Norwich Artists in the Nineteenth Century.
NORWICH artists must have flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries, as
proved by their portraits of city worthies in the Guildhall and St.
Andrew’s Hall, but we have few notices of early painters or engravers.
About the commencement of the present century, a gentleman named Thomas
Harvey lived at Catton, and was recognised as a very clever amateur
artist. He painted in oil, admirably, and he induced several of the
leading artists of the day to visit Norfolk, such as Opie, Gainsborough,
Sir William Beechey, Collins, and many others, who produced beautiful
works of art.
About the year 1802, a few professional and amateur artists, drawn
together by a similarity of taste and inclination, for the advancement of
the arts of painting and design in their native city, began to associate
to form a regular academy. Each member in his turn furnished matter of
discussion according with his particular view; and by eliciting the
opinions of his brother artists, mutually communicated and received
information. The first exhibition of this society was in 1805, in
Wrench’s Court, and contained 223 pictures. The following is a list of
the members and exhibitors of the Norwich Society of Artists from the
first catalogue of 1805:—Arthur Browne, J. Blake, E. Bell, (engraver)
Mrs. Coppin, H. M. M. Crotch, M. B. Crotch, J. Crome, R. Dixon, J.
Freeman, W. Freeman, Rev. Wm. Gordon of Saxlingham, C. Hodgson, W.
Harwin, R. Ladbrooke, W. C Leeds, J. Percy, J. Thirtle, F. Stone,
architect. This Society of Artists, after their establishment, within
twenty years exhibited about 4000 pictures, the productions of 323
painters, very few of which were sold here, but which were readily
purchased in London and other places. In fact, the local artists were
very little patronized in the city; and old Crome, one of the very best
landscape painters in England, was a very poor man all his life, though,
since his death, his pictures have been sold for thousands of pounds in
London.
* * * * *
JOHN CROME, sen., was born December 21st, 1769, in the parish of St.
Peter per Mountergate. He was apprenticed to Mr. Francis Whisler, coach,
house, and sign painter, who, in 1783, lived in Bethel Street; but he
felt the true impulse of genius, and his industry surmounted all
obstacles. By almost unaided exertions he cultivated drawing and
painting in oil with such ardour and success, that during the latter
years of his life he had attained an eminence highly creditable, and was
incessantly employed as a master in the one branch by families of
distinction, and by the principal schools of Norfolk and Norwich. He
possessed the rare faculty of communicating the ardour he himself felt to
his pupils, both professional and amateur. His mind was too acute to
exact from them a servile imitation of his own style; on the contrary he
contented himself with instilling the more useful principles of art, and
with giving freedom and spirit to their pencils. He then invited them to
let loose the reins of fancy and taste, and to follow unfettered the
promptings of imagination. The fruits of this wise discrimination were
seen in the reputation of his son, and his companions in excellence,
whose works for some time attracted much attention in the metropolis to
the growing talents and promise of the Norwich school of artists. In the
other department he was seldom without commissions. He principally
cultivated landscape painting, and he was exceedingly happy in seizing
small picturesque local scenes, which he elevated to a degree of interest
which they could hardly bear in their natural state. He was in painting
the counterpart of Burns in poetry, both delighting in homely scenes.
His pictures were beginning to be known and appreciated in London, the
great mart of talent, and those he last exhibited in the British Gallery
gained him a lasting fame. He was a man of heart, of impulse and
feeling, quick, lively, and enthusiastic, and in his conversation
animated to a high degree, especially when speaking on subjects connected
with his art, the fond, the incessant, the earliest and latest object of
his thoughts. A wide field of enterprise and exertion had just opened
upon his view, the last stage of his ardent ambition had unfolded itself,
when he was suddenly seized with an acute disease, which terminated his
life in the short space of seven days, on April 22nd, 1821, aged fifty
years. He was buried in a vault in St. George’s Colegate Church, where
the last sad offices of respect were paid to his memory by a numerous
attendance of artists and other friends. Of late years a subscription
was raised here for a monument to his memory, and after some delay a
suitable memorial was placed in the church. (_See page_ 89.)
The following list of Mr. Crome’s principal pictures, with their former
possessors, was extracted from the published catalogue of his works:—
“Lane Scene near Hingham,” 1812; “Lane Scene at Blofield,” 1813; and
“Grove Scene near Marlingford,” 1815—Samuel Paget, Esq., of Yarmouth.
“View at the back of the New Mills,” 1817—William Hawkes, Esq., Norwich.
“Wood and Water Scene near Bawburgh,” 1821—Miss Burrows, Burfield Hall.
“View in Postwick Grove,” 1816—Lord Stafford.
“Hautbois Common, Norfolk,” 1810—Mr. F. Stone, Norwich.
“Lane Scene near Whitlingham,” 1820—Mr. Charles Turner.
“Scene near Hardingham, Norfolk,” 1816—Mr. J. B. Crome.
“Lane Scene,” 1817—John Bracy, Esq.
“Carrow Abbey,” 1805—P. M. Martineau, Esq.
“Cottage and Wood Scene,” 1820—Michael Bland, Esq., London.
“Landscape—Evening”—Mr. Crome.
“Grove Scene,” 1820—Mr. F. Geldart, jun.
“View of the Italian Boulevards at Paris,” 1815; and “Fish Market at
Boulogne,” 1820—R. H. Gurney, Esq.
A “Wood Scene” was the last picture painted by Old Crome, in April, 1821.
He painted many others, and etched a number of plates of Norfolk scenery,
some of which have been printed. His pictures have been lent for various
exhibitions and always much admired.
* * * * *
J. B. CROME, son of the father of the Norwich School of Landscape
Painting, was a landscape painter of moonlights, &c. The editor of the
_Examiner_ for March, 1828, speaking of this artist’s pictures, says:—
“Mr. Crome’s moonlight is good, and has the grey and brown hues of
Vanderneer, whose moonlight scenes have been considered the best as
to natural effects; but except the parts under the immediate light of
the moon, no specific colour should be seen. The browns and yellows
here mingle well into the black shades of night, and have nothing of
that flat grey blue which justly made coloured moonlights to be
compared to a shilling on a slate.”
Mr. J. B. Crome’s pictures were “Rouen,” in the possession of Mrs.
Southwell, Wroxham; “Yarmouth Quay”—T. Cobbold, Esq., Catton; “Yarmouth
Beach, Moonlight”—R. J. Turner, Esq., Catton; “View near Amsterdam,
Moonlight”—J. Geldart, Esq., Norwich; “Norwich by Moonlight”—Hon. General
Walpole; “Moonlight”—C. Turner, Esq., Norwich. Several others of this
artist’s pictures were exhibited at the Norwich Industrial Exhibition in
1867, and were much admired.
* * * * *
MISS CROME, daughter of Old Crome, was a painter of fruit and flowers
from nature, and painted successfully.
* * * * *
JOSEPH CLOVER was a native of this city, but he resided some time in
London. His first efforts in art were directed to engraving, and by the
advice of a gentleman named Stocks, he took an impression of one of his
plates to the late Alderman Boydell, in Cheapside, whose remarks on this
performance discouraged him from following the profession of an engraver,
and he remained for some time undetermined as to his further pursuit in
art, until the following autumn, when being introduced by his uncle to
the late Mr. Opie, whilst painting a portrait of that relation, he was so
astonished at the facility with which the artist painted, and so
delighted with his conversation, that he resolved from that moment to be
a painter. He took Mr. Opie’s advice and followed him to town, from
which period, namely, April, 1807, being nearly four years, he enjoyed
that artist’s friendship. In the year 1806, Mr. Clover was accidentally
introduced to the late Richard Cumberland, the dramatic poet, who
perceiving that the artist’s health was much impaired by a too close
application to study, invited him to his house at Ramsgate, and by his
introduction he painted several portraits, and to the hospitable
residence of this gentleman he repeated his visits during the summer
months for fourteen years. In Norwich, he painted three full-length
portraits for St. Andrew’s Hall, besides a number of others, and a
picture called “Divided Attention,” for his friend Mr. Turner, of
Norwich. This first-rate picture excited much interest in London. Some
of the early pictures of this artist were at Beau Port, the house of the
late Sir James Bland Burgess, and at Battle Abbey in Sussex.
Subsequently Mr. Clover had the honour of being patronised by the Marquis
of Stafford and other noblemen.
* * * * *
WILLIAM ROBERT DIXON was a native of this city. His etchings of views in
Norfolk were in the possession of many persons in Norwich. Mr. Charles
Turner had an interesting collection of his drawings. As a scene painter
he was much admired. He had many tempting offers from the London and
other managers of theatres; but being fondly and firmly attached to his
native city and a choice circle of friends, no allurements could induce
him to leave them. He was very popular as a teacher of drawing. He died
October 1st, 1815.
* * * * *
CHARLES HODGSON, a native of this city, was a painter of interior
architecture, particularly of the early English style, and of
considerable reputation for his excellent drawing and correct perspective
in water colours, which subjects he was afterwards induced to paint in
oil, in which he excelled. He was a constant exhibitor in the London
exhibitions. His pictures were in the possession of several gentlemen in
the city and county.
* * * * *
DAVID HODGSON, son of the above, a native also of this city, was a
painter of exterior architecture, landscape, &c. Some of his pictures of
interiors of churches were in the possession of William Herring, Esq.,
Norwich; Pair of Landscapes, W. Roberts, Esq., of Birmingham; Large
Landscape, Rev. J. Hollingworth, Newcastle; Small Landscape, Wm. Gate,
Esq., Carlisle; Market Scenes, T. Bignold, Esq., Norwich; Landscape, Mr.
S. Coleman; Pair of Small Landscapes, Mr. Stone, Norwich; Tombland, Mr.
Stone; Landscape, Mr. G. Cooke, engraver; Pair of Street Scenes, Mr.
Yarington, Norwich; Market Scenes, sold at the Liverpool exhibition.
* * * * *
ROBERT LADBROOKE, landscape painter, for many years enjoyed considerable
celebrity as a drawing master, and in 1821 commenced the publication of
“A Series of Views of the Churches in Norfolk,” printed in lithography,
of which ninety numbers were completed.
* * * * *
JOSEPH STANNARD was a marine painter, in which walk of art he established
a high reputation. His subjects were generally finely chosen, and
painted with all the truth and transparency of nature. The grouping of
his vessels displayed an admirable taste, and they were embellished with
the most correctly-drawn figures, highly characteristic of the stations
they occupied.
* * * * *
MRS. STANNARD, wife of the above, was a painter of fruit, flowers, fish,
still life, &c. Her maiden name was Coppin, and her mother was rewarded
by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, for several copies of
painting. The daughter’s productions were highly esteemed by the lovers
of art.
* * * * *
ALFRED STANNARD. The talents of this artist, at an early period of his
life, gained him the approbation of the critics of the London
Journals—which noticed works of fine arts as exhibited in the National
Gallery. The _Literary Gazette_ of March, 1828, contained this notice,—
“No. 152, Trowse Hall, Norwich, painted on the spot by A. Stannard.
We think that this work partakes more of the Flemish style of art
than legitimately belongs to a picture painted on the spot; its
elaborate finish must necessarily have required considerable time in
the execution; and the character of our climate is much too variable,
day after day, to paint from the same hue of atmosphere, and the same
effect of Chiaroscuro. Be that as it may, the excellence of the
performance, however it may have been achieved, is an abundantly
sufficient passport to regard of this artist’s picture. No. 431,
Sluice Gate, on the river Wensum, shews the close resemblance of
character and execution between the works of some of our artists and
the best pictures of the Flemish school.”
The critic might have added that most of the people of Norwich are of
Flemish or Danish extraction, and that the Norwich school of painting
seems to have been derived from the Flemish school. The subjects
painted, and the style of treatment are very similar.
* * * * *
JAMES STARK was articled to the senior Crome for three years, from 1810
or 1811, at the expiration of which time he went to London and drew at
the Royal Academy, which place he was obliged to leave from ill health.
The first picture which he exhibited at the British Gallery, represented
“Boys Bathing,” purchased by the Bishop of Oxford. His other pictures
were “Flounder Fishing,” in the possession of Sir J. Grey Egleton, Bart.;
“Penning the Flock,” the Marquis of Stafford; “Lambeth,” the Countess de
Grey; “Grove Scene,” Thomas Phillips, Esq.; “Grove Scene,” Francis
Chantrey, Sculptor; besides many others in the possession of George
Watson Taylor, Esq., M.P.; Mr. Davenport, M.P.; Charles Savill Onley,
Esq., M.P.; Onley Savill Onley, Esq.; &c., &c. In 1827, this artist
circulated proposals for printing “Scenery of the Rivers Yare and
Waveney,” with engravings from his own paintings, and the work was
beautifully carried out.
* * * * *
J. S. COTMAN became one of the most celebrated artists in the Water
Colour Society, and attained a very high position in London, where he was
appointed Drawing Master at King’s College; he published Views in
Normandy, and also a work on the Sepulchral Brasses of this locality.
His pictures have always commanded high prices. His two sons also became
eminent artists.
* * * * *
About the year 1830, there was something like a School of Art commenced
in Norwich, where artists and amateurs could study art in a proper
manner, from the best casts of the finest statues. Before then, artists
had to study as they best could, and their education was very imperfect.
They are much indebted to John Barwell, Esq., for promoting their
interests in this respect, and rendering them great assistance by his
knowledge of art. Amongst the members of the new society were the
Barwells, father and son, the Cotmans, the Freemans, T. Geldart, A.
Sandys, S. Miers, and many others who studied art either from the cast or
the life.
The Norfolk and Norwich Art Union opened their exhibition of pictures on
August 16th, 1839, at the Bazaar, in St. Andrew’s Broad Street. About
400 pictures were exhibited, many of them being of a high order of merit.
At subsequent exhibitions, many pictures of local artists were exhibited,
including some of the Cromes, the Ladbrookes, the Stannards, the Cotmans,
Hodgson, Stark, Vincent, Downes, Sandys, Capt. Roberts, and others much
admired. A Fine Art Association has also been recently established. It
held its first exhibition in August, 1868. A large number of the
pictures were disposed of on the principle of an Art Union.
PART III.
CHAPTER I.
The Commercial History of Norwich.
WHAT has been the trade of the city, from the earliest period up to the
present time, is an interesting subject of inquiry to the inhabitants.
The sources of information are very scanty, for local historians of
former days did not trouble themselves much about trade, but were content
with simply recording passing events and the proceedings of public
bodies. From old charters and acts of parliament, and details of local
taxation, we may, however, learn something about the industry and trade
of by gone ages. We may discover how people lived, how they were
employed, and what sort of clothes they wore; and we shall find a
remarkable sameness from age to age. The trade of any country, or
county, or town, arises from productive industry in agriculture or
manufactures, or in mercantile business, or in carrying goods from one
place to another, or in all three combined. All three have existed in
this city and county; and it is important to inquire into the past and
present state of our trade, and the causes which have promoted or
retarded its progress or decline.
TEXTILE FABRICS.
In tracing the rise and progress of manufactures in this city, it will be
necessary to refer to many sources of information respecting the garments
worn by the people of every period. The Roman writers supply some
information relating to the Iceni and other aborigines of this island;
the Anglo-Saxon illuminations represent the costumes of a later period;
monumental effigies exhibit the clothing of the middle ages; and many
acts of parliament allude to the manufactures of modern times. The arts
of spinning, weaving, dyeing, and dressing wool, linen, and silk, were
known to all ancient civilized nations. The Gauls taught those arts to
the ancient Britons in this island. Of the kinds of cloth made in Gaul,
according to Pliny, one was made of fine wool dyed in several colours.
This wool, being spun into yarn, was woven in stripes or checquers, of
which the Gauls made their summer garments. Here we have the origin of
the Scotch plaid or tartan, which is called the garb of old Gaul to this
day.
The dress of the ancient British females may be ascertained from the
account by Dion Cassius of the appearance of Boadicea, Queen of the
Iceni, who inhabited this eastern district. Her light hair fell upon her
shoulders. She wore a torque of gold, a tunic of several colours all in
folds, and over it a robe of coarse stuff, fastened by a brooch. The
commonalty and the less civilized tribes, inhabiting the interior of the
island, went about simply clad in skins. The Druids wore white dresses,
and the Bards a robe of sky blue, emblematic of peace. The Ovates,
professing to know medicine, wore green, the symbol of learning. Julius
Agricola being appointed to the command in Britain, A.D. 78, soon
succeeded in establishing the Roman sway, and introducing the Roman
costume, manners, and language; and before the close of the first century
the British habit was regarded as a badge of barbarism. Tacitus says,
“The sons of the British chiefs began to affect our dress.” The southern
and eastern Britons disused the Broccoe, and wore the Roman tunic
reaching to the knee, with the cloak or mantle. The female garb was
similar to that of the Roman women, who wore two tunics.
The Anglo Saxons, Jutes, and Danes, when located in different parts of
England, spun and wove most of the materials now used for dress. The
woollen, linen, and silk yarns were all home-spun, and the textile
fabrics were home-made. The civil costume consisted of a linen shirt, a
tunic of linen or woollen, worn according to the season, descending to
the knee, and having long loose sleeves. It was made like the shirt, and
open at the neck, and put on in the same manner. It was sometimes open
at the sides and confined by a belt or girdle at the waist. Over this a
short cloak was worn fastened with brooches, sometimes at the breast,
sometimes on both shoulders.
Mr. Strutt remarks that the silence of the Anglo-Saxon writers on the
subject of Danish dress, while they are profuse in the description of the
dress of their countrymen, proves a similarity of costume. According to
Danish ballads, black was the colour of the ancient Danish dress. Saxon
chronicles allude to the Danes by the name of the “Black Army.” Black
amongst them had no funeral associations. This sombre hue may have been
their national colour, their standard being a raven. After becoming
settled in Norwich and Norfolk, they doffed the black colour, and became
effeminately gay in their dress, and often changed their attire.
The Normans and Flemings who came over with the Conqueror into England,
and those who followed him in great numbers, were remarkable for their
love of finery, according to our early historians. The dresses of the
common people of course continued to be much the same from age to age,
but the habits of the nobility were more influenced by fashion; and the
reign of William Rufus is stigmatised by many writers of the period for
shameful abuses. The king himself set the example, and the clergy and
laity were alike infected with the love of costly clothing. After the
Norman Conquest, a sort of cloth was introduced which, though not a new
discovery, had not been formerly known in England. This was quite a
different article to what had been previously called cloth, the
preparation being by a combing instead of a carding process. By the
former the wool was drawn out to a very long staple, by the latter to a
very short staple, the fibres of the fleece being extended the whole
length in one instance, and broken and intersected in the other. For
1000 years after the christian era there were no textile manufactures as
we now understand the terms. All the yarns were homespun, and all the
garments were home-made.
The female costume in Norwich and other towns, from 1087 to 1154,
presents us with but one striking novelty, and that by no means an
improvement. The rage for lengthening every portion of the dress was not
confined to the male sex. The sleeves of the ladies’ tunics, and their
veils or kerchiefs, appear to have been so long in the reigns of William
Rufus and Henry I. as to be tied up in knots, to avoid treading on them,
and the trains or skirts of the garments lay in immense rolls at the
feet. Over the long robe or tunic a shorter garment was occasionally
seen in the illuminations of the period.
The twelfth century is a period in which Norwich began to be particularly
mentioned for its trade arising from manufactures. It is also a period
when a very valuable source of information is opened by the monumental
effigies of the dead, sculptured in their habits as they lived. The
effigies on brass are numerous in Norwich and Norfolk churches, and
indicate progress in useful arts. Mr. Stothard is a great authority on
the monumental effigies of Great Britain, and he presents the coronation
robes of the kings, and the costumes of the nobles with splendid
decorations.
The Dutch and the Flemings soon came over the sea, located themselves in
the city and in different parts of the eastern counties, and introduced
various manufactures. William of Malmesbury states that in the reign of
the Conqueror’s youngest son, Henry I., a great inundation in the low
countries drove many more of the Flemings to seek refuge in England; and
Blomefield, in his History of Norfolk, says that several of them settled
at Worstead in Norfolk, and thus early introduced the art of stuff
weaving there; which, as is natural to suppose, soon began to be
extensively adopted in Norwich. Gervase, of Tilbury, writing of the
Flemings says,—
“The art of weaving seemed to be a peculiar gift bestowed upon them
by nature; yet the new comers were not always well received by the
native population, and had to be protected by laws made in their
favour. Indeed, the natives of Norwich, in every period, have been
hostile to foreigners, or to any sort of interference with their
peculiar branch of industry.”
In the next reign, that of Henry II., “Guilds” of weavers were
multiplied, and had their charters of privilege in London, York,
Winchester, and Norwich; and a system of protection, originating with
manufacturers, prevailed all over the country. During the next reign,
that of Stephen, more Flemish weavers came over; and these successive
emigrations were a real blessing to the land. England had hitherto not
been a manufacturing country till the arrival of the Flemings, who
introduced the preparation and weaving of wool, so that, in process of
time, not only the home market was abundantly supplied with woollen
cloth, but a large surplus was made for exportation. The Flemings were
kinsmen of the Danes, and all of them were of the Anglo-Saxon race, and
were distinguished for that probity in their dealings which afterwards
became the characteristic of British merchants.
During the reign of Richard Cœur de Lion, it is supposed that though the
trade of the kingdom did not increase, yet some of the artisan soldiers
who returned from the crusades brought back a knowledge of the eastern
method of weaving. At that time the useful arts flourished in the east.
The improvements introduced here were, however, of little worth, owing to
the troubles of the reign of King John, and the equally disturbed reign
of his son Henry III. Even the wise and resolute king, Edward I., did
not fully succeed in restoring English trade to its former prosperity.
Yet it is clear that this city had been all along prospering, for in the
reign of Edward II., repeated mention is made of its thrift. That
monarch granted a patent to John Peacock for measuring every piece of
worsted made in the city or county; but this, being found to check the
trade, was soon recalled. In the reign of Edward I. the people of
Norwich, and of England generally, began to adopt the whimsical fashions
of their neighbours on the continent. Horned head-dresses of frightful
appearance were worn by the ladies, and tight-laced stays. Gauze, which
is thought to have derived its name from Gaza, where it was first made,
and brunetta or burnetta, with several other fine and delicate stuffs,
are mentioned in this period. Gauzes were afterwards produced in large
quantities in Norwich. Tartan was a fine woollen cloth, which was also
much used for ladies’ robes, and was generally of a scarlet dye.
In the thirteenth century the materials for dress became more numerous,
and this period is more remarkable for the splendour of costume than for
change of form. Matthew Paris, monk of St. Albany, a contemporary
historian, describes the pageantry of the day, and expresses disgust
rather than pleasure at the excessive foppery of the times. He states
that the nobility who attended at the marriage of the daughter of Henry
III. to Alexander king of Scotland, were attired in vestments of silk,
commonly called comtises, on the day when the ceremony was performed, but
on the following day they were laid aside.
In the reign of Edward III. other foreign clothiers came to England, and
many of them settled in the eastern parts of Essex. In 1353, this
monarch prohibited his subjects from wearing any cloth but such as was
made in this kingdom; and he also forbade the exportation of wool. Both
in this reign and in that of Richard II., repeated mention occurs in the
oath book and court rolls of wool-combers, card makers, clothiers,
weavers, fullers, &c. During the reign of Elizabeth a new impulse was
given to the trade by the emigration of Protestants and others from the
low countries, and from France, who introduced important branches of
industry. Mr. James, in his History of the Worsted Manufacture in
England, says, that king Edward III. so far extended and improved that
trade, that from his reign may be dated a new era in its history. This
monarch could not, with all his sagacity, and the earnest desire he ever
evinced for the welfare and prosperity of his subjects, remain long
unmindful of the great profit and advantage of working up the English
wool for domestic consumption or export, instead of exporting the
material in a raw state. When, therefore, he espoused Phillippa, the
daughter of the Earl of Hainault, whose subjects were excellent cloth
makers, the close connection which the marriage occasioned between the
two countries, and probably in part some suggestions of the queen,
induced the king, in 1331, to invite hither a large number of his
countrymen, skilful in the art of weaving woollen and worsted. These
Flemish weavers settled, by the directions of the king, and under his
special protection, in various parts of the country, where the wool grown
in the district was suitable for the particular kind of cloth made by
these artizans. The worsted weavers were located in Norfolk and Suffolk,
having Norwich for their chief seat or mart. Blomefield, in his history,
says,—
“Under the reign of Edward III., Norwich became the most flourishing
city of all England by means of its great trade in worsted, fustian,
friezes, and other woollen manufactures, for now the English wool,
being manufactured by English hands, incredible profit accrued to the
people by its passing through and employing so many, every one having
a fleece, sorters, combers, card spinners, &c.”
Alluding to the condition of this trade at the same period, old Fuller,
in his Church History, says,—
“The intercourse being large betwixt the English and the Netherlands,
(which having increased since King Edward married the daughter)
unsuspected emissaries were employed by our king with those
countries, who brought them into familiarity with such Dutchmen as
were absolute masters of their trade, (but not masters themselves) as
either journeymen or apprentices. These bemoaned the slavishness of
their poor servants, whom their masters used rather like heathen than
christians; yea, rather, like horses than men; early up and late to
bed, and all day hard work, and harder fare, (a few herrings and
mouldy cheese,) and all to enrich the churls their masters, without
any profit unto themselves. But, oh, how happy should they be if
they would but come over to England! bringing their mystery with
them, which would provide their welcome in all places. Here they
should feed on fat beef and mutton till nothing but their fulness
should stint their stomach; yea, they should feed on the labour of
their own hands, enjoying a proportionable portion of their gains for
themselves. Persuaded with the promises, many Dutch servants leave
their masters and come over to England.”
According to Blomefield, the trade continued to increase during the
succeeding reign, that of Richard II., when laws were passed for
regulating the sale of worsted. Our ancestors were then a plain homely
sort of people, and like their forefathers, were content with coarse
woollen cloths for their plain clothes. In this and succeeding reigns
important changes took place in the system of society, especially in the
formation of a middle class, which gradually increased in numbers and
influence, and became the great support of trade. Norman despotism was
relaxed, and political liberty was advanced, and the darkness of the
middle ages was dispelled.
In A.D. 1403, Henry IV. separated the city of Norwich from the county of
Norfolk, and made it a county of itself, which it has been ever since.
This, of course, has been a great advantage to the city as regards its
self-government. In this reign it was deemed necessary to appoint
officers, whose business it should be to inspect the goods; and in the
reigns of Henry V., Henry VI., Edward IV., and Richard III., complaints
were renewed in acts of parliament and other documents of the great
“crafte and deceite” used in the making of worsteds, says, serges,
fustians, motleys, &c., at Norwich.
During the short reign of Edward VI., the making of “felt and thrummed
hats, dornecks, and coverlets,” had sprung up in consequence of the
decline of the old stuff manufacture; and in the reign of Mary the
manufacture of “light stuffs” was introduced. These were of the same
fabric as “the fustians of Naples,” and seem to have been so similar to
the bombazines of succeeding years, that they may be considered as the
commencement of the great staple of Norwich. During the subsequent
reigns the city does not seem to have advanced in prosperity. Henry VII.
succeeded in reviving the trade a little, but in the reign of his son,
Henry VIII., it again declined. We find by an act passed in that reign
“that the making of worsteds, says, and stammins, which had greatly
increased in the city of Norwich and county of Norfolk, was now practised
more diligently than in times past at Yarmouth and Lynn.” If so, the
trade soon died out in those towns, as we have no record of any
manufactures there.
Philip and Mary passed an act to encourage the making “of russels,
satins, satins-reverses, and fustians of Naples.” From this time it
appears that the stuffs made in the city were exported into foreign
countries, most probably into Holland and Flanders, and at length partial
restrictions were laid on the export trades, but still a great amount of
business was done. As yet no one had promulgated the modern doctrines of
free trade.
From Cotman’s valuable work, “The Sepulchral Brasses of Norfolk,” we may
gather some information respecting the costumes of people in the middle
ages. With reference to the dresses of the ladies, we may be surprised
at the tardy progress of “fashion” in mediæval times, but a little
consideration will enable us to solve the difficulty. In the fifteenth
century money was very scarce, and all the articles of female apparel
were about twelve times more costly than they are at present. Husbands
and fathers were doubtless “intractable” in proportion. Hence our fair
but thrifty ancestresses continued to wear the very same dresses on all
festive occasions for many years. Now, however, the facilities of
foreign travel, the introduction of cheaper materials, the results of
modern ingenuity, and the spirit of the age in which we live, all tend to
rapid, frequent, and capricious changes of costume; but it was not so
then, and a lady was frequently attired as her grandmother had been
before her! Our ancestors were slow coaches. Centuries elapsed before
they achieved the _ruff_, before they discovered the _bonnet_, before
they perpetrated the _wig_! They never dreamt of _crinoline_. Thus, for
example, we observe the very same form of kirtle or gown—close fitting,
low waisted, but wide and pleated at the bottom, during a period of more
than 300 years, there being only a slight variation in the shape of its
sleeves. The fall, the flounce, and cuffs of fur or some other material,
must have been also a very long-lived fashion, being observable on many
brasses from the dates of 1466 to 1537. But the designers of brasses may
have adhered for a long time to merely conventional forms. The Rev. R.
Hart, in his Letters to a local magazine, says:—
“The wife of Sir Miles Stapleton, in 1365, wears a close-fitting
tunic over the kirtle, (the sleeves of which, with a row of small
buttons extending from the wrist to the elbow, are seen underneath;)
the sleeves of the tunic itself are short, but there are oblong
narrow pendants almost reaching from them to the ground. It is
buttoned at the breast, there are two pockets in the front, and the
lower part is full and gathered into puckers or folds. (Cotman pl.
4). During the reigns of Henry IV. and V. the ladies wore a sort of
bag sleeve, tight at the wrist (like that of a modern bishop). About
1481, the sleeve became wide and open like that of a surplice. About
1528, the sleeves of the kirtle, or under dress, were, in some
instances, cut or pinked, so as to exhibit a rich inner lining. In
1559, there was a tight sleeve ruffled at the wrist, and with an
epaulet upon the shoulder, pinked; and at the same period we observe
the earliest specimen of the ruff, and the rudiments of the habit
shirt. By far the most remarkable varieties are observed in head
dresses, which frequently supply valuable indications as to the date.
On the cup presented by King John to the borough of Lynn, and in the
small figures upon Branch’s monument, some of the females wear a
close-fitting cap like a child’s nightcap, and others a sort of hood
with a long tail to it, which is sometimes stiff and sometimes loose
like drapery. The wives of Walsoken and Branch (1349 and 1364)
exhibit the wimple, covering the throat, chin, and sides of the face,
and the couverchef (kerchief) thrown over the head and falling upon
the shoulders. The next important variety was the forked or mitre
head dress, which first came into fashion about 1438, and held its
ground for about twenty-six years, though there is one specimen as
late as 1492. This was followed by the pedimental style of head
dress, which began about 1415, and continued till late into the
following century. The butterfly head dress, which was a cylindrical
cap with a light veil over it, stiffened and squared at the top,
prevailed from 1466 to 1483. In 1538 we observe a graceful form of
head dress, like what is termed the Mary Queen of Scots’ cap. The
mantle, which was something like a cope, the jaquette, which may be
compared to the “flanches of heraldry,” and excellent specimens of
ancient embroidery, may all be studied in the brass of Adam de
Walsoken. About the year 1460 we observe the aumoniere (like a
reticule) hanging from a lady’s girdle, and also the rosary,
terminating, not with a cross, but with a tassel.”
In reference to the dresses of the male sex, the Rev. R. Hart gives the
following details as to municipal costumes.
“On the Lynn cup, already referred to, we observe the jerkin, or
short coat; also a sort of cape, or short cloak; a larger cloak, and
three or four sorts of head coverings, viz., a low flat-topped cap;
another something like a helmet; a hat sloping upwards from the rim,
and flat at the top; a hood with a tail to it; and another exactly
resembling what is now termed a ‘wide-awake.’ On the monuments of
Walsoken and Branch we notice the jerkin, the mantle, cloaks, long
and short, (in one instance festooned over the right shoulder like
the plaid of a Highlander,) and another long cloak, curiously
buttoned all down the front; also several kinds of head-covering,
some exactly similar to those which have been recently described,
others with a broad rim turned up, the top being round-pointed or
flat; and in one instance we observe a hat and feather. In their
monumental effigies the laity are usually attired in a long gown,
which has sometimes bag sleeves, but resembles an albe in all other
respects. It is usually girdled with a leathern strap with a rosary
of much larger beads than we observe on female brasses, and without
any decads. Generally speaking, these rosaries have a tassel
underneath, but on the brass of Sir William Calthorp, 1495, a signet
ring is attached to the end of the rosary, while a beautiful shaped
aumoniere also hangs from the girdle. About the year 1532 we observe
gowns with hanging sleeves, like those which are still worn by
masters of arts at our universities; and in other instances, of about
the same date, we observe a pudding sleeve reaching a little below
the elbow of the under dress. The brass of Edmund Green, in
Hunstanton church, A.D. 1490, is chiefly remarkable from the
resemblance that his upper garment bears to a pelisse or furred
surtout. The short cloak—trunk hose (something like the
‘nickerbockers’ of our own time), and also the ruff, are observable
upon Norfolk brasses between 1610 and 1630. During the first half of
the fifteenth century, we observe a frightfully ugly mode of shaving
of the hair all round, to some height above the ears. It looks like
a skull cap, and is an exact inversion of the tonsure. Burgesses of
Lynn appear to have worn, in the fourteenth century, long gowns, the
lower part of which is open in the front about as high as the knees,
and with wide sleeves reaching to the elbow. There is a richly
bordered and hooded cape over the upper part of this gown. It is not
unlike an amess. Aldermen of Norwich wore a mantle open at the right
shoulder, falling straight behind, but gathered into a slope at
front, so as to cover a great part of the left arm, while the other
was exposed. It had a standing collar, and there were buttons upon
the right shoulder. A Judge of the Common Pleas, in 1507, wore his
hair long and flowing, and was habited in a long wide-sleeved gown,
open in the front; apparently it was lined, caped, and bordered with
fur, and there is a purse hanging from the girdle. On his feet he
wore clogs of a very remarkable form. A Judge of the King’s Bench,
in 1545, wore a wide-sleeved long gown, a mantle open at the right
shoulder, as in the municipal examples, his head being covered with a
coif or closely-fitting skull-cap.”
In the earlier years of the reign of Elizabeth, the Flemings, who fled
from the persecutions of the Duke of Alva, settled at Norwich to the
number of 4000, and much increased the prosperity of the city by
introducing the manufacture of bombazines, which were long in great
demand all over the country. Black bombazines were universally worn by
ladies when in mourning, up to a recent period. These bombazines were
mixed fabrics of silk and worsted, and were dyed in all colours. They
did not wear so long as the more modern paramattas.
Elizabeth gave every encouragement to manufactures; and when more
Flemings sought refuge in England, the city of Norwich gained an
accession of knowledge in the art of weaving with a warp of silk or
linen, and a weft of worsted, as well as in dyeing and other processes.
And now the articles manufactured began to be classed as “bays, arras,
says, tapestries, mockadoes, stamens, russels, lace, fringes, camlets,
perpetuanas, caffas and kerseys.” Nothing contributed more to advance
the prosperity of the city than the arrival of the industrious Dutch
people, who brought with them arts before unknown in this land.
For centuries the action of government in reference to trade was simply
in the way of protection, creating monopolies under charters, and
sometimes for subsidies. This was especially the case in Norwich, which
was made one of the royal cities of England, and had a market every day
in the week, as well as annual marts for all sorts of merchandise. The
manufacturers first sought and obtained protection for their trade under
charters. Hence arose a system which answered very well in the infancy
of society, but which became obsolete in the course of national
development, and the extension of commerce.
Under the miserable rule of Charles I., the persecuting Laud succeeded in
driving back the industrious Dutch weavers to Holland, and causing others
to emigrate to America in order that they might enjoy religious liberty.
Thus the best workers were driven out of England, and a stimulus was
given to the Dutch worsted manufacture. The Commonwealth government
restored prosperity to trade, and established a corporation of fifty-four
persons in Norwich for the regulation of trade, which then flourished
exceedingly.
In the reign of Charles II., we find that “Weavers’ Hall” is mentioned;
and though the king taxed the manufacturers, the Norwich workers
flourished: for Sir John Child, in 1681, declared that, “Such a trade
there is, and hath been, for the woollen manufactures, as England never
knew in any age.” Soon afterwards, Louis XIV. revoked the Edict of
Nantes, and tens of thousands of French Protestant weavers took refuge in
England, giving birth to the silk manufactures of Spitalfields, and
stimulating the trade of Norwich. These refugees introduced the
manufacture of crapes, which soon came into very general use for
mourning.
_The Eighteenth Century_.
Most of the manufacturers of this century were very intelligent men, who
had gone through the whole routine of their trade, and could do the work
in every process with their own hands. The worsted goods manufactured at
this time were calimancoes, plain, flowered, and brocaded; camlets and
camletees; satins and satinettes; brocaded satins, rosetts, brilliants,
batavias, Mecklenburghs, hairbines, damasks, duroys, poplins, prunells,
bombazines, serges, florentines, brilliantines, grandines, cameltines,
tabourtines, blondines, callimandres, and other fabrics, all in brilliant
colours. The greatest demand for these goods was from 1743 to 1763, a
period of twenty years.
In or about 1776 Joseph and John Banfather made a few camlets, which were
woven grey, and after that, dyed of various colours, for a captain of an
East India vessel, who took them out at his own risk. About 1782, broad
bombazines were introduced by Ives, Son, and Baseley. About 1783, Irish
poplins or lustres were made by that firm. About 1785, spotted camletees
were introduced by William Martin. About 1788, single warp callimancoes
were made and continued for six years.
Mr. James assures us that Norwich attained its highest prosperity during
the middle of the eighteenth century, so great was the energy and
fertility of resource displayed by its merchants. The worsted dyers of
the city were pre-eminent for skill, and their profits were great. The
city merchants sent travellers throughout Europe, and their pattern books
were shown in every principal town as far as Moscow. Norwich goods were
introduced into France, Spain, Portugal, Germany, and Poland, and there
was also a large trade with Russia. The great fairs of Frankfort,
Leipsic, and of Salerno, were thronged with purchasers of Norwich
fabrics. An _English Gazetter_ published before 1726, contains an
article on Norwich, in which the writer says:—
“The worsted manufacture, for which this city has long been famous,
and in which even children earn their bread, was first brought over
by the Flemings in the reign of Edward III., and afterwards very much
improved by the Dutch who fled from the Duke of Alva’s persecution,
and being settled here by queen Elizabeth, taught the inhabitants to
make says, baize, serges, shalloons, &c., in which they carry on a
vast trade both at home and abroad, and weave camblets, druggets,
crapes, and other stuffs, of which it is said this city vends to the
value of £200,000 a year.
“The weavers here employ spinsters all the country round, and also
use many thousand packs of yarn spun in other counties, even as far
as Yorkshire and Westmoreland. By a late calculation from the number
of looms at work in this city only, it appeared that there were no
less than one hundred and twenty thousand people employed in these
manufactures of wool, silk, &c., in and about the town, _including
those employed in spinning the yarn_, used for such goods as are made
in the city.”
The writer of course means to include all the females who spun the yarns
in Yorkshire and Westmoreland, as well as in Norfolk and Norwich. Even
then, 120,000 people is an incredible number, for he states the value of
all the goods sold to be only £200,000 yearly, so that the people would
not earn £2 each per annum.
So flourishing was the woollen trade in this city during the second half
of the eighteenth century, that on February 2nd, 1759, the wool-combers
testified their joy by exhibiting the pageant of bishop Blaise, who lived
under Dioclesian, A.D. 282, and was a great patron of woollen
manufactures. This prosperity was interrupted by a war; but on March
24th, 1783, the citizens were again entertained by the wool-combers’
jubilee, on the return of peace, which had a beneficial effect on trade.
The most prosperous period appears to have been from 1750 to 1780.
Mr. Arthur Young, in 1771, published his “Tour of England” in the form of
Letters, some of which relate to the eastern counties, and Letter XII. to
Norwich. It contains a curious statement, derived from some
manufacturers, respecting their trade. At that time, the population of
the city was about 40,000, mostly employed in manufactures, and the
merchants were rich and numerous. Mr. Arthur Young says:—
“The staple manufactures are crapes and camlets, besides which they
make in great abundance damasks, satins, alopeens, &c., &c. They
work up the Leicestershire and Lincolnshire wool chiefly, which is
brought here for combing and spinning, whilst the Norfolk wool goes
to Yorkshire for carding and cloths. And what is a remarkable
circumstance, not discovered many years, is, that the Norfolk sheep
yield a wool about their necks equal to the best from Spain; and is
in price to the rest as twenty to seven.”
Mr. Arthur Young further states that men, women, and boys earned about
five shillings per week, but that they could earn more if industrious, so
that wages were not higher a century ago than at present. In reference
to the exportation of goods, he observes:—
“They now do not send anything to North America, but much to the West
Indies. Their foreign export is to Rotterdam, Ostend, Middleburgh,
all Flanders, Leghorn, Trieste, Naples, Genoa, Cadiz, Lisbon,
Barcelona, Hamburgh, all the Baltic except Sweden, and the East
Indies.
“The general amount of Norwich manufactures may be calculated thus—
A regular export to Rotterdam, by shipping every six £480,000
weeks, of goods to the amount of yearly
Twenty-six tons of goods sent by broad-wheeled waggons 676,000
weekly to London at £500 a ton, on an average, 13,000
tons per annum, value
By occasional ships and waggons to various places 200,000
calculated at
£1,356,000
Therefore the trade had increased in fifty years from £200,000, according
to the “English Gazetteer,” up to £1,356,000!
Mr. Young further observes in reference to the estimates he had given:—
“Upon a reconsideration of the table, it was thought that the
£676,000 by waggons was rather too high. Suppose, therefore, only
10,000 tons, it is then £520,000, and the total £1,200,000!
“Another method taken to calculate the amount was by adding up the
total sum supposed to be returned annually by every house in Norwich,
and this method made it £1,150,000. This sum coming so near the
other, is a strong confirmation of it.
“A third method taken was to calculate the number of looms (in county
and city); these were made 12,000; and it is a common idea in Norwich
to suppose such, with all its attendants, works £100 per annum. This
also makes the total £1,200,000, which sum upon the whole appears to
be very near the real truth.
“Respecting the proportion between the original material and the
labour employed upon it, they have a sure and very easy method of
discovering it. The average value of a piece of stuff is 5s.; so the
material is a tenth of the total manufacture. Deduct the £120,000
from £1,200,000, leaves £1,080,000 for labour, in which is included
the profit of the manufacturer.
“The material point remaining is to discover how many people are
employed to earn the public one million per annum, and for this
calculation I have one _datum_ which is to the purpose. They
generally imagine in Norwich that one loom employs six persons on the
whole; and as the number is 12,000 (in city and county), there are
consequently 72,000 people employed in the manufacture. And this is
a fresh confirmation of the preceding accounts; for I was in general
told that more hands worked out of Norwich, for many miles around,
than in it; and £1,200,000 divided by 72,000, gives £16 each for the
earnings of every person.”
This, Mr. Young confesses, appears to be a large sum for men, women, and
boys to earn. The population of Norwich being then under 40,000, the
number of looms at the time Mr. A. Young wrote could not be 12,000, nor
the persons employed 72,000 in the city and county. Six persons to a
loom never were required at one time. The proportion was more likely
only half, or three persons to a loom. Consequently, the number employed
would be only 36,000 in both city and county. Divide £1,200,000 by
36,000, and it gives £33 for each adult yearly, including the profits of
the manufacturer. Deduct £200,000 for their profits, and it leaves
£1,000,000 for labour; divide that by 36,000 persons, and it leaves only
£28 each, yearly, which is nearer the mark.
Mr. R. Beatniffe, a bookseller in Norwich, copied the statement of Mr. A.
Young, and published it in his “Tour of Norfolk.” He said some gentlemen
of intelligence had doubted it, as well they might, but he believed it
was true. However, in his last edition of the “Tour,” published in 1807,
he gave a very different account. He said that the merchant was shut out
of the home market by fashion and out of the foreign market by war, so
that the annual value of the goods was estimated at £800,000, and the
cost of labour at £685,000, leaving only £115,000 for the raw material
Messrs. John Scott and Sons, were manufacturers of woollen and worsted
goods, in St. Saviour’s, from 1766 to 1800, and produced great quantities
of taborets, floretts, clouded camlets, for Italy; perukeens,
self-coloured camlets, for Germany; and other sorts for Spain. Some of
these camlets were eighteen inches wide, and the pieces twenty-seven or
thirty yards in length; some super camlets were twenty-four inches wide,
and thirty yards in length, according to the pattern books yet in
existence. These camlets were charged from 50s. to 100s. per piece, or
an average of 80s., as we have seen in old ledgers of the firm, still
preserved and in the possession of a manufacturer.
Originally, all the yarns used in Norwich were spun by hand in Norfolk
and Suffolk, thus employing a large number of women, young and old.
About 1720, almost the whole female population of Norfolk and Suffolk was
fully employed at the spinning wheel, and this branch of industry
continued till the end of the century, and though 50,000 tons of wool
were produced, it was found necessary to draw supplies from other
districts. Before the end of the eighteenth century, mills were at work
spinning yarns, and in 1812, yarns from the mills in Lancashire were
brought here and spun in bombazines, which were dyed in various colours.
The establishment of mills in Yorkshire, where coal, provisions, and
labour were cheaper than in Norfolk, gave a heavy blow to the trade of
the city, which would have been more severely felt, but for the
fluctuations of fashion having created a great demand for bombazines, for
which Norwich was famous. The Yorkshire workmen and the substitution of
machinery for female hands, reduced the manufacture of the old kinds of
goods to a low point, and the trade was chiefly maintained by the orders
of the East India Company for large quantities of camlets for the Chinese
market.
Messrs. Willett and Nephew have old pattern books full of specimens of
shawl borders of very elegant designs; in fashion at the beginning of
this century. These patterns are an imitation of genuine Indian designs,
the pine-apple being prominent; but great improvements in the designs
were made by different manufacturers. Norwich shawls had formerly a high
reputation, and were in great demand in London and all large towns; but
ultimately French shawls were preferred, owing to the superiority of the
designs.
At two general meetings of the manufacturers, held at the Guildhall on
December 14th and 21st, 1790, the prices for weaving were fixed and
printed in a list, comprising serges, prunelles, satins, satinettes,
camlets, camletines, florentines, brilliantines, grenadines, blondines,
tabourtines, callandres, &c. At a general meeting of the manufacturers,
held on June 13th, 1793, at the Guildhall, it was resolved unanimously
that they would supply the journeyman weavers they employed with havels
and slaies, free of charge, and without deduction from the prices
established in the table of rates fixed in the year 1790. The list
continued in force for some time, even into the next century. The
camlets made, excepting those for China, were thirty yards in length, and
about twenty-eight inches wide, with warp and wift dyed in the hank.
Millions of pieces of camlets were made for exportation, in which nearly
all the manufacturers were engaged. The orders of the East India Company
amounted to a very large sum yearly. Operatives earned 40s. for each
piece of camlet for the East India Company, or about £1000 weekly on that
single article. Those were the palmy days for the weavers; days that
will never more return.
Towards the close of the century, the prosperity of Norwich really
declined. The towns of the West Riding of Yorkshire, as already stated,
became her successful rivals in worsted fabrics. The increase of cottons
and their general wear in England left Norwich dependent on the foreign
trade, which was partly ruined by the American war, and entirely so by
the war after the first French Revolution, which spread desolation over
all Europe.
_The Nineteenth Century_.
At the commencement of the present century, bombazines, camlets, and
mixed fabrics were the chief manufactures of Norwich. Soon afterwards
crapes were produced in large quantities. Paramattas were next
introduced, and in the course of time superseded bombazines for mourning.
“Poplins” then came into fashion, and the manufacture has so much
improved that the demand for this kind of goods has increased every year.
Poplins were followed by a long succession of mixed fabrics, barèges,
balzarines, gauzes, mousseline de laines, cotton de laines, llamas,
thibets, merinoes, lunettas, organdies, stuffs, cloths, velvets, lustres,
silks, satins, &c. The manufacture of shawls was also carried on
extensively, and for a long time Norwich shawls, for excellence of fabric
and elegance of design, were not surpassed by any made in England. A
great trade was done in shawls in Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, and other
large towns. The trade, however, gradually declined when French shawls
came into fashion. French goods of other kinds also grew in favour, and
affected the city trade in many textile fabrics.
In 1829, on December 29th, a meeting of weavers was held on Mousehold
Heath to adopt means for keeping up the rate of payment, the operatives
asserting their right to combine to increase wages, as well as their
employers to combine to reduce them. The weavers were not paid by time,
but at a certain rate for piece-work of different kinds. The rate was
according to a certain printed scale, to which the operatives wished to
adhere, while it sometimes occurred that the manufacturers desired to
alter it.
During the early part of the present century Messrs. Ives and Robberds,
of St. Saviour’s, carried on a large trade in worsted goods, chiefly for
exportation to India and China, and to different parts of Europe. The
goods made were all stout worsted fabrics, plain, checked, striped, or
figured, in vivid colours. They were camlets, camletees, satins,
satinettes, ladines, tabaretts, calimancoes, swan skins, broad bays, red
kerseys, diamantines, spotted tobines, batavias, hairbines, toys,
Rochdale bays, checked paolis, lustrins, dentellos, damasks, dorsettines,
poplins, serges, mazarines, and grenadines. The same firm received large
orders from the East India Company for camlets, in pieces 55 yards in
length, 30 inches in width, and weighing 20 lbs. each. Orders were
executed by various houses as follows:—
_Year_ _Pieces_
1812 22,000
1813 22,000
1814 12,000
1815 10,400
1816 16,600
1817 15,200
1818 15,200
1819 15,640
1820 16,000
1821 11,000
1822 14,300
1824 10,000
1825 11,012
1826 13,000
1827 none
1828 12,000
1829 10,000
1830 9,300
1831 none
1832 5,000
In 1832 the East India Company suspended their orders, but Mr. Robberds
continued to export camlets from Norwich and Yorkshire to China in
exchange for tea, as follows:—
_Year_ _Norwich_ _Yorkshire_
1841 420 pieces 215 pieces
1842 2,760 ,, 200 ,,
1843 6,610 ,, 5,181 ,,
1844 13,170 ,, 7,928 ,,
He also continued to make camlets for wholesale merchants in London till
1848, when he failed in consequence of losses, but afterwards joined a
partner in Halifax, and continued to produce large quantities of camlets;
but Norwich lost all the trade.
Besides the camlets supplied to the East India Company, goods of the same
kind were made for private orders by all the manufacturers. During the
years 1830, 1831, and 1832, according to ledgers yet remaining, one firm
made about 7,000 pieces for private orders, and from 1833 to 1837
inclusive, nearly 9,000 pieces. In 1833 and 1834, mohair camlets were
made by the same house to the extent of 6,000 pieces, being 22,000 pieces
in four years. Supposing a dozen other houses to have produced a like
quantity, the total would have been 66,000 pieces yearly. Messrs. Booth
and Theobald, in Muspole Street, were large manufacturers of worsted
goods, and at one time employed about 1,000 hands, men, women, and
children, in the production of worsted goods, including camlets, for the
East India Company. Mr. John Francis, of St. George’s, also made a
variety of worsted goods and other fabrics, employing a large number of
hands at one time. Messrs. Worth and Carter, in St. George’s Middle
Street, and Joseph Oxley and Sons, in St. Augustine’s, produced large
quantities of broad bombazines, which were gradually superseded by
paramattas, to which the ladies gave the preference. Both fabrics were
made of worsted and silk; the only difference was that they were
differently dressed, the paramattas being dressed flat by hot pressing,
which gave a greater flexibility to the cloth. Messrs. Wright and Son,
formerly on Elm Hill, at one time employed about 1500 hand-loom weavers
in the manufacture of plain and fancy fabrics, mostly mixed.
Messrs. Grout and Co. began the manufacture of crapes in a small way in
Patteson’s Yard, in Magdalen Street. John Grout was then the principal
partner, but after the mills were built in Lower Westwick Street, having
realized a fortune, he retired from business. George Grout also retired
before 1840. Messrs. Martin and Company became the proprietors of the
mills, and after Mr. Martin died, the firm comprised Messrs. Brown,
Robison, and Hall, who now carry on a large trade in crapes, areophanes,
and gauzes. The machinery in use is of the most improved construction;
and in these very extensive works may be seen most of the processes
connected with the manufacture of silk goods. The silk is imported
chiefly from China and some from India, but a portion is also obtained
from Italy. The demand for crapes used in mourning has, however, a good
deal diminished.
The Albion Mills, in King Street, were erected in 1836 and 1837, for the
spinning of worsted yarns, in consequence of the great demand in Norwich
and the difficulty found by manufacturers in obtaining the yarns which
they required for their trade. Mr. George Jay, owner of the mills,
erected new machinery. And after the trade in worsted yarns declined, he
imported mohair from Asia Minor, and commenced the spinning of mohair
yarns. He continued this business for some years, while mohair goods
were in demand. He added a new wing to the factory and put in another
steam engine, both the engines being of seventy-horse power.
During the present century, large Mills have been built in this city for
the spinning of silk, woollen, and mohair yarns, and also for weaving
those yarns into all kinds of fabrics. In the year 1833, a company was
organised for those manufactures. A large capital of £40,000 was raised,
and ultimately two factories were built, one in St. Edmund’s and one in
St. James’. The former became a factory for spinning yarns, and the
latter for weaving goods. In St. James’ factory two coupled engines of
100-horse power were put up to drive the machinery. There the city
manufacturers hired the large rooms and power, and put in the machinery,
for the production of fabrics.
The site of the factory comprises 1a. 2r. 18p., with a frontage of 460
feet to the river. Above the basement are six long floors. There have
been sixty-five frames in the mills for spinning yarns, and 500 looms for
weaving fabrics; but the number of looms has been reduced to 300, and
they are not always at work. After the erection of the mills, weaving
sheds were built adjoining. The floors are now occupied as follows;—No.
1. Messrs. Skelton and Co; No. 2. Messrs. Towler, Rowling, and Allen, who
also hire two of the weaving sheds; No. 3. Messrs. Willett, Nephew, and
Co.; No. 4. Messrs. Skelton and Co.: Nos. 5 and 6. Mr. Park, for spinning
woollen yarns. Women and girls are chiefly employed in this factory.
About 1000 have been at work at a time, when trade has been good; but of
late, not half the number have been engaged. The average earnings have
been about 7s. weekly.
In 1838, trade was in a very dull declining state, and some differences
arose between masters and men, in consequence of a proposed reduction in
the rate of payment. This was resisted by the men, who appealed to
Colonel Harvey to mediate between them, which he consented to do. A
meeting was held, and the delegates who had been sent on the part of the
weavers to the north to inquire into the state of the camlet trade,
reported that they had seen no camlets at all to compare with those in
Norwich. The north had, however, got the trade. The question remained
unsettled; but on August 27th, that year, several camlet weavers applied
to the magistrates for protection from the violence of those on strike.
Mr. Robberds was willing to give out work, but would not do so unless his
men were protected. The application was granted, and a strong body of
police was sent to the premises of Mr. Robberds, where the weavers
received their work, and they were protected in conveying it to their
homes. On the Tuesday following, the house of a man named Wells was
broken open and his work cut out of the loom. The city was much
disturbed by these differences, which ultimately produced great injury to
its trade.
According to Mr. Mitchell’s report in 1839, there were in the city and
its vicinity 5,075 looms, of which 1,021 were unemployed; and of the
4,054 looms then at work, there were 3,398 in the houses of the weavers,
and 650 in shops and factories. Indeed, by far the greater part of the
looms belonged to families having only one or two. The operatives at
these looms comprised 2,211 men, and 1,648 women, with 195 children. In
that year two silk mills employed 731 hands; three worsted mills, 385
hands; two woollen mills, 39 hands; and one cotton mill, 39 hands, making
eight mills, employing 1,285 persons.
An abstract of a census of the Norwich weavers, furnished by a report of
the commissioners on handloom weavers, published in 1840, will best show
the nature and the relative amount of the fabrics then made by hand.
Bombazines employed 1,205 workers, of whom 803 were men; challis,
Yorkshire stuffs, fringes, &c., 1,247, of whom 510 were men; gauzes, 500,
chiefly women; princettas, 242, nearly all men; silk shawls, 166, of whom
74 were men; bandana, 158, of whom 86 were men; silk, 38, including 16
men; jacquard, 30; worsted shawls, 26; woollen and couch lace, 22 each;
camletees, 20; horsehair cloth, 17; lustres, 3; sacking, 45. Total of
weavers 4,054, including 2,211 men, 1,648 women, 108 boys, 77 girls, and
10 apprentices. Their gross wages, when fully employed, have ranged from
8s. to 25s. weekly; those engaged on fillovers, challis, and fine
bombazines, earning from 15s. to 25s. weekly; but deducting “play time”
and expenses, the net wages did not amount to 8s. weekly. Mr. Mitchell
reported that the industry and morals of the operatives had suffered much
from party spirit, riots, and strikes. Of late years the workers at
their looms have been very industrious and quiet, while they have endured
great privations. Since 1840 a large number of the operatives have gone
into the boot and shoe trade, which offered better prospect of at least a
decent livelihood.
PRESENT STATE OF THE TRADE.
Most of the old worsted fabrics formerly made in such large quantities
have become obsolete, and lighter mixed fabrics are now produced in great
variety, in silk, wool, mohair or cotton, or composed of three or four
kinds of yarns. The goods are known under the names of cloths, kerseys,
linseys, winseys, coburgs, crapes, gauzes, nets, paramattas, camlets,
bareges, balzarines, grenadines, challis, llamas, poplins, poplinettes,
tamataves, optimes, crinolines, cloakings, and shawls in great variety.
Wool, mohair, and cotton yarns are chiefly used in most of the fabrics,
except crapes and gauzes. The larger proportion of the woollen yarns are
made here from English wool. Poplins are made of silk and worsted;
poplinettes, of silk and cotton; bareges, of silk and worsted; tamataves,
of worsted and cotton; grenadines, of twisted worsted and silk; coburgs,
of cotton and worsted; paramattas and bombazines, of worsted and silk;
llamas, of an inferior kind of wool with cotton warp; thibet cloths, of
worsted warp and weft; winseys and linseys, of worsted with cotton warp;
balzarines, with cotton warps and worsted shoot; malabars, of cotton warp
and woollen shoot, thirty-two inches wide. All the fabrics, however, may
be included under the three classes of tammies, tamataves, and nets. The
tammies are woven fabrics, in which the warp and the weft simply cross,
but in the nets there is a twist in the warp. The tamataves are partly
the tammy woven and partly the net. In former times the trade was
comparatively steady, because plain fabrics in single colours were more
in demand than any other; but of late years, this branch of business has
been very fluctuating, owing to the changes of fashion and the desire for
novelty, both in the fabric and in the pattern of every article. New
patterns are now, therefore, constantly being produced. All preparations
and processes are only for the coming season, and it is found necessary
to alter the pattern, the colouring, the finishing, and even the names of
the goods, to suit the markets.
Mr. G. Jay is the largest manufacturer of mohair yarns in this city; and
in the years 1867 and 1868 he could not execute all the orders he
received. This arose from the great care bestowed on the preparation of
the material at the Albion Mills, in King Street, and from the softness
of the water which imparts a glossy, silky appearance to the yarns.
Mohair fabrics came suddenly into use, and for some years prior to 1860,
elegant tissues were produced here. These, however, soon went out of
fashion. All the yarns spun here are now sent to France and Germany,
where they are woven, with silk, into velvets, and then imported into
this country. The velvet jackets which are now in fashion have caused a
great demand for these yarns, and sixty-five frames at the Albion Mills
are constantly at work. We are only surprised that the yarns are not
used in the city in the manufacture of velvets, large quantities of which
are imported every year.
Norwich was the first place in all England where the manufacture of
fillover shawls was carried on to any great extent. For a long time the
weaving of these shawls was a tedious, slow process. A great improvement
in the mode of weaving was, however, discovered by a straw-hat maker of
Lyons, named Jacquard, in the year 1802, by which means the drawboys were
entirely dispensed with and the tackle simplified. The new invention was
received as a boon in England, and at length was introduced into this
city, where it has been applied to the production of splendid fillover
shawls, by Clabburn, Sons, and Crisp. We regret, however, that these
elegant articles of ladies attire have recently gone almost entirely out
of fashion.
The Late Mr. T. O. Springfield carried on the wholesale silk business to
a very large extent, having almost a monopoly of the market, and he
supplied with dressed silk almost all the manufacturers in this city.
This silk was very largely used by Grout and Co., in the manufacture of
crape, gauzes, aerophanes, &c., and by others in the working up of mixed
fabrics, especially bareges, grenadines, and various light tissues. The
same wholesale business is now continued by Mr. O. Springfield, in
Norwich and London. It is estimated that the annual value of dressed
silk used in this city is over £100,000.
Messrs. Middleton, Answorth, and Co., have a large factory in Calvert
Street, another in Bradford, and a wholesale warehouse in London. They
formerly made all kinds of mixed fabrics in this city, and now they
produce large quantities of paramattas, grenadines, opera cloakings, and
fancy cloakings, hair cloth for crinolines, and curled hair for stuffing
sofas. Crinolines have been made in great quantities by this firm, the
warp being cotton and the weft horsehair. The demand for them has,
however, somewhat abated. This firm has largely increased their trade in
hair-cloth, which is used for general stiffening purposes. In the
southern states of America, the gentlemen wear large trousers, which
require to be expanded like ladies’ dresses; and, therefore, the larger
portion of these goods are sent to the southern states of America. The
same firm has also introduced haircloth in many patterns and colours for
covering furniture, in sofas, chairs, &c. There is an enormous
importation of horse-hair into England from Russia, and from the
continent of South America, where horses run wild in the great plains
called “Pampas.” The horses are caught and divested of their tails,
which are brought into this country in a very rough state; the hair is
dressed and woven into a variety of fabrics which are in great demand.
The trade in horse-hair cloth is almost a new trade in the city and might
be greatly extended. Some fabrics are made all horse-hair, and some
mixed with spun silk, in stripes, and colours, and very pleasing
patterns.
Mr. J. Burrell has built a small mill near the Dereham Road, where he
carries on the manufacture of horse-hair cloth by means of peculiar looms
and machinery. He imports horse hair, and prepares it for stuffing seats
of chairs, sofas, &c. He also weaves horse hair into cloth for various
purposes. Mr. Gunton also carries on the same kind of manufacture in St.
Miles’; but the trade is yet on a small scale in this city.
Messrs. Clabburn, Sons, and Crisp, in Pitt Street, manufacture shawls in
every variety, and also paramattas, bareges, tamataves, balzarines,
poplins, fancy robes, ophines, grenadines, and mixed fabrics generally.
The fillover long shawls produced by this firm, on a Jacquard loom,
gained the gold medal at the first Paris Exhibition, and also at the
London Exhibition in 1862. No description could convey an adequate idea
of these splendid fillover shawls, which are made by a patented process,
so as to display a self colour and a perfect design on each side. They
were on view at the Paris Exhibition, in 1867, but not for a prize, Mr.
W. Clabburn being selected as one of the judges, so that his firm could
not compete.
Messrs. Willett and Nephew, of Pottergate Street, are manufacturers on a
large scale. The factory itself is not very extensive, for most of the
weavers work for the firm at their own houses; and there, in humble
dwellings, produce the beautiful fancy fabrics, which are destined to
adorn the daintiest ladies in the land. The extent of the operations of
this firm enables them to introduce a great variety of novelties in every
season, and thus to compete successfully with the manufacturers of
France. They were the first to introduce the manufacture of paramattas,
which superseded the bombazines, at one time in such great demand. They
produce superior poplins, (plain, figured, and watered) bareges,
balzarines, tamataves, coburgs, camlets, challis, crinoline, crêpe de
Lyons, grenadines, shawls, scarfs, robes, and also a great variety of
plain fabrics. They exhibited a large assortment of goods at the London
Exhibition of 1851, and received a certificate of “honourable mention”
for their paramattas, being the only award made for that article.
Messrs. Willett and Co. also received a silver medal at the last
Exhibition in Paris. In 1867, the same firm supplied some rich poplins,
which were selected for the queen and royal family, from the stock of Mr.
Caley, in London Street. Mr. Caley has always on hand a large stock of
Norwich goods, including shawls and fancy fabrics of the newest designs.
Visitors to Norwich should not fail to call at his establishment, if they
wish to carry away any idea of the productions of the old city.
Messrs. C. and F. Bolingbroke and Jones, manufacturers of all kinds of
textile fabrics, carry on a large business in a building which was
formerly the city residence of the priors of Ixworth. On an old door,
which formerly opened into the prior’s hall, is the following inscription
in black letter on the transoms which divide the panels:—
Maria plena, mater mic
Remembyr Wyllyá Lowth, Prior 18.
William Louth was the 18th Prior of Walsingham, from 1505 to 1515. This
door has been noticed by Blomefield and others, but not correctly; Mr. H.
Harrod gave an engraving with description in his “Gleanings Among the
Castles and Convents of Norfolk,” (1857). John Aldrich, a grocer,
resided here prior to 1549. He was elected an alderman in 1544, sheriff
in 1551, mayor in 1558 and 1570, and member of parliament for Norwich in
1555, 1558, and 1572. He was buried inside of St. Clement’s church, on
the north side of the chancel, June 12th, 1582. His wife, Elizabeth
Aldrich, was buried there April 3rd, 1587. Messrs. C. and F. Bolingbroke
and Jones have almost rebuilt the house. They produce large quantities
of textile fabrics, including poplins (plain, figured, and watered)
paramattas, bareges, winseys, linseys, grenadines, and a variety of fancy
goods for dresses, which are in great demand. At the first Great
Exhibition of 1851 a medal was awarded to this firm for poplins, and at
the Great Exhibition of 1862 for poplins and poplinettes. In addition to
the old extensive premises, the firm, some time since, purchased the
steam-power mills in Calvert Street, and they also occupy a steam-power
shed at St. James’ factory.
Messrs. Towler, Rowling, and Allen, of Elm Hill, occupy large rooms in
the new buildings adjoining St. James’ factory, where they produce large
quantities of plain and fancy goods, which have been in great demand.
They make also large quantities of plain fabrics, for wholesale houses
only. At the London Exhibition of 1862, honourable mention was made of
the shawls of this firm.
Mr. J. L Barber has a large establishment in St. Martin’s Lane, where he
carries on business, making reels and winding cotton on them. He
supplies great quantities of cotton-thread to wholesale and retail
houses.
Messrs. Sultzer and Co. carry on the manufacture of crapes to a
considerable extent in premises built for the purpose in St. Augustine’s.
Messrs. F. Hindes and Sons, who have a warehouse in Botolph Street,
manufacture paramattas, bareges, tamataves, grenadines, poplins, shawls,
and cloakings. They hire a floor also in the steam-power factory.
Messrs. French and Co. formed a Limited Liability Company, and built a
new factory in the Mill Yard Lane, where they manufacture crapes, which
are in great demand.
Messrs. Grout and Co., manufacturers of gauzes, crapes, aerophanes, &c.,
in addition to their mills in Norwich, have other mills at Yarmouth and
Ditchingham, and at Ponder’s End near London. Theirs is, in fact, the
greatest concern in the world in the production of crapes and other silk
goods. In their several mills they employ about 2000 hands.
Mr. George Allen erected a large factory in 1857 in St. Stephen’s Back
Street, for the manufacture of elastic cloths for table covers, gloves,
shawls, and other clothing purposes, and for the production also of silk
and lisle webs. The elastic cloths, which are made upon warp frames, are
considered to be a great improvement on “Hooper’s Elastics,” made in the
west of England, and for wear they are believed to be unsurpassed. The
manufacture gives employment to a considerable number of hands.
About 500 power looms are at work in the city, when trade is good,
weaving a great variety of mixed fabrics, and no doubt each loom does
double the work of the old hand-loom. Supposing each loom to produce one
piece of goods weekly, there would be 500 pieces weekly, or 26,000 pieces
yearly. The prices vary in value from £1 to £10 per piece, and may be
averaged at £5, so that the annual value would be about £130,000. But at
least 500 hand-looms are also at work, and supposing that they produce
half the quantity of goods, the total annual value would be £195,000, or
in round numbers £200,000. We are sorry to state, however, as already
intimated, that the manufacture of textile fabrics in Norwich has for
some time past been declining, and cannot compare with former years. The
depression has arisen from various causes, among which may be mentioned
war, which has deprived the city of its best markets. The introduction
of cotton and silk goods too has nearly superseded the old stuff fabrics
of the city. Machinery in Norwich is also behind that in the north. The
wool grown in Norfolk and Suffolk has, moreover, been sent to Yorkshire
to be spun, and has been repurchased as yarn for Norwich goods; and
lastly, Norwich weavers have not the energy of those in Bradford.
Fashion also has been one of the causes of the loss of trade, for the
fashions are continually changing, and Norwich firms have to compete with
all England, Scotland, and France; and it is not to be expected that a
few houses in this city will produce as many novelties as all the rest of
the world. A School of Art has been established, but it has not yet
produced many practical designers.
CHAPTER II.
HAVING given an account of the textile manufactures in this city, we
proceed to furnish some particulars of the more important of other
classes of business, which go to make up the sum total of the trade and
commerce of the city.
THE BANKING BUSINESS.
Banking, as now understood, was not carried on till the eighteenth
century. Before the American war of Independence very few country banks
were established. Norwich manufactures were in their most prosperous
state in the middle of last century, and then it was that some banks were
established in this city. On January 31st, 1756, a bank was opened in
the Upper Market by Charles Weston, who carried on business till the end
of the century. In 1768, Mr. Thomas Allday’s bank was opened; afterwards
Sir R. Kerrison and Son were proprietors, and in 1808 the bank failed.
The debts amounted to £460,000, and the dividends paid amounted to 16s.
4d. in the pound. This was the first bank failure in Norwich of any
importance, and it shook public confidence in banks.
Messrs. Gurney’s bank was established in Norwich in 1775 as a bank of
deposit and issue. This was at a period the most flourishing in the
commercial annals of Norwich. The annual value of textile fabrics
produced in the city was over a million sterling, a trade which was of
course a great source of business to the bank. Henry Gurney, and his son
Bartlett Gurney, were the first proprietors. On the death of the father,
the son associated himself with his three brothers, Richard, Joseph, and
John Gurney; so the firm continued till the deaths of the different
parties. About 1825, Mr. H. Birkbeck, of Lynn, and Mr. Simon Martin were
taken in as partners. The firm then comprised R. H. Gurney, J. J.
Gurney, D. Gurney, Simon Martin, and H. Birkbeck. After J. J. Gurney and
S. Martin died, the firm comprised D. Gurney, J. H. Gurney, H. Birkbeck,
F. H. Gurney, and C. H. Gurney; and W. Birkbeck came in after the death
of his father. The bank at Norwich has in its connection branches at
North Walsham, Aylsham, Holt, Dereham, Fakenham, and Attleborough. At
Yarmouth the firm, until lately, comprised D. Gurney, J. H. Gurney, H.
Birkbeck, T. Brightwen, and J. H. Orde. This branch has in its
connection other branches at Lowestoft, Beccles, Bungay, Halesworth,
Saxmundham, Eye, and Stowmarket. At Lynn the firm, until lately,
comprised D. Gurney, J. H. Gurney, H. Gurney, H. Birkbeck, S. Gurney, and
F. G. Cresswell, and this bank extends to Downham and Swaffham.
The members of the several firms are now as follow:
NORWICH AND NORFOLK BANK.
Henry Birkbeck. Francis Hay Gurney.
William Birkbeck. Henry Ford Barclay.
Samuel Gurney Buxton. John Gurney.
YARMOUTH AND SUFFOLK BANK.
Henry Birkbeck. Henry F. Barclay.
S. G. Buxton. John Gurney.
Thomas Brightwen. James Henry Orde.
LYNN AND LINCOLNSHIRE BANK.
Daniel Gurney. Henry Birkbeck.
Somerville Arthur Gurney. H. F. Barclay.
S. G. Buxton. Francis Joseph Cresswell.
The Crown Bank, in King Street, Norwich, was opened on January 2nd, 1792,
as a bank of deposit, discount, and issue. The original proprietors were
Messrs. Hudson and Hatfield, and the first bank was in the Haymarket.
About forty years since the proprietors were Charles Saville Onley, Sir
Robert John Harvey, Anthony Hudson, and Thomas Hudson. They then
employed only seven clerks, and now thirty clerks are employed at the new
bank. On January 13th, 1820, a circular was issued by A. and T. Hudson,
stating that it was with great regret that they announced the death of
their friend and partner, Mr. Robert Harvey. Owing to his death, his
brother, Mr. Charles Harvey, and Sir Robert John Harvey, his nephew, were
added to the firm. Before 1820, Mr. Onley withdrew. Mr. T. Hudson and
Mr. A. Hudson died, and before the end of the Russian war, Sir Robert
John Harvey died. The present proprietors are Sir Robert John Harvey
Harvey, Bart., Crown Point, and Roger Allday Kerrison, Esq., who lives at
Ipswich. They have lately built a very handsome bank in the Corinthian
style of architecture, on the Castle Meadow, and it was opened in
January, 1866. At first the Crown Bank had only three agents in the
eastern counties, but the number has gradually increased to thirty. The
firm purchased the large business of Messrs. Taylor and Dyson at Diss.
This was an important addition, the Diss bank having extensive
connections in Norfolk and Suffolk.
In 1806, Messrs. Starling Day and Sons were bankers, in Pottergate
Street, afterwards in the Market Place, in the court adjoining the
Chronicle Office; and on December 16th, 1825, the bank stopped. In 1806,
T. Bignold, Son, and Co. were bankers in Briggs’ Street, but did not long
continue in business. The Norfolk and Norwich Joint Stock Bank was
established in 1820, in Surrey Street. This bank consisted of a small
proprietary, and the business, after the loss of the whole share capital,
was disposed of to the East of England Joint Stock Company, in 1836.
That company carried on business in the Haymarket till 1864, when the
bank failed. The sad event was the cause of much misery in the city and
county; and many persons who had been in comfortable circumstances were
entirely ruined and left destitute. The proprietors lost all their
capital, and were called upon to liquidate heavy liabilities besides.
There has not been much over trading in the eastern counties, and the
failure of the East of England Bank should be a warning to other joint
stock banks, which ought to be the safest if well managed. The business
of the East of England Bank and the premises were purchased by the
Provincial Banking Corporation, limited, and that company now carries on
business in the Haymarket.
About 1838, Mr. Balls opened a bank for deposits, in the Upper Market.
He carried on his business through the house of Sanderson in London.
Sanderson failed for £365,000, but afterwards paid 20s. in the pound, and
had £20,000 to spare. Mr. Balls gave up his bank in Norwich, in 1847.
The Consolidated Bank arose from a union of the banks of Hankey and Co.,
and Hayward, Kennard, and Co., London, and the bank of Manchester. They
were amalgamated in 1863, under the name of the Consolidated Bank, with a
branch in London Street, Norwich. The Company gave up this branch, and
the handsome new premises in London Street were taken by the National
Provincial Bank, which has been established since 1833.
Country banks are all of them banks of deposit and discount; they act as
agents for the remittance of money to and from London, and for effecting
payments between different parts of the kingdom. Nearly all of them are
also banks of issue, and their notes are, in most cases, made payable to
some bank in London, as well as at the place where they are issued. A
moderate rate of interest, from 2 to 2½ per cent, is allowed by country
bankers on deposits which remain with them for any period beyond six
months. Some make this allowance for shorter periods. Where a depositor
has also a drawing account, the balance is struck every six months, and
the interest due on the average is placed to his credit. On drawing
accounts, a commission, usually an eighth per cent, is charged on all
payments. The country banker on his part pays his London agent for the
trouble which he occasions, either by keeping a certain sum of money in
his hands without interest, or by allowing a commission on the payments
made for his account, or by a fixed annual payment in lieu of the same.
The portion of funds in their hands arising from deposits and issues,
which is not required for discounting bills and making advances in the
country, is invested in government or mercantile securities in London,
which in the event of a contraction of deposits, can be made immediately
available.
The agriculture of the eastern counties, the most productive in England,
is the foundation of their industrial prosperity, and the chief source of
business to the banks in the market towns. It is well known that since
the commencement of this century, by means of an improved system of
husbandry, the agricultural resources of the district have greatly
increased, as has also the annual value of the produce in cattle, sheep,
horses, pigs, and corn. The various branches of industry and
manufactures carried on in Norwich and the county are also, of course, to
be reckoned amongst the sources of the banking business.
WHOLESALE CLOTHIERS.
Mr. Dyer, in White Lion Street; Messrs. Riches and Skoyles, Davey Place;
Mr. Womack, Dove Street and Lobster Lane; and Messrs. Steward and Son,
Tombland; occupy extensive premises, where garments are made for men and
boys by the use of machines, and are disposed of wholesale to retail
clothiers all over the district. The introduction of sewing machines has
given a great impulse to this trade, and garments of all kinds and sizes
are produced here as good in quality and as low in price as they can be
obtained in any part of the kingdom.
A minute’s walk from the Market Place, in Bethel Street, are the steam
clothing works and warehouses of Messrs. F. W. Harmer and Co. Between
200 and 300 persons are employed by this firm in the manufacture of boys’
and men’s clothing; their goods are sold wholesale only, and are made for
what is technically called the “home trade.” In this establishment the
different processes of cutting, sewing, making button holes, &c., which a
few years since were performed by hand labour, are now principally done
by machinery worked by steam power, to the advantage both of the hands
employed and the consumers of the goods.
WHOLESALE BOOT AND SHOE TRADE.
This trade dates from the commencement of the present century; and for
some time it was confined to goods for the home market. In 1800, Mr.
James Smith began the trade, which was afterwards enlarged by the late
Mr. Charles Winter, who carried on a great business, both for the home
market and for exportation to the colonies. On the death of that
gentleman the concern passed into the hands of Messrs. Willis and
Southall, under whose able management the reputation of the old house is
fully sustained, and whose goods command a ready sale both at home and
abroad. The quality of the goods is now much improved, and large
quantities are exported to the colonies.
Formerly, all boots and shoes were made by hand only, and consequently
there was a great difference in the quality of the work. The operatives
used to take their work to their homes. They received so many dozen
uppers from the warehouses and returned them finished, and were paid
according to quality and quantity. The late Mr. C. Winter first made use
of sewing machines, for the uppers of boots and shoes, about 1856.
Afterwards American machines were introduced, to sew the soles to the
uppers.
About eighteen years since, the manufacturers began to make goods for
exportation to Canada, to the Cape of Good Hope, to India, and Australia.
This export trade was carried on to a large extent, from 1856 till 1866.
Mr. C. Winter sent large quantities of goods to Canada and India, and the
other manufacturers to Australia. A number of emigrants, however, went
into the trade in Australia, and the local parliament imposed a duty of
25 per cent. on English-made goods, which stopped the trade, so that of
late, very few Australian orders have been received in this city.
Notwithstanding this drawback, the boot and shoe trade has become a very
extensive and important branch of industry in Norwich, and about 3000
hands are employed in the manufacture. Hitherto it has been confined
chiefly to women and children’s goods, but men’s boots have been made to
some extent, and there is no reason why the trade should not be greatly
increased. Machines, as we have said, have been introduced in the
various processes of manufacture, and steam power has been applied to the
machines in two large factories, where vast quantities of goods are
produced. The result has been not to diminish but to extend the number
of hands, and to increase the rate of payment.
The hand machines now in use are chiefly those of Thomas, Singer, or
Howes. About 400 machines are at work daily in the warehouses, and 200
in private houses. In two factories, large American machines are used
for attaching the soles to the uppers at the rate of a pair per minute.
By means of these machines, a pair of boots may be cut out, and the
uppers, after fitting, sewn together and finished in an hour; and the
work, moreover, is better done by the use of machines than it usually is
by hand. Three operatives are required for each machine, two fitters and
one machinist.
When trade is good, about 3000 men, women, and children, are employed in
the manufacture, either in the warehouses or in their own homes. The
operatives may be divided into one-third men, one-third women, and
one-third children. They will produce, with the aid of machines, about
1000 dozen pairs of boots and shoes daily. The quantity will therefore
be 6000 dozen weekly, and taking the average price at 40s. per dozen, the
value would be £12,000 weekly. Supposing the trade to continue brisk for
fifty weeks in the year, the annual value would be £600,000.
During the year, 1868, trade was very prosperous, and manufacturers
received more orders than they could execute. The quantities before
stated may be doubled for that year; and at least 6000 men, women, and
children, were employed. Their production, with the aid of machines, has
been about 2000 dozen pairs of boots and shoes daily, or 12,000 dozen
pairs weekly, so that the weekly value has been £24,000, or £1,200,000
yearly. Norwich does not transact a hundredth part of this branch of
trade in England, and, therefore, it may be increased to an indefinite
extent.
The principal firms in the trade in 1868, were Messrs. Tillyard and
Howlett, on St. George’s Plain; Mr. Kemp, in Pitt Street; Messrs. Willis
and Southall, who occupy very extensive premises in the Upper Market; Mr.
Hotblack, St. Faith’s Lane; Mr. Lulham, Fishgate Street; Mr. Ford, St.
George Colegate; Mr. Homan, Theatre Street; Mr. Bostock, Swan Lane; Mr.
Steadman, Bethel Street; Messrs. Barker and Gostling, Wensum Street; Mr.
Haldenstein, Queen Street; Messrs. Gamble and Davis, Calvert Street; Mr.
Smith, Calvert Street; Mr. D. Soman, Calvert Street; Mr. Base, in
Prince’s Street; Mr. Copeman, St. Stephen’s; Mr. Horne, Charing Cross;
Mr. Worledge, Magdalen Street.
MUSTARD, STARCH, AND BLUE WORKS.
The Carrow Works have been greatly extended since the brief notice in the
first part of this history was written, and we are now enabled to give a
fuller description. Messrs. J. and J. Colman employ about 1200 men and
boys in the production of mustard, starch, blue, paper, and flour. By
the use of machinery of the most improved construction, and by selecting
seed of the finest quality, the firm produces mustard which cannot be
surpassed in purity and flavour. This mustard obtained the only prize
medals awarded for the article at the Great Exhibition in London, 1862,
and Dublin, 1865, and the only silver medal at Paris, 1868. The firm
also obtained medals for starch at the Great Exhibitions in London, 1851
and 1862; Dublin, 1865; York, 1866; and Paris, 1868.
Carrow Works are situated just outside of the King Street Gates of the
city, on the banks of the river Wensum, which is navigable for vessels of
about 120 tons. Lines of railway are laid down in various directions
through the premises connecting all the principal warehouses with the
Great Eastern Railway at Trowse. Thus Messrs. Colman have every facility
for receiving the raw material, and for disposing of the manufactured
goods by land or water conveyance. The machinery used is very extensive,
and sixteen engines are now employed, amounting altogether to 1000-horse
power.
On entering the works we pass the timekeeper’s office, and observe on the
right hand a large range of brick buildings. Here is the mustard mill,
and amid all the noise within we are shewn the process by which the
well-known condiment, mustard, is produced in such immense quantities,
and in the greatest perfection. The mustard seed, which is grown
extensively in some parts of this country, is crushed between iron
rollers, and is then pounded in large mortars, a long row of which stand
on one side of the mill. The pestles consist of long wooden rods with
heavy balls of iron. They are set in rapid motion by means of steam
power, and the mustard seed is speedily reduced to the condition of flour
and bran. These are readily separated, and the flour is brought to the
requisite quality by means of silk sieves, which vary in fineness
according to the quality of the mustard to be produced. These sieves are
loosely arranged in frames, and set in motion by means of revolving
shafts. Two kinds of seed, the brown and the white, are thus crushed,
pounded, and sifted. The brown is far more pungent than the white; but
in order to produce a flavour relished by consumers, it is necessary to
mix these two kinds, and it is the judicious mixture which gives the fine
aromatic flavour of the mustard for which the firm is celebrated.
Adjoining the mustard mill is the packing floor, where a great number of
men and boys are employed in putting the mustard into tins of various
shapes and sizes, and adorning them with the handsome labels which are so
generally exhibited in grocers’ windows everywhere, for the demand for
this mustard is universal.
Leaving the mustard mill we enter the starch works, which seem to be
still more extensive. The process of making starch is carefully
explained to us. After the grain has been moistened with a solution of
caustic soda, it is passed into the mill, where it is mixed with water
and ground in its wet state between mill stones; from each pair of which
continually runs a stream of pure white liquid, resembling thin paste.
This liquid is placed in large iron tanks called “separators,” a
considerable quantity of water is added, and the whole is well stirred
for some time. It is then allowed to settle, and the various particles
of husk, gluten, &c., sink slowly and form a thick deposit at the bottom.
The water with the starch in solution is then drawn off and pumped up
into immense shallow vats, several sets of which, placed over one
another, occupy the whole of the upper part of the building. In the
course of two or three days the liquid in the shallow vats gradually
deposits the starch held in solution, when the water is drawn off, and
the starch is taken out and placed in long narrow boxes filled with holes
and lined with cloth. It remains in these boxes for some time in order
that the moisture may gradually drain out and the starch consolidate. As
soon as it is sufficiently hardened, the starch is taken out and divided
into blocks, each about six inches square, and put into stoves and
exposed to a temperature of about 140 degrees; after which it is cleaned,
papered, and again placed in stoves, where it remains till it is
gradually crystallized, when the process of manufacture is complete, and
the starch is ready for sale.
We now walk across to the other side of the premises and enter a long row
of workshops, where a great number of men and boys are employed in making
tin-packages for the mustard. Passing by long ranges of coopers and
carpenters’ shops, we soon come to a large square block of buildings
called the “blue factory.” Here the indigo is mixed with the finest
starch, water is added, and the whole is ground in a moist state by large
heavy mill stones, till it resembles a very thick, dark blue paste. It
is transferred by means of a steam hoist to the upper part of the
building, where it is received and quickly manipulated by a number of
girls, who divide it into small cakes and stamp it with wooden stamps of
various devices, from which it is called “Stamp Title,” “Lion,” &c.; or
they work it into balls, on which they leave the impressions of their
finger and thumb, when it is called “Thumb Blue.” We learn from the
workers that the great art of blue making consists in drying it
carefully, so that the lumps or cakes may harden without cracking. We
walk through many rooms, almost in the dark, for the window shutters,
which are closed, are so constructed as to regulate the temperature, and
we have just room to pass between large tiers of racks filled with wooden
trays, on which the lumps and cakes of blue are placed in order that they
may dry gradually.
We next take a peep at the paper mill, and admire the beautiful machinery
which rapidly transforms any quantity of dirty rags into a thin milk-like
pulp, and then into solid quires and reams of paper, all cut and ready
for use. As we pass we look into the engineers’ shop and wonder at the
variety of the machinery there, capable of operating on the hardest
steel, and of planing, cutting, punching, or drilling it with the
greatest apparent ease; and we learn that most of the machinery is made
and repaired on the premises.
We are at last taken to the luncheon kitchen, in which a good lunch or
dinner is provided, consisting of as much hot meat and potatoes as any
man can eat, for threepence. Many of the men and boys gladly avail
themselves of this kitchen, and obtain a good meal without leaving the
works.
On leaving the yard we ascend the hill and observe a handsome
school-house, built in the Gothic style, and we learn that it was built
by Messrs. J. and J. Colman for the children of the working-people in
their service. The school comprises several class-rooms, and is fitted
up with every convenience.
THE IRON TRADE.
Coal and iron form the basis of our industrial system in this island, but
neither of them are produced in the eastern counties, which are, for the
most part, purely agricultural. Iron manufactures have, however, arisen
since the commencement of the present century, chiefly for agricultural
purposes. Norwich cannot boast of concerns so extensive as Messrs.
Ransome and Sims, of Ipswich; or Messrs. Garrett, of Leiston, in Suffolk;
but several firms here employ large numbers of mechanics in the
construction of engines, machines, and implements of every sort.
Dr. William Fairbairn, in his “History of Iron,” mentions five distinct
epochs: the first dating from the employment of an artificial blast, to
accelerate combustion; the second marked by the use of coke in the
reduction, about the year 1750; the third dating from the introduction of
the steam engine, on account of the facilities which that invention has
given for raising the ores, pumping the mines, supplying the furnace with
a copious and regular blast, and moving the powerful forge, and rolling
machinery; while the fourth is indicated by the introduction of the
system of puddling and rolling; and the fifth and last—though not the
least important epoch in the history of iron, is marked by the
application of the hot blast, an invention which has increased the
production of iron four-fold, and has enabled the iron-master to smelt
otherwise useless and unreducible ores. It has abolished the processes
of coking and roasting, and has afforded facilities for a large and rapid
production, far beyond the most sanguine anticipations of its inventors.
Some manufacturers, taking advantage of so powerful an agent, have used
improper materials, such as cinder heaps and impure ores, and by unduly
hastening the process, have produced an inferior kind of iron.
Nearly all the iron manufacturers in Norwich, Norfolk, and Suffolk, are
founders, and make their own castings for engines, girders, and machines
of every kind. The principal firms in this district are Messrs. Ransome
and Sims, before named; Messrs. Garrett, of Leiston; Mr. Turner, Ipswich;
Messrs. Woods, Cocksedge, and Warner, Stowmarket; Mr. C. Burrell, of
Thetford; and Messrs. Barnard, Bishop, & Barnard, Mr. W. S. Boulton, Mr.
Smithdale, and Messrs. Holmes and Sons, of Norwich. These great firms
send their productions all over the civilised world.
The important works of Messrs. Barnard, Bishop, and Barnard, of Norwich,
are situate in St. Michael’s Coslany, and cover an area of one acre, next
the river Wensum. Entering from Coslany Street, the new counting house
is joined on the right by a suite of offices, and on the left by the
smith’s shop, which is backed by fire-proof workshops, seventy-five feet
in length, and five stories in height. The large foundry is at the east
end of the works. A tramway runs from Coslany Street into the interior,
permeating the premises. About 400 men and boys are employed in the
production of wire-netting, fencing, garden chairs, stands, machines,
lawn mowers, gates, and every kind of horticultural implements. A glance
at the operations of the firm will, doubtless, be interesting to our
readers. One of the most important is the production daily of many miles
of wire-netting, made by curious machinery. The strained wire fencing is
made on the best principle, the bases of both the straining pillars and
standards being entirely of iron; and after a test of more than thirty
years, it has been found very superior, both as regards durability and
appearance. Messrs. Barnard, Bishop, and Barnard are also makers, on a
large scale, of bedsteads, mangles, cooking ranges, kitcheners, &c., &c.,
&c.
This firm, the founder of which was Mr. Charles Barnard, a man of modest
demeanour, but possessed of considerable inventive genius, will live in
history as the manufacturers of the celebrated “Norwich Gates,” exhibited
in 1862. These were designed by Mr. Thomas Jekyll of this city, and by a
county subscription were, in November, 1864, placed at the entrance to
the park at Sandringham, the residence of the Prince of Wales. During
the Exhibition of 1862, these marvellous productions attracted great
attention. The _Times_, of April 7th, after alluding to works of a
similar character, said:—
“In our judgment, however, the design of these latter is scarcely
equal to that of the beautiful wrought-iron park gates, which are
being erected, as a principal nave trophy, by Messrs. Barnard,
Bishop, and Barnard.”
These were adjudged to be the best in the Exhibition. The same firm also
produced very elegant gates, which were exhibited at the Paris
Exhibition, in 1867, and greatly admired for the beauty of the design and
perfect workmanship. These gates were only thirteen feet wide, and seven
feet in height, but they occupied forty of the best workmen from morning
till night for three months, at a cost of £750 in wages. These gates
were quite unique in design and workmanship. There was not a touch of
the chisel. The hammer did all the work in the most perfect manner.
In conclusion, we may state, that after a minute examination of the
productions at these works, we feel convinced that articles can now be
executed in metal, which surpass the doings of past ages; and that the
labour, combined with the intelligence of this 19th century, when
skilfully directed, is quite equal to that of the mediæval period.
Mr. W. S. Boulton, who occupies extensive premises in Rose Lane, is a
manufacturer of agricultural and horticultural implements; also of
strained wire fencing, iron hurdles, park gates, garden chairs, iron
bedsteads, kitchen ranges, hot-water appuratus, &c. He produces every
kind of railing and palisading in great variety, and he put up the iron
palisading round Chapel Field, which is a great ornament as well as
protection to the ground. He also supplies a great variety of useful
machines, such as mincing and sausage machines, and almost all articles
made of iron.
Messrs. Riches and Watts are engineers and machine makers, at Duke’s
Palace Iron Works. They are builders of condensing engines, vertical
cylinder engines, and steam thrashing machines; and are also makers of
American grist mills, corn mills, mills for grinding linseed, &c.,
cultivators, pumping machinery, iron field rollers, and all kinds of
implements.
Messrs. Holmes and Sons, engineers, on the Castle Hill, are makers of a
great variety of machines and implements which have gained many prizes at
different Agricultural Exhibitions. The firm have also been very
extensively engaged for thirty-five years in the manufacture of drills.
During this period, every practical improvement has been introduced,
adapting them to every description of soil, simplifying the different
parts, and decreasing the working expenses for the renewal of wearing
parts. These drills stand unequalled for simplicity, durability, and
efficiency, and are of lighter draft than others, owing to the position
of the coulters and levers. More than 4000 of these drills have been
sent out. The premises of this firm are well situated close to the
cattle market, and have been considerably enlarged. The new show rooms
in the Market are nearly opposite to the entrance to the Castle.
Entering the works from the high road, we may first inspect the foundry,
containing an enormous crane and three cupolas. Adjoining the foundry
are the stoves for small castings, and above it the pattern-makers’ shop.
Returning to the yard, we may enter the erecting and fitting shop. The
drill-fitting shop and the thrashing-machine shops are admirably adapted
for their intended purposes. About a hundred hands are employed in the
works.
Mr. Thomas Smithdale has a very large establishment at St. Ann’s Staithe,
King Street, on the site of an ancient monastery, remains of which still
exist next the river. In the large foundry, castings of iron are made,
up to ten tons; and the workshops contain the heaviest machinery in
Norwich. Mr. Smithdale builds engines from three to a hundred horse
power; and he makes also hydraulic presses, cranes, crabs, mill works,
planing, shaping, and drilling machines, and boilers of all sizes.
Mr. Reeve, in Pitt Street, is a manufacturer of improved kitchen ranges
of various sizes, which have been in great demand.
MANUFACTURING PUBLISHERS.
Messrs. Jarrold and Sons have, for the last twenty years, been engaged in
the production of first-class educational books, in science, history, and
penmanship, which are used in schools in Great Britain and her Colonies.
They also produced the well-known Household Tracts and other works,
bearing on social, moral, and sanitary subjects. All are printed and
bound in their recently-erected workshops in Little London Street. They
have also a publishing house at No. 12, Paternoster Row, London.
WINE, SPIRITS, AND BEER.
Norwich merchants carry on a great wholesale business in wines and
spirits. The principal firms are Messrs. Barwell and Sons, London Street
and St. Stephen’s; Messrs. Norgate and Son, St. Stephen’s; Messrs.
Geldart, in Wensum Street; the Wine Company, in St. Giles’ Street; Mr. P.
Back, Market Place; Mr. R. J. Morley, Post Office Street; and Mr. J.
Chamberlin, Post Office Street; all of whom keep large stocks of wines
and spirits.
The brewing business is greatly extending in Norwich. Norwich brewers
produce pale ales, which claim to be equal to the Burton, and dispose of
100,000 barrels of London porter yearly. Messrs. Seaman and Grimmer,
though not producers, do an enormous trade, and bring in, through
Yarmouth, about 14,000 barrels of London porter yearly, and send them all
over the city and county.
Messrs. Patteson and Co. produce 100,000 barrels of ale and beer yearly;
Messrs. Bullard, 60,000 barrels; Messrs. Morgan, 30,000; Messrs. Young
and Co., and other brewers, about 40,000. The annual value of their
productions is at least £500,000.
WHOLESALE DRAPERY.
This trade is largely carried on by Messrs. Chamberlin & Sons, Mr. G. L.
Coleman, Mr. Rackham, Mr. Henry Snowdon, and a branch house of Messrs.
Copestake and Moore, of London. Their trade is in cotton, linen,
woollen, and silk goods, plain and fancy fabrics, which are supplied to
shopkeepers all over the eastern counties. They bring goods from all the
manufacturing districts, and supply them on terms quite as advantageous
as the London houses. These goods are chiefly of Scotch, Yorkshire, or
Lancashire manufactures, and not produced in Norwich.
Messrs. Chamberlin and Sons, a few years since, rebuilt their premises in
the Market Place, which are an ornament to the city. This is the largest
establishment for drapery in the eastern counties. On entering the
premises from the Market Place, the retail department presents, in all
its arrangements, a thoroughly complete place of business. The wholesale
and other departments above are very extensive. In the basement of the
premises is the wholesale Manchester room, 180 feet in length, for linen
goods, blankets, and flannels. There is a separate entrance, in Dove
Street, to the extensive woollen cloth department. The carpet room is 44
feet long and 40 feet wide.
WHOLESALE GROCERY.
The wholesale grocery trade is carried on to a large extent by Messrs.
Bream and Bennett, Mr. W. Belding, Messrs. Butcher and Nephew, Messrs.
Copeman and Sons, Mr. H. Freeman, Mr. R. Fisher, Messrs. Newson and Co.,
and Messrs. Pratt and Hancock. This trade disposes of the bulk of the
heavy goods brought to the city and sent away from it. The following is
the return of the goods, inwards and outwards, for the year ending June,
1867:—
Goods inwards by river 60,000 tons
,, Thorpe Station 30,000 ,,
,, Victoria ,, 22,661 ,,
,, Trowse ,, 17,616 ,,
130,277 tons
Goods outwards by river 100,000 tons
,, at Thorpe 53,000 ,,
,, at Trowse 20,434 ,,
,, at Victoria 7,534 ,,
CIGARS AND TOBACCO.
The manufacture of tobacco was introduced into Norwich in 1815 by Mr.
Curr, formerly of St. Andrew’s. Since then the trade has gradually
increased, and the various kinds of shag, twist, and cavendish, are now
produced to the extent of between 100,000 and 200,000 lbs. yearly, by Mr.
Newbegin of Bridewell Alley, and Mr. Kitton on the Dereham Road.
The only cigar manufacturers are Messrs. Adcock and Denham, of Post
Office Street, and Mr. Stevens, Back of the Inns. Messrs. Adcock and
Denham, are the largest makers in the Eastern Counties, and employ a
considerable number of hands. At their establishment may be seen tobacco
from various countries, and the curious enquirer will learn, no doubt
with surprise, how many distant spots of the earth are laid under
contribution to supply the demand which exists for the fragrant weed in
the form of cigars—the importations being, amongst other places, from
Columbia, Cuba, Havanna (in Cuba), Japan, Latakia, Manilla, Mexico,
Paraguay, Porto Rico, &c. The operations, too, are interesting, though
not easily described. From the case or bale in which the tobacco
arrives, it passes into the hands of the person whose duty it is to
soften it—a process which requires great skill and care; for the leaf is
generally dry and brittle, and has to be shaken and well separated before
the softening can be properly effected. The leaf, having been rendered
sufficiently pliable, is next passed over to the “strippers,” whose work
is to draw out the thick stem which traverses it from end to end. Then
it has to be sorted—the light from the dark, the coarse from the fine—and
laid in proper order for the “makers,” who with almost magical rapidity,
and by the exercise of great nicety of judgment and manipulation, convert
it into cigars of any required size, shape, and weight.
UPHOLSTERY.
There are several large workshops in this city, for the manufacture of
every kind of furniture and cabinet work; and in these, some hundreds of
skilled artisans are employed. Among the principal establishments may be
mentioned those of Messrs. Trevor & Page, Post Office Street; Mr. C. J.
Freeman, in London Street; Messrs. John Crowe and Sons, in St. Stephen’s
Street; Messrs. Robertson and Sons, Queen Street; and Messrs. Drew and
Corrick, in St. George’s Middle Street. All these establishments supply
the best articles for furnishing a house or mansion. The historian who
might wish to describe the familiar habits and usages of the present
times, could not do better than spend a few hours in our large upholstery
warehouses, where may be seen every kind of furniture, from articles
which contribute to our homeliest comforts, to others which please the
eye by their beauty and good taste. These may be found grouped together
in profusion, making the impression on the mind that this must be a
wealthy district to require the vast stores of goods kept in Norwich
warehouses; but so it is, as every one knows who has visited the
dwellings of many of our rich citizens. Luxuries are enjoyed by the
well-to-do classes of to-day, which could not be found in baronial halls
a few centuries ago.
CARRIAGE MANUFACTURES.
There are several large builders of carriages, gigs, carts, phaetons,
&c., in this city, including Messrs. Jolly and Son, St. Stephen’s Street;
Mr. Thorn, St. Giles’ Gates; Messrs. Howes, Chapel Field; Mr. Harcourt,
Chapel-Field Road; Messrs. J. and J. Howes, Red Lion Street; Mr. W. H.
Howes, Prince of Wales’ Road; Mr. Rudling, St. Martin’s at Palace. Mr.
Thorn’s “Norwich Car” and “Norfolk Shooting Cart” are well known all over
England. Messrs. Jolly build every sort of useful and fancy vehicle in
the best possible style. We cannot here pretend to tell how much the
construction of carriages has been improved in the present century, as
compared with the old lumbering vehicles formerly in use. Suffice it to
say, that by the application of science, English carriages have become
the best in all the world.
BRUSHES AND PAPER BAGS.
Messrs. S. D. Page and Sons have built a large warehouse in the
Haymarket, where they employ upwards of 100 hands in the manufacture of
brushes for wholesale trade. They are also extensively engaged in the
paper trade and in the manufacture of paper bags by very interesting and
curious machinery worked by steam power, and by which each bag is pasted,
folded, cut, and completed in the machine with astonishing rapidity.
Three such machines, and several hands, are employed. The bags are made
of various sizes and qualities of paper, adapted for the general use of
grocers, drapers, confectioners, &c.
FLOUR MILLS.
Besides the steam flour mills at Carrow works, which produce about 1500
sacks of flour weekly, there are mills in St. Swithin’s and Hellesdon,
which also produce enormous quantities. Messrs. Barber and Sons are the
owners of the water mills at Hellesdon, and the steam flour mills in St.
Swithin’s. The old water mills in St. Swithin’s, the property of the
corporation, are in the occupation of Mr. Wells, and are in active
operation. There are also many wind mills in the neighbourhood, and
water mills abound.
PAPER MANUFACTURE.
This business is carried on, as before stated, at Carrow works, but the
largest mills are at Taverham, a few miles from Norwich. At these mills,
vast quantities of paper are produced yearly, of various kinds and
qualities, including broad sheets for several influential newspapers.
The trade has been greatly increased since the repeal of the duty on
paper; but the increase here is nothing to what it has been elsewhere,
since the daily newspapers have reached a circulation of hundreds of
thousands per day.
THE SOAP TRADE.
Another branch of business, arising from productive industry, is that in
soap, of which Mr. Andrews, of Fishgate Street, is a large manufacturer.
Within the Norwich Excise Collection, there are several soap makers, who
produce immense quantities of an article which is used in the silk,
woollen, linen, and cotton manufactures, as well as for domestic
purposes. About 300,000,000 lbs. are produced yearly in the Norwich
Excise district. The repeal of the duty upon this useful article must
have greatly increased the consumption.
THE COAL TRADE.
About a dozen Norwich merchants carry on a considerable trade in coal.
They receive coal inward by river 70,000 tons, by railway 62,000 tons; in
all, 132,000 tons annually. The conveyance, at 6s. 8d. per ton, will be
£44,000; and the total value, at 20s. per ton, will be £132,000. The
principal merchants are Messrs. J. and H. Girling, Mr. Dawbarn, Mr.
Pointer, Mr. Coller, Mr. Jewson, and others, who now bring coal by
railway from the central coal fields.
CATTLE FOOD AND MANURE.
A very extensive business in artificial food for cattle has sprung up of
late years, but as yet there are only two or three firms engaged in the
trade in Norwich. Mr. John Ketton has mills near Foundry Bridge, where
he produces about 200 tons of cake weekly, for fattening cattle. The
linseed or other seed is crushed by immense circular stones, turned by
ingenious machinery. The oil, thus squeezed out, is of great value, and
the refuse is made into cake for fattening cattle, and sold at £8 per
ton. The oil is of equal value. Messrs. Gayford, Kitton, and Co., have
mills at St. Ann’s Staithe, King Street, and produce 100 tons of cake
weekly. These two firms, therefore, produce about 300 tons of cake
weekly, or 15,600 tons yearly, the whole value being £124,800. The oil
being of equal value, the total trade amounts to £250,000 a year. Other
city merchants, not producers, send away about 100 tons a-week.
The late Mr. William Stark, of this city, was an eminent chemist, and the
first who produced bone manures. His son, Mr. M. I. Stark, continues the
same manufacture of manures, made from steamed bones under a process by
which all their gelatinous and fertilizing properties are converted into
the most suitable form for application to the land. He also produces
large quantities of cake, made from linseed and beans. This new article
of artificial food has given great satisfaction. The mills are at Duke’s
Palace Bridge, Norwich, and Rockland St. Mary. Mr. Reynolds and Mr.
Parker also produce other kinds of artificial manure in large quantities.
CATTLE AND CORN.
These trades properly belong to the county, but the transactions in the
city are on a large scale. The cattle trade is the great trade in the
eastern counties, and more especially of Norfolk. A vast amount of it is
transacted on the Castle Hill, greatly to the benefit of the city, as it
gives employment to a large number of poor people, and brings custom to
many inns, taverns, and business establishments. Norwich Cattle Market
is now one of the largest in England, taking the whole year round, and it
is rapidly increasing. The following returns show the extent of the
trade in the city and county. The traffic at Trowse Station, from June
1866 to June 1867, was as follows:—
Cattle inwards 57,058
Sheep ,, 76,154
Pigs ,, 9,855 Total 143,067
Cattle outwards 35,083
Sheep ,, 59,063
Pigs ,, 12,493 Total 106,639
Most of these animals are brought to or sent away from Norwich Market.
There are twenty acres of layers belonging to the railway company round
Trowse Station, and about one hundred acres of layers close by belonging
to private parties. These layers are generally covered with cattle and
sheep during the season, from August till November. The valleys of the
Yare, the Bure, and the Waveney, afford almost unlimited pastures for any
number of cattle and sheep, and the greater part of the lean stock sold
on Norwich Hill are brought to be fattened on those pastures. In short,
the cattle trade on the Great Eastern lines has been greatly increasing,
and is now the largest on any system of railways in England.
Norfolk ranks the fourth in extent, as compared with other counties in
England, and eighth as regards population; and it is well known, that
since the commencement of this century, the resources of the county, in
regard to the production of corn, have been greatly increased by an
improved system of husbandry. Over a million acres are under
cultivation, including 200,000 acres of commons and sandy heaths, which
have been inclosed of late years. In 1831, the average yield of wheat
was three quarters per acre; but there has been an increase of thirty per
cent, since that period.
According to the inspector’s returns of sales of corn in the Norwich
Exchange, the quantities and prices have varied greatly in different
years, since 1845. In the year ending October 11th, 1845, the quantity
of wheat sold was 150,226 qrs., but after the repeal of the corn laws,
the quantity was gradually reduced to the year ending October 3rd, 1868,
when it was 65,903 qrs. Since 1855, the quantity of barley sold yearly
has varied from 120,000 to 177,000 qrs.; and in the year ending October
3rd, 1868, it was 166,796 qrs. Average prices per qr. for 1868. Wheat,
66/9½. Barley, 42/8¼.
THE CARRYING TRADE.
(_By water_.)
The river Wensum flows for a distance of 30 miles from Rudham to Norwich,
and winding round the city, flows into the Yare at Trowse. The Yare
winds through the eastern division of the county for 36 miles to
Yarmouth. The Waveney flows into the Yare at Reedham, and the Bure at
Yarmouth. The three rivers, Yare, Bure, and Waveney, are 200 miles in
length, and afford means of water conveyance from the city and all parts
of East Norfolk to Yarmouth haven. The inhabitants of that town have
made no fewer than seven havens, one after the other, at a cost of
millions of money,—enough to have formed the piers and quays of solid
granite.
We have already given an account of the proceedings of the corporation of
Norwich respecting the improvement of the navigation from this city to
Yarmouth and Lowestoft, between 1820 and 1840, and, therefore, will not
go over the same ground again. We need only add that the improvement has
been continued both by the authorities of Yarmouth and Lowestoft, that
the channel over Breydon has been deepened to seven feet at low water,
and that a handsome bridge has been built at Yarmouth, allowing of the
free ebb and flow of the tidal waters. The harbour at Lowestoft has also
been kept open, and the navigation from that port to the city is still
carried on by means of wherries and other vessels. These wherries are
peculiar to the rivers of Norfolk and Suffolk, and those used on the Yare
carry from fifteen to forty tons, drawing from three to four feet of
water. The mast is balanced by means of lead, so that one man can raise
and lower it, and on this the sail is hoisted, being extended by a gaff.
These vessels are well adapted for the windings of the stream, and are
generally navigated by two hands, one of them being often a boy, or the
wife of a waterman. The corporation has jurisdiction on the river from
Hellesdon Bridge to Hardley Cross, a distance of twenty-four miles.
This, however, does not interfere with the rights of landowners on the
banks, all of whom have their respective free fisheries, &c. Ten bridges
cross the river in its passage through the city and its suburbs.
Norwich and Yarmouth must ever be united in the carrying trade by water,
as the river Yare flows into the sea. From the statements already made,
it will be seen that for centuries past Yarmouth has been the chief port
of the city and county; that from the city, and various towns in East
Norfolk, vast quantities of goods have been annually conveyed along the
Yare, Bure, and Waveney, to that port, to be thence shipped to all parts
of England; and that Norwich merchants have brought in the larger
proportion of their goods _viâ_ Yarmouth.
In 1866, an act, the 29 and 30 Victoria, c 242, was passed for “the
conservanity and improvement of the port and haven of Great Yarmouth, and
the rivers connected therewith, also for the levying and abolishing of
tolls and duties, and for other purposes.” This was the last Yarmouth
Port and Haven Act, and under it, the tolls have been increased on all
vessels coming to Norwich. By clause 144, it was enacted that, “From and
after the 25th day of March, 1867, all monies received from time to time
by the Norwich corporation in respect of the Norwich tolls, shall be
applied by that corporation as follows:—First, in payment of interest on
the £4000 secured on the Norwich tolls, or so much thereof as from time
to time remains secured thereon; and after and subject to that payment.
Secondly, in payment of a compensation to the Norwich corporation for the
abandonment and cesser of the Norwich tolls, during the term of seven
years, commencing on the 25th day of March, 1867, in sums decreasing £100
yearly, from £700 to £100. Thirdly, on payment of the principal of the
mortgage debts of £4000, or of so much thereof as from time to time
remains secured on the Norwich tolls.”
Thus, the Norwich tolls will be extinguished in seven years from March,
1867; in 1874.
(_By Road and Rail_.)
Roads and railways are as necessary as rivers for the carrying trade, and
even more so. Formerly, roads were the chief means of transit, and the
great roads in the eastern counties were among the best in England. The
Romans made all the great roads from Norwich to Ipswich, Colchester, and
London; also from Norwich to Newmarket and London; and many others.
After the commencement of the railway system, the merchants of Norwich
and other towns felt that they must be placed on an equality with other
parts of the kingdom. Various lines of railways were therefore
projected; acts of parliament were obtained; and the Eastern Counties
from London to Colchester, the Eastern Union from Colchester to Ipswich
and thence to Norwich; the Norfolk from Yarmouth; Norwich to Brandon and
thence to London; and the East Anglian lines, were made and opened.
Afterwards the East Suffolk line was opened from Yarmouth to Beccles,
Bungay, and Ipswich. The Norfolk line was opened in 1845, and caused an
entire change in the carrying trade of the district. The quantity of
goods sent along the line to London was soon 100,000 tons yearly, and
great quantities were sent by way of Ely and Peterborough to the large
towns in the north of England, from which also goods are brought to
Norwich. It is evident, therefore, that a vast amount of traffic, by sea
or land, was transferred to the railway. Goods which, prior to the
opening of the line were forwarded by road from Norwich into the interior
of the county, were sent by railway as far as Thetford, and thus escaped
the tonnage dues; and when the branch lines were opened from Lowestoft to
Beccles and Reedham, and from Wymondham to Dereham, Fakenham and Wells,
there was a still greater diversion of the traffic. Large quantities of
coal were sent by railway direct to Dereham, which soon became a depôt
for central Norfolk. From all the towns along its course, the new line
took the greater part of the carrying trade. It was soon a prosperous
line, and proved to be of great commercial advantage to the city.
The opening of all the new lines immediately caused coaches to be
discontinued, and threw a deal of shipping out of employment at Yarmouth,
Lynn, and Wells. By railways large quantities of corn and malt were sent
to various towns that used to be sent by sea. Goods, too, from all parts
of the north of England were brought by railway into Norfolk and Norwich.
For a long time the chief part of the salt of England was produced in
Cheshire and sent down the river Weaver, which flows into the Mersey at
Liverpool, whence it was transhipped to Yarmouth, where the consumption
is immense, not less than 10,000 tons yearly being used for curing fish.
The greater part of the salt then used in the eastern district was sent
from Yarmouth through Norfolk and Suffolk by river conveyance; but since
the opening of the line from Ely to Peterborough, large quantities have
been sent by railway from Stoke Works, in Bromsgrove, Worcestershire, to
any station along the lines at the rate of a penny per ton per mile.
Thus large supplies of salt have been brought to the city and county.
What has taken place in regard to the trade in salt is only one example
of what has occurred in reference to the trade in any other kind of heavy
goods. The Norfolk main line was not laid out so much with a view to the
through traffic from any town to London, as to catch the traffic from the
city and county to the Midland and Northern Counties, by way of Ely and
Peterborough; and this object was completely attained, greatly to the
advantage of the city and county.
* * * * *
We subjoin a summary of the carrying trade for 1866–7.
Goods carried by river inward 60,000 tons
Coal ,, ,, 70,000 ,,
Goods ,, Thorpe Station 30,000 ,,
Coal ,, ,, 17,000 ,,
Goods ,, Victoria Station 22,661 ,,
Coal ,, ,, 25,349 ,,
Goods ,, Trowse Station 17,616 ,,
Coal ,, ,, 16,706 ,,
259,322 ,,
Goods outward by river 100,000 tons
,, at Thorpe 53,000 ,,
,, at Trowse 20,434 ,,
,, at Victoria 7,534 ,,
180,968 ,,
Cattle inward at Trowse 57,058
Sheep ,, ,, 76,154
Pigs ,, ,, 9,855
143,067
Cattle outward at Trowse 35,083
Sheep ,, ,, 59,063
Pigs ,, ,, 12,493
106,639
Tonnage return of goods, coal, and fish, received at and forwarded from
Southtown Station, East Suffolk railway, from July 1866, to July 1867.
Tons
Goods outwards 8,965
,, inwards 10,306
Fish outwards 15,207
Coal ,, 122
Total outwards 24,294
Total inwards 10,306
34,600
The return for Vauxhall Station at Yarmouth, Norfolk railway, for the
corresponding period, gives the following results.
Tons
Goods outwards 23,116
,, inwards 14,817
Fish outwards 8,014
,, inwards 148
Coal outwards 8,423
,, inwards 910
32,328
Tonnage return for Lowestoft, for the year ending June 30th, 1867.
Tons
Goods inwards 11,513
,, outwards 9,069
20,582
Fish inwards 42
,, outwards 9,561
9,603
Coal inwards 2,179
,, outwards 13,979
16,158
Total received 13,736
Total forwarded 39,036
Total traffic 52,772
Thus, it appears that a large proportion of the carrying trade of Norfolk
and Suffolk is through the ports of Yarmouth and Lowestoft.
The goods sent away from Norwich by river, roads, and railways, consist
of yarns, which are produced here in large quantities, textile fabrics of
every description, boots and shoes to the extent of 12,000 dozen pairs
weekly, brushes, manufactured goods of every sort, corn, malt, beer, oil
cake, cotton cake, linseed oil, mustard, starch, flour, paper, general
drapery, grocery, and printed books. About 15,000 tons of cake for
fattening cattle are sent away yearly, and distributed over the eastern
counties. The goods brought into Norwich consist of raw materials of
every kind, stone, timber, iron, coal, corn, vast quantities of grocery
and drapery, wines, spirits, ales, porter, fruits, fish, game, &c., &c.
PART IV.
POLITICAL, ECCLESIASTICAL, RELIGIOUS, & EDUCATIONAL
CHAPTER I.
Political History.
WE have already recorded the chief political events of the last century,
and we shall now proceed to connect it with the present period by a brief
review of political meetings and elections. An account of all the
contested elections, in full detail, would be highly interesting if it
could be written, but unfortunately the local records are very imperfect
and unreliable. The public journals have been, of course, biassed by
party considerations, and from them it is impossible to derive an
impartial account.
The English parliament has now attained the patriarchal age of 600 years.
The latest researches confirm the conclusions of the earlier historians,
that the year 1265 is the date of the first regal summons convoking the
great council of the nation, at least in its complete form, on a muster
of lords, spiritual and temporal, knights of the shire, and
representatives of cities and boroughs; and throughout the whole
sexcentenary period which has elapsed, the estates of the realm have been
convened at frequent intervals to advise the sovereign on national
affairs. Parliament gradually effected great advances in the cause of
liberty; for, at the time of granting taxes and aids, they generally
coupled such concessions with important provisions for the good of their
fellow-citizens and the community at large.
Henry IV. directed a writ to the bailiffs by which four citizens of
Norwich were ordered to be returned to Parliament; but, the attendance of
members being then _paid for by their constituents_, the expense was an
object, and they therefore made interest to get the members reduced to
two only. Under the old charters of the city the freemen were entitled
to vote for members of parliament and members of the corporation; and
householders were not included in the list of voters till the Reform Act
of 1832. The old freemen, therefore, formed the greater part of the
constituency, and in the course of time became a very corrupt body here,
as well as in all other corporate towns. By the act of 1729, it was
provided “that at every election for burgesses in parliament, every one
that votes must swear that he hath been admitted to his freedom twelve
calendar months before that election, and that he hath not been polled at
that election before, or in case of an election of two members, but for
one person.” The Reform Act of 1832, however, extended the franchise to
£10 householders in towns, and gave them a preponderating power in
parliament.
For many centuries the House of Commons represented only the landed
interest, and nearly all laws were in favour of the land-owners, who,
under pretence of protecting native industry, enacted laws to prevent or
to limit the importation of foreign corn. The great land-owners in the
House of Lords had their nominees, too, in the House of Commons, and
ruled the entire country.
The first Revolution in France produced a wonderful effect on the
political and religious worlds. In the year 1790 commenced those great
and important events in France, which laid the foundation of the long war
that afterwards raged between that unfortunate empire and this country,
and which almost ruined Norwich. Party spirit here began to rage with
increased violence. The Tories were vehemently against the Revolution,
and the Whigs were equally earnest in its favour. It is well known,
indeed, that the unparalleled convulsions on the continent extended their
influence to England and Scotland, and raised a storm, although not so
disastrous, yet scarcely less permanent. The jealousies of government
had been excited to an unreasonable height, and the suspension of the
Habeas Corpus Act furnished the ministers with an opportunity of
gratifying all their revenge on political opponents. England, in short,
by the base, suspicious, and mean conduct of her rulers, became for a
short time the land of persecution and oppression. Many of the most
respectable men were imprisoned on frivolous charges, while others were
accused of high treason; and though acquitted by juries, yet imprisonment
injured their health, distressed their families, and exhausted their
property. These disgraceful transactions continued for some time, and
roused a strong feeling of indignation against the government of the day.
Mr. Mark Wilks, a Baptist preacher in this city, of whose history we have
already given some extensive details (see p. 482), made himself very
prominent as an advocate of the Revolution, and of radical principles.
On July 14th, 1791, he preached two political discourses, before crowded
congregations, in defence of the Revolution in France, and these
discourses had a marked effect in the city; and he became a very active
political partizan, both in the city and county. He took a great
interest in Hardy and his associates, who had become involved in debt by
the great expenses of their trial. He instituted a subscription in all
parts of the kingdom to assist the sufferers; and on April 19th, 1795, he
preached two sermons in Norwich, in which he exposed with great severity
the injustice of the measures adopted against them, and vindicated their
characters and conduct. The collections, after the sermons, amounted to
a large sum. In one of his sermons, he said:—
“In favour of Mr. Windham’s acquitted felons, (Thomas Hardy, John
Horne Tooke, Bonney, Kidd, Joyce, Holcroft, Richton, and Baxter, and
all their supposed associates in guilt), we may adduce their
peaceable and orderly demeanour in all their public and private
transactions. By whatever names men are called, whether loyalists or
republicans, whether Reevites or Jacobins, I will venture to say that
friends of anarchy are foes of society, and ought to be considered as
wolves scattering the shepherd’s flock, and dealt with accordingly.
But have we seen one atom of licentious wantonness, one spark of
civil discord in these friends of reform? No! the peaceable and
orderly deportment of these societies has been sufficient to convince
every unprejudiced mind how much they have acted under the influence
of that wisdom which cometh from above, which is in its nature
peaceable, and productive of good fruits.
“The Jacobins in this city—and except at Paris there can have been
none greater—have given repeated demonstrations of their love of
peace. At a time when the starving poor felt an iniquitous
disposition to riot; when the friends of freedom were represented as
having formed a design of regulating markets, dividing farms, and
equalising property; and when the imbecile farmer credulously imbibed
the representation, the affiliated societies in this city published
this resolve, ‘_That if any member should break the peace by the
violation of existing laws_, _he should not only be excluded_, _but
delivered up into the hands of justice_.’ No exclusion, however, has
taken place in consequence of this resolution; and the reason has
been obvious—there has been no offence. The traitorous conspirators
(so called) in this city can call upon the Right Hon. W. Windham to
bear testimony to their love of peace. The opposition he experienced
last July, he very well knows arose from no personal disrespect, nor
from any view of incompetency on his part in point of talents, but
from a love of peace and an inveterate hatred of this accursed war.
Mr. Windham very well knows, that when he appeared in the character
of a true patriot, when it was his creed that ‘The influence of the
crown had _increased_, was _increasing_, and ought to be
_diminished_;’ when he avowedly acted as a spy on the executive
government; when he was found to be the vigilant guardian of the
life, liberty, and property of his constituents; when no horrid
imprecation from his all-erring lips had blasted our commercial
interests; when he had not learned to calumniate his constituents and
to impute the blackest crimes to the friends of his country; when he
had not apostatized from the sacred path marked out by a Hampden’s
and a Sydney’s blood; when he had not frowned on freedom and preached
the doctrine of extermination, he was respected—yes, loved; at least
by one, who has offended his best friends, sacrificed his interest,
and endangered his life to procure his present elevation. Mr.
Windham knows that he was never despised by the Whig interest in the
city, till he appeared in the character of a war minister, and the
enthusiastic abettor of the most disgraceful and perilous measures
ever pursued by weak and wicked men. Perhaps Mr. Windham may boast
that his friends in Norwich are not diminished, that he found as many
last July as he was wont to find. True, but where did he find them?
Where public money had paved his way! At the Back of the Inns, among
flannel-waistcoat manufacturers, in the precincts of the Cathedral,
and in many places and connexions where, on former occasions, he
would have been ashamed to have sought them. Here are those who by
the possession of places, contracts, promises, expectations, and
anticipations, are influenced to vote for all the measures of
government, right or wrong; and those who, connected with the above
description, are pleased with their prosperity and rejoice to see
them fatten, though on the public spoil.
“Those, too, are to be met with here, who under the influence of
superstition and prejudice tremble for the safety of _Church and
King_. Nor are we without those brainless Gallios, by whom men and
measures are never weighed; who, devoid of sense and negligent of the
means which might make them wise, always see with the eyes of others,
and bow obsequious to their lordly wills. To the credit of the
nation, however, at the late election, a fifth class of citizens was
found, a class of freemen who, though called Jacobin levellers, could
not countenance a man of blood. These, averse to coercive measures,
averse to violence, averse to war, averse to the annihilation of
commerce, and alike averse to a nation’s ruin, turned their eyes to a
friend of peace; and in the person of Mr. Mingay found an unsullied
blank, on which 770 freemen wrote their protest against the measures
of the administration, the commencement and continuance of a dreadful
war. Let me ask Mr. Windham, let me ask the world, who are the best
men, the advocates of negociation, who wish to overcome evil with
good, or those who destroy the world by casting about firebrands,
arrows, and death? If the former, I will then assert that the
reputed conspirators are of that description, and deserve the
character of the best of men.
“When the friends of freedom met to celebrate the deliverance of the
acquitted felons, had the duke of Portland known their character, our
present worthy mayor would have received no orders from his grace’s
office to parade the streets with constables to preserve the peace.
Had no curry-favour sycophant, no worthless candidate for the
receiver generalship, endeavoured to excite the jealousy of his
grace, the mayor would not have been necessitated to do what to him
was unpleasant, or of vindicating in his letter to the duke, which to
his honour he did, the injured character of his fellow-citizens.
“Thank God! the traitorous conspirators need no militia, no barracks,
no standing army, no royal proclamations, no suspension of the Habeas
Corpus, to keep them quiet. Men of principle detest tumult; and in
their love of order and of peace, they find a restraint more powerful
than any government can impose. From their peaceful habitations the
savage whoop has not been heard; they have not assailed their quiet
neighbours, nor burnt the dwellings of God or man. But can this be
fairly said of their accusers? Have no anarchists, rioters, and
levellers been found among them? (alluding to events at Birmingham).
Ah! had that been happily the case, thy streets, O Birmingham, had
never been lighted by the rioter’s torch! nor Thy temples, blessed
God, reduced to ruins! Bigotry and persecution had not deprived us
of the most splendid talents, nor had philosophy been forced to seek
an asylum under calmer skies! Had the vain, the greedy, the
ambitious candidates for honour and emoluments in the army, the navy,
and the church been under the same influence that has governed the
hearts and directed the conduct of the friends of freedom, the
destroying sword had been lodged in its peaceful scabbard, there to
have slept an eternal sleep.”
The preacher proceeded in the same eloquent manner to denounce the war
and its advocates, and to defend the friends of freedom and peace, who it
appears were numerous in this city, and who formed various associations
of, what was deemed, a radical character. The Tories also had their
political clubs under various names, and held weekly or monthly meetings
at different hotels or taverns. The Eldon Club, formed and named in
honour of Lord Eldon, is the only one that now remains, and the members
have long held their meeting at the Bell Inn, on the Castle Hill. For
some years the growing feeling here in favor of various pluses of reform,
manifested itself chiefly in contests for the representation of the city;
but gradually, public meetings and petitions to parliament became more
and more frequent, and during the few years which preceded the great
Reform Bill, were very numerous and often very excited. Amongst the
first subjects which called forth the indignant protests of the citizens
was that of the corn-laws. On Jan. 12th, 1815, a county meeting was held
at the Shirehall, when it was unanimously resolved to petition parliament
to take the corn-laws into consideration, on account of the depressed
prices of agricultural produce. The bill, fixing the protecting price of
wheat imported at 80s. per qr. and barley at 20s. per coomb, was this
session enacted. On February 8th, at a numerous meeting held at the
Guildhall, the mayor, (J. W. Robberds,) presiding, it was resolved to
petition the House of Lords against the bill, which had then passed the
House of Commons. The petition was signed by 13,000 citizens, but it
passed the House of Lords, and received the royal assent. Great
excitement prevailed, and on March 17th, Thomas William Coke, Esq. and
Lord Albemarle, both Liberals, were attacked by the populace, at the
cattle show, and pelted with stones, in consequence of the support which
they had given to the corn-laws. Fortunately, they escaped to the Angel
Inn (now the Royal Hotel), and afterwards from the city, but the tumult
raged so highly, that the riot act was read, and the Brunswick Hussars
were called out to quell the disturbance.
In the following year (1816) the attention of the citizens was turned to
the question of Parliamentary Reform, and on the 14th October, a common
hall was held for the adoption of a petition in its favour. Mr. Edward
Taylor moved the adoption of the petition, and after congratulating the
meeting on having a representative, in the person of Mr. Smith, who was
an able and constant friend of the liberties of the people and of
Parliamentary Reform, he reminded the audience that it was in vain for
members of parliament to attempt to stem the torrent of corruption,
unless the people supported them. The people had been long inactive, but
he hoped to see the spirit of zeal and energy on behalf of this great
cause revived, and extend itself to the verge of the island; and that
petitions on the same principle as that about to be adopted by the
present meeting would be sent to the legislature from every part of the
kingdom. Mr. Firth had objected to the time as inappropriate. This he
(Mr. Taylor) regarded as the old Pitt cant, according to which it always
appeared that there were two seasons when any attempt to reform
parliament was improper; the former of these was a state of war, when it
was said that the ministers had something else to do besides redressing
public grievances; the other was a state of peace, when the objection was
that, all things being quiet, it was best not to disturb them. He (Mr.
Taylor), however, affirmed that it was no less the duty than the right of
the people of this country to call loudly for reform, especially at a
time when their burdens and distresses were so great. Surely they were
justified in asking for retrenchment in the public expenditure, when Lord
Bathurst alone took more of the nation’s money, than was sufficient to
maintain the poor of Norwich for a year. There was a long black list
exhibiting many more such; while, at the same time, our trade was
stagnant, and our poor rates increasing; and, therefore, he asked boldly
whether such persons as these, who were taking the public money, ought
not to be called on to disgorge some of the plunder. The petition was
adopted by acclamation, and then Mr. William Smith, M.P., for Norwich,
addressed the audience, approving of its prayer.
Mr. E. Taylor attended many meetings elsewhere in favor of Reform in
Parliament. He took a very active part in local politics and was the
life and soul of his party at contested elections, whether for the city
or the council. He never connived at bribery or any improper practices.
On one occasion, during the excitement of a parliamentary election, a man
named Bradfield, a working brazier, was offered £30 to vote “orange and
purple.” Though sadly in want of money, he steadily refused the tempting
offer, which was repeatedly pressed upon him, and he voted
“blue-and-white!” The result was that he lost his employment, and fell
into great distress. Mr. Taylor having heard of the circumstance,
interested himself on behalf of the honest voter, and promoted a
subscription, by means of which he was furnished with tools, and enabled
to begin successfully on his own account. Many years afterwards, Mr.
Taylor, meeting him in the street, offered him the usual greeting of a
friend; but Bradfield, fresh from his work, excused himself on the ground
that his hands were “dirty.” His generous benefactor, however, would not
allow the force of the apology, declaring that the man’s hands could not
be very “dirty,” his conduct had shown that his heart and conscience were
so pure. Mr. Taylor, in short, was so much respected for his rectitude,
both political and religious, that it was no matter of surprise when he
was seen walking arm in arm with a political opponent. Mr. Taylor’s
electioneering labors were chiefly confined to serving on committees,
visiting clubs, canvassing voters, and haranguing the people. He was a
good speaker and always popular. On the platform, his strong good sense
and nervous eloquence rendered his speeches effective, and they derived
great weight from the known integrity of his character. If elections
could have been gained by arguments alone, his addresses would have been
more formidable to his opponents than they were. But there was often a
majority, which could be won to either side by “golden” arguments.
So matters went on till 1822, when many political meetings were held, at
which Mr. Edward Taylor took an active part. On January 12th, he moved
and carried a resolution for Parliamentary Reform at a county meeting,
convened for the avowed object of considering “agricultural distress.”
On March 5th, he attended a Reform meeting at Bungay. On April 24th, he
attended another “agricultural distress” meeting, and carried a
resolution in favor of Parliamentary Reform. On May 11th, a county
meeting was held with the express object of petitioning for reform, and
resolutions were carried in favor of it. On Nov. 5th, Mr. Taylor
presided at the annual dinner of the Norwich Reform Club.
The agitation for the repeal of the corn laws was continued in 1825, and
on April 18th a public meeting was held in St. Andrew’s Hall, where a
petition was adopted for a revision of the corn laws, which afterwards
received 14,385 signatures, and was forwarded on the 26th to be presented
to the House of Commons. Meetings were also held in the same year to
promote the abolition of slavery, a question which excited a good deal of
interest in this city; while the years from 1826 to 1829 were devoted
chiefly to agitations for the abolition of slavery and Roman Catholic
emancipation, counter petitions being sent to parliament in regard to the
latter by the Whig and Tory sections of the clergy.
On June 29th, 1830, King William IV. was proclaimed, on the Castle Hill,
by the High Sheriff, the bells ringing in honour of the event. Next day
the king was proclaimed in the city, amid the cheers of the citizens; and
the mayor presided at a dinner, in celebration of His Majesty’s
accession, at the Norfolk Hotel. This king was believed to be in favour
of Reform and Retrenchment, and the liberal party always made him appear
to be so. But the correspondence of the late Earl Grey with his Majesty,
recently published, proves that the king entertained the question of
Reform with great reluctance, which was shared even by some of the Whig
ministers. Lord Grey himself wrote, January 16th, 1831,—
“It has often been my wish to find the means of postponing it, but
the result of all my consideration has been that an attempt to do so
would be fatal to the character of the government, and would lead to
its dissolution under circumstances still more disastrous than those
which would follow such a result, if his Majesty were unfortunately
compelled, by a sense of duty, to withhold his assent from the
measure which may be submitted to him by his ministers. And other
members of the government itself interposed difficulties. Even Lord
Brougham objected, after the measure was drawn up, to the abolition
of the close boroughs, urging the argument that there would be no
means for getting seats for persons in the government,” &c.
And Lord Grey seriously feared that on this point his lord chancellor
might “throw us over with the king!” The king would not hear of the
ballot, and he strongly objected to shortening the duration of parliament
to five years as proposed. At last all obstacles were removed, and on
March 4th, 1831, the bill was introduced by Lord John Russell into the
House of Commons. After a prolonged debate it was read a second time by
only a majority of one. It was defeated in committee on an amendment
against diminishing the number of English representatives. Then the
cabinet, by a minute, called on the king for a distinct answer to the
request for a dissolution. He yielded, avowing that the perils to follow
at home and abroad from a change of ministry were greater than could
arise from a dissolution. But he took occasion to recur to some of his
old objections, and to urge that the bill should be remodelled before
being re-introduced; and he pressed the condition, above all, of
resistance to extreme change.
In consequence of the dissolution on the defeat of ministers on the
Reform Bill, an election took place in this city on April 29th, 1831.
The polling commenced next morning, Saturday, and was continued on the
following Monday and Tuesday. The numbers were for R. H. Gurney, Esq.,
(L.) 2158; the Right Hon. Robert Grant, (L.) 2163; Sir Charles Wetherell,
(C.) 977; and Mr. M. T. Sadler, (C.) 964. The two former gentlemen were
declared duly elected. On the Monday evening the Tory polling booths
were pulled down and afterwards burned.
On February 29th, 1832, Lord Viscount Sidmouth presented an address to
the king, signed by 2300 of the gentry, clergy, freemen, freeholders, and
other inhabitants of the city, praying his Majesty to “withhold his royal
sanction from any measure which might compromise the independence of
either branch of the legislature, and expressing their fullest confidence
in his paternal regard for his faithful people to preserve the
fundamental principles of the British constitution.” This petition was
in reference to a threatened creation of new peers in the House of Lords.
On May 14th, ministers having been again defeated on the Reform Bill, (by
a majority of thirty-five in the House of Lords,) a requisition was
presented to the mayor, Sir J. H. Yallop, to call a public meeting in
support of the bill. The mayor complied, and the meeting was called. A
procession was formed on the Castle Meadow, and being joined by a very
large body from Wymondham, carrying many banners and accompanied by bands
of music, proceeded to St. Andrew’s Hall, which was quite filled. The
mayor presided, and a petition was adopted praying the House of Commons
to stop all supplies till the bill was passed. The cry was for “the
bill—the whole bill, and nothing but the bill.” On June 5th, the
“Telegraph” coach arrived in the city with the news of the passing of the
Reform Bill, by a majority of eighty-four. A large number of people were
in waiting, and the moment the coach entered the top of St. Stephen’s
Street, the people on hearing the news loudly cheered, and the cheering
was continued along the whole line of the street into the Market Place.
A large party perambulated the city with a band playing lively airs, all
the evening, and on the following night a bonfire was kindled on the
Castle Ditches. During the month several public dinners were held to
celebrate the passing of the Reform Bill; and the 5th of the following
month was devoted to a special demonstration. The morning was ushered in
by the firing of cannon and the ringing of bells, and a procession having
been previously arranged, about 11 a.m. a large body of horsemen took up
their position on the Castle Ditches whence, headed by three mounted
trumpeters, and followed by the Norwich Political Union and electors of
the different wards, and accompanied by an immense concourse of
spectators, they passed through the principal streets of the city. The
electors afterwards proceeded to the Old Cricket Ground, where they were
regaled with roast beef, plum-pudding, and ale, and spent the rest of the
day in rural sports.
THE REFORMED PARLIAMENT.
The first election for the city, after the passing of the Reform Bill,
took place on December 10th, 11th, and 12th, 1832, with the following
result.
Lord Viscount Stormont (C.) 2016
Sir James Scarlett (C.) 1962
R. H. Gurney, Esq. (L.) 1809
H. B. Ker, Esq. (L.) 1765