reach a height of eighty-five feet and a diameter of four. The leaves in
form and size resemble the foliage of yew, but their points are stiff
and sharp, and if approached carelessly they will wound like cactus
thorns. The fruit is an inch or more in length, a pulpy substance
surrounding the seed. The wood possesses properties which ought to make
it valuable, though reported uses are strictly local, such as small
cabinet work and skiff making. It is bright lemon, yellow, rather hard,
takes good polish, is of slow growth, with bands of summerwood thin but
distinct, and medullary rays small, numerous, and obscure. Its weight is
29.66 pounds per cubic foot; it is not stiff or strong. It cannot attain
high place as a manufacturing material, because it is too scarce, but
it possesses a beauty which must bring it recognition as a fine
furniture, finish, and novelty wood. A few sawlogs go to mills in the
region north of San Francisco, but the lumber is probably mixed with
other kinds and it goes to market without a name. It ought to be put to
a better use.
FLORIDA TORREYA (_Tumion taxifolium_) is often called Chattahoochee pine
in the region where it grows. That name is generally given to the tree
when planted for ornament in yards, parks, and along streets of towns in
northwestern Florida. It is known also as stinking cedar, stinking
savin, and fetid yew. These names are generally applied to the
forest-grown tree, particularly by those who cut it for fence posts,
which is its principal use. Its range is local, being confined largely,
if not wholly, to Gadsden county, Florida, where it grows on limestone
soil. It can never have much importance as a commercial timber, because
it is too scarce. In fact, it is in danger of extermination. Post
cutters never spare it, and its range being so limited, there is not
much hope for it. The interesting and beautiful tree is making a game
fight for life. Many seedlings appear in the vicinity of old trees,
while stumps, and even prostrate trunks, send up sprouts which, if let
alone, grow to tree size. Sprouts on logs and stumps send roots to the
ground as the seedling yellow birch does in damp northern woods. The
yew-like leaves of Florida torreya are one and a half inch or less in
length. The tree blooms in March and April, and the drupe-like fruit, an
inch or more in length, is ripe by midsummer. The tree is from forty to
sixty feet in height, and one to two feet in diameter. It is clothed in
whorls of limbs, beginning near the ground, and tapering to the top. The
wood is clear, bright yellow, the thin sapwood of lighter color; soft,
easily worked, and susceptible of fine polish. It is very durable in
contact with the soil. The green wood, and the bruised leaves and
branches give off an odor suggesting the tomato vine. The texture and
color of the wood indicate that it is well suited for fine cabinet work,
but it is not a figured wood.
[Illustration]
WHITE OAK
[Illustration: WHITE OAK]
WHITE OAK
(_Quercus Alba_)
Oaks belong to the beech family, that is, the “foodtrees,”[3] though
most acorns are too bitter and contain too much tannin to be edible;
some may be eaten, and for that reason the ancients classed them among
the food trees. “Quercus,” which is the name of the genus, means oak in
the language of northwestern Europe. The name white oak nearly always
suffices, but in Arkansas it is often called stave oak because it is the
best stave timber in that region. It could with equal reason be called
stave oak nearly anywhere, for it is excellent material for tight
cooperage. Formerly it was sometimes called Baltimore oak, because many
of the staves of export were shipped from that city. That name, however,
belonged more to post oak (_Quercus minor_) than to white oak, because
the fine staves which went out of Chesapeake bay in the export trade,
were largely post oak. It matters little now, for the name Baltimore oak
is not much used, and white oak may be said to have only one trade name.
After the wood is dressed, it has different names referring to the style
of finish and not to the wood itself.