few days before calving and her retention there for a week usually
succeeds. It is in the large herd that the disease is mainly to be dreaded,
however, and in this it is impossible to furnish new and pure stables for
each successive group of two or three calving cows. The thorough
disinfection of the general stable ought to succeed, yet I have seen the
cleanest and purest stable repeatedly disinfected with corrosive sublimate
without stopping the malady. It would appear as if the germ lodged on the
surface or in the bowels of the cow and tided the infection over the period
of stable disinfection. Though insufficient of themselves, the supply of
separate calving boxes and the frequent thorough cleaning and disinfection
of both these and the stables should not be neglected. The most important
measure, however, is the disinfection of the navel.
The cow should be furnished with abundance of dry, clean bedding, sprinkled
with a solution of carbolic acid. As soon as calving sets in the tail and
hips and anus and vulva should be sponged with a carbolic-acid solution
(one-half ounce to the quart), and the vagina injected with a weaker
solution (2 drams to the quart). Fresh carbolized bedding should be
constantly supplied, so that the calf may be dropped on that and not on
soaked litter nor manure. The navel string should be at once tied with a
cord that has been taken from a strong solution of carbolic acid. The stump
of the cord and the adjacent skin should then be washed with the following
solution: Iodin, one-half dram; iodid of potassium, one-half dram; water, 1
quart. When dry it may be covered with a coating of collodion or tar, each
containing 1 per cent of iodin.
Whenever a calf shows any sign of scouring it should be instantly removed
to another pen and building, and the vacated one should be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected. Different attendants should take care of the sound
calves and the infected ones, and all utensils, litter, etc., kept
scrupulously apart.
After one week the healthy calves may usually be safely herded together, or
they may be safely placed in the cow stable.
OTHER AILMENTS OF THE CALF.
Among these may be named several congenital imperfections, such as
imperforate anus, vulva, or prepuce, which are to be recognized by the
inability to pass dung or urine, in spite of straining, and the formation
of swellings in the anus, vulva, or sheath. Each must be carefully incised
with the knife, taking care not to injure the muscles which circumscribe
the respective openings; also tongue-tie, in which the thin, flaccid,
mucous membrane passing from the median line of the lower surface of the
tongue binds the latter too closely to the floor of the mouth and renders
the tongue unfit for gathering in the food in after life. This must be cut
with knife or scissors, so as to give the tongue a reasonable degree of
liberty.
APHTHA, or THRUSH, is another trouble of the sucking calf, showing itself
as a white, curdy elevation on the tongue, lips, cheeks, or gums, and when
detached leaving a raw, red, angry surface. It is due to the growth of a
vegetable parasite long recognized as the _OÔdium albicans_ (_Saccharomyces
albicans_). It is easily removed by rubbing with powdered borax, but
inasmuch as other colonies are liable to start either in the mouth or in
the pharynx, gullet, or stomach, it is well to give a dose of one-half dram
of hyposulphite of soda in water day by day for several days.
RICKETS is not a common disease in calves, and comes on, if at all, later
than those we have been considering. It consists in softening and
friability of the bones from a deficiency of lime salts, and appears to be
mainly connected with an inherited weakness of constitution, unsuitable
feeding, cold, close, damp buildings, microbian infection, and other
conditions inimical to health. The prevention and treatment of rickets
consists essentially in the improvement of the digestion and general
health; hence sunshine, open air, exercise, nourishing food, and tonics are
indicated. (See p. 267.)
BONES: DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS.
By V. T. ATKINSON, V. S.
[Revised by John R. Mohler, V. M. D.]
Some knowledge of the skeleton is advisable to facilitate the study of
diseases of bones and the accidental injuries to which they are exposed.
The skeleton of the adult ox is made up of the following number of bones:
Spinal column 45
Head 28
Chest 27
Shoulder 2-- 1 on each side.
Arm 2-- 1 on each side.
Forearm 4-- 2 on each side.
Forefoot 40--20 on each side.
Pelvis 2-- 1 on each side.
Thigh 2-- 1 on each side.
Leg 6-- 3 on each side.
Hind foot 38--19 on each side.
----
Total 196
Without attempting to burden the reader with the technical names and a
scientific classification of each, it appears desirable to describe some of
the characteristics of forms in general and of a few classes into which
they may be divided, leaving the special study of individual bones to the
illustrations of the skeleton (Pl. XXV), which will serve better than a
great deal of writing to fix in the mind of the reader the location,
relation, and function of each one. In early fetal life the place of bone
is supplied by temporary cartilage, which gradually changes to bone. For
convenience of study, bones may be said to be composed of a form of dense
connective tissue impregnated with lime salts and to contain two elementary
constituents--the organic or animal and the inorganic or earthy. In young
animals the former predominates; with increasing years the relative
proportions of the two change, so that when advanced age is reached the
proportion of inorganic far exceeds the organic. The gradual change with
advancing years from organic to inorganic has the effect of rendering the
bone harder and more brittle, and though it is stronger, the reparative
process is slower when injury does occur.
The bones are nourished in two ways: First, from the outside through their
covering, called the periosteum--the thin, strong membrane that covers
every part of the bone except the articular surface of the joints; and,
second, from within through the minute branches of blood vessels which pass
into the bones through holes (foramina) on their surface and are
distributed in the soft structure (medulla) of the inside. The structure of
the bone is divided into two parts--the compact or hard material of the
outside, which gives strength and is more abundant in the shafts of long
bones, and the cancellated, softer tissue of the inside, which affords
accommodation to the blood vessels necessary for the nourishment of that
part of the structure.
In shape, bones are divided into three classes--long, flat, and short. The
long bones are the ribs and those mostly found in the limbs; the flat bones
are found in the head, the shoulder, and the pelvis; the short bones in the
spinal column and in the lower portions of the limbs.
With this little introduction, which seems almost indispensable, we will
proceed at once to the consideration of diseases of bones, for they undergo
disease processes like any other living tissue.
OSTEITIS.
Inflammation of the compact structure of bones (osteitis) may be either
acute or chronic, and may involve the whole extent of the bone affected or
may be confined to only a portion of it. This inflammation results from
injury, such as concussion, laceration, or a crushing bruise; also from
specific influences, as in actinomycosis (lumpy jaw) or cases of foul foot.
The latter affection frequently involves the bones, and for this reason the
pastern is the most frequent seat of osteitis. There is dull pain on
pressure and a painful swelling of bone when pus is present. Suppuration
may involve the overlying soft tissues, causing an abscess, which may
finally break through the skin. The inflammatory condition sometimes
assumes an ulcerated form (caries) or from interrupted nutrition of the
part deprived of the blood necessary to its nourishment may cause death of
a large section of bone (necrosis); this dead fragment (sequestrum),
becoming separated from the main portion of bone, acts as a foreign body.
_Treatment._--This consists in resting the affected part and in giving vent
at the earliest possible moment to whatever pus may be present. Free
drainage should then be maintained. Apply dressings of lactic acid or
inject with 5 per cent zinc-chlorid solution and pack with tampons of
cotton soaked in antiseptic solutions. A laxative to keep the bowels moving
freely is the only internal treatment necessary.
PERIOSTITIS.
This disease is an inflammation of the external covering of bone
(periosteum) and is usually produced by wounds, pressure, or crushing the
part. The periosteum is well supplied with sensitive nerve endings and when
inflamed is very sensitive to pressure and may cause lameness. This
condition is often difficult to determine, and even an acute observer may
fail to locate the point of its existence. There are three forms of
periostitis--aseptic, purulent, and fibrous.
ASEPTIC PERIOSTITIS when it becomes chronic causes such a bony enlargement
(exostosis) as is seen in the callous formation following the fracture of a
bone. The formation of such a tumor or enlargement on the surface of a bone
is liable to occur in any part of the bone covered with periosteum, and
when found near a joint involving two or more bones it is liable to result
in their union (anchylosis).
_Treatment._--Applications of cold water to check the inflammatory
processes is indicated for the first few days in aseptic periostitis,
followed by hot fomentations to hurry resorption of fluids. Massage should
then be given with camphor ointment, mercurial ointment, soap liniment, or
Lugol's solution. In the chronic form point firing or a biniodid-of-mercury
blister will be found beneficial.
PURULENT PERIOSTITIS follows wounds which reach the periosteum and become
infected, as observed in compound fractures, or it may result from
advancing purulent conditions in neighboring structures, as in foul foot.
It may also occur in the course of an infectious disease, when small
abscesses are formed under the periosteum (subperiosteal abscess). It may
lead to necrosis of the bone or a fistulous tract from the bone to the
surface. There is usually much pain and fever, and the odor from the wound
is offensive.
_Treatment._--In this form of periostitis the periosteum should be freely
incised, followed either by continuous irrigation or frequent injection of
the wound with antiseptic solutions.
FIBROUS PERIOSTITIS.--This form of the disease consists in the thickening
of the outer layer of the periosteum from the inflammation reaching it from
neighboring structures. This newly formed fibrous tissue may become
ossified or may transmit the inflammation to the deeper bony structures. It
is frequently seen in cases in which there has been an intense inflammation
of the skin close to an underlying bone.
_Treatment._--The treatment should be the same as that recommended for
aseptic periostitis.
OSTEOMYELITIS.
This term refers to an inflammation of the bone marrow, which is most
commonly seen following the bacterial infection of a compound fracture and
usually results in pus formation. The bone is melted away and pus escapes
from the bone under the periosteum, involving the soft tissues. It is
principally confined to the long bones and seldom affects more than one.
_Treatment._--The bone should be opened for the purpose of curetting out
the diseased portion of the marrow cavity and removing all the necrotic
pieces of bone. This should be undertaken only by a competent veterinarian.
The after-treatment consists in tamponing the wound with pledgets of
iodoform gauze or a mixture of iodoform 1 part and glycerin 4 parts. The
wound in the soft tissue should be kept open until the cavity in the bone
has filled with granulation tissue.
RICKETS.
This disease, also called "rachitis," is an inflammatory affection of
young, growing bones, and mostly involves the ribs and long bones of the
legs. It consists in a failure of the organism to deposit lime salts in
bone, and for this reason the bones do not ossify so rapidly as they
should. The cartilaginous ends of the bones grow rapidly, but ossification
does not keep pace with it. The bones become long and their ends bend at
the joints, the legs become crooked, and the joints are large and
irregular. All the bones affected with this disease are thicker than
normal, and the gait of the animal is stiff and painful. A row of bony
enlargements may be found where the ribs articulate with the cartilages
connecting them with the breastbone and is called the "beaded line." A
catarrhal condition of the digestive tract is usually observed. The disease
may result from an inherited weakness of constitution, poor hygienic
surroundings, or improper diet. Calves and foals are less frequently
affected with rickets than dogs and pigs.
_Treatment._--The affected animal should have nourishing feed containing a
proper quantity of lime salts. Outdoor exercise and plenty of fresh air are
indispensable. Limewater should be given once daily for drinking purposes
and ground bone meal mixed with the food. Phosphorus, one-fortieth of a
grain, and calcium phosphate, 1 dram, given twice daily to a 2-month-old
calf, and proportionally increased for older animals, has proved
efficacious in this disease. In some cases the long bones of the limbs are
too weak at birth to support the weight of the animal, and temporary
splints, carefully padded and wrapped on with some soft bandages, become
necessary.
OSTEOMALACIA (CREEPS).
This is a condition of bone brittleness or softening of bone found usually
in adult life. It consists in the decalcification of mature bone, with the
advancing diminution of the compact portion of bone by absorption. The
periosteum strips very easily from the bone. This disease is seen in milch
cows during the period of heavy lactation or in the later stages of
pregnancy, and the greater the yield of milk the more rapid the progress of
the disease. Heifers with their first calves are frequently affected, as
these animals require a considerable quantity of mineral salts for their
own growth and for the nourishment of their offspring.
_Symptoms._--In marked cases there is a gradual emaciation and symptoms of
gastrointestinal catarrh, with depraved appetite, the animal eating manure,
decayed wood, dirt, leather, etc. Muscular weakness is prominent, together
with muscle tremors, which simulate chills, but are not accompanied with
any rise of temperature. The animal has a stiff, laborious gait; there is
pain and swelling of the joints, and constant shifting of the weight from
one leg to another. The restricted movements of the joints are frequently
accompanied with a crackling sound, which has caused the name of "creeps"
to be applied to the disease. The coat is dull and rough and the skin dry
and hidebound. The animal is subject to frequent sprains or fracture of
bones without apparent cause, as in lying down or turning around, and when
such fractures occur they are difficult to unite. The bones principally
involved are the upper bones of the legs, the haunch bone, and the middle
bones of the spinal column. The disease in this country is confined to
localized areas in the Southwest, known as the "alkali districts," and in
the old dairy sections of New York State. The cause of this affection is
the insufficiency of lime salts in the food, also to feeding hay of low,
damp pastures, kitchen slops, and potatoes, or to overstocking lands. It
occurs on old, worn-out soil poor in lime salts, and has also been observed
to follow a dry season.
_Treatment._--This should consist in a change of feed and the artificial
feeding of lime salts, such as magnesium and sodium phosphate. Feed rich in
mineral salts may be given, such as beans, cowpeas, oats, cottonseed meal,
or wheat bran. Cottonseed meal is one of the best feeds for this purpose,
but it should be fed carefully, as too large quantities of it are injurious
to cows. Phosphorus may also be given in one-fourth grain doses twice
daily, together with a tablespoonful of powdered bone meal or crude calcium
phosphate at each meal. Ordinary lime dissolved in drinking water
(limewater) will also be found efficacious in combating this disease, and
can be provided at slight expense. A change of pasture to a locality where
the disease is unknown and a free supply of common salt and bone meal will
be the most convenient method of treating range cattle.
SPRAINS.
The most common accident occurring to bones and joints is a sprain of the
ligaments uniting the bones, or the tendons uniting the muscles and bones.
A sprain is the result of a sudden forcing of a joint in an unnatural
direction, or, if in a natural direction, beyond the power of the ligament
or tendon to restrain it properly, so that part of the fibers of either are
ruptured. When such an accident occurs pain is immediately inflicted,
varying in degree with the extent of the injury, which is soon followed by
swelling, with more or less heat and tenderness. If the seat of the injury
be in any of the limbs, lameness is likely to result. Of the causes of
sprain, slipping on ice or a wet floor, playing, and fighting with another
animal are the most common.
SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER JOINT.--This is liable to occur from any of the
causes mentioned above or from the animal slipping suddenly into a rut or
hole. When such an accident occurs, sudden lameness will attract attention.
The animal will be noticed to drag the leg when walking and to carry it in
a circular direction, outward and forward, at each step. The leg should be
carefully examined, pressure over the joint causing the animal to evince
pain. If the person making the examination is in doubt, it is well to make
a comparison between the shoulders by pressing first on one and then the
other. After such an accident the animal should be tied up so as to limit
so far as possible the use of the injured joint.
Soft feed should be given with a view of keeping the bowels acting freely.
_Treatment._--During the first three days the treatment should consist of
cold-water irrigation to check the inflammation and relieve the pain. Hot
fomentations may then be applied to hasten the absorption of the
inflammatory fluids. When the pain has somewhat abated, equal parts of
mercurial ointment and green soap may be rubbed into the swollen tissue.
Should lameness continue after the tenth day, good results will be obtained
from the application of a blister. This may be done by carefully clipping
off the hair over the joint, including a surface of 4 or 5 inches in
circumference, and rubbing in the following preparation:
Powdered cantharides dram 1
Biniodid of mercury do 1
Vaseline ounce 1
The animal's head should be carefully tied until the third day, to prevent
its licking the blister. The blistered surface should then be smeared with
lard or vaseline every other day until the scabs fall off. Gentle exercise
should be allowed after the fourth or fifth day from the application of the
blister. If the lameness still remains the blister may be repeated in three
weeks or a month.
SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK.--This may occur from misstep when the animal is
moving rapidly, and the twisting or wrenching of the foot is sufficient to
rupture partially the ligaments which bind the bones together at that part.
Such an accident also frequently occurs by the foot getting fastened in a
hole in the floor; the wrenching is the result of the animal's attempt to
liberate it. Lameness, followed by swelling of the joint and pain when it
is handled, or when the animal moves the joint, and heat, are the more
noticeable symptoms. If the sprain is very severe, the animal occasionally
does not bear its weight on the limb.
_Treatment._--The most important consideration in the treatment of this
affection is rest, which is best enforced by keeping the animal in the
stall and placing strong, muslin bandages about the inflamed joint. As in
the sprain of the shoulder, cold water in the form of douches, continuous
irrigation with hose or soaking tub, or finely chopped ice poultices are
indicated for the first three days. Following this apply a Priessnitz
bandage[2] moderately tight about the joint, which not only conduces to
rest, but also favors absorption. Massage with stimulating liniments, such
as soap or camphor, may later be applied to the affected parts.
If the lameness has not disappeared by the tenth day, the blister advised
for the sprain of the shoulder should be applied and the same precautions
observed as to tying the animal's head and subsequent smearing with
vaseline. When a blister is applied in this locality, the back part of the
heel should be first filled with lard or vaseline, and care taken to
prevent any of the blistering preparation from coming in contact with the
skin of that part. If this precaution is not observed, scratches may ensue
and prove troublesome.
SPRAIN OF THE HIP.--This is liable to result from the animal's slipping in
such way as to spread the hind feet wide apart. The patient goes stiff in
the hind legs, or lame in one hind leg, walking with a straddling gait and
swinging the leg outward as it is carried forward. Tenderness may
occasionally be detected on pressure, but owing to the heavy covering of
muscles outside the joint this test is not always reliable.
In the acute cases give rest and cold local applications. After the fourth
or fifth day the blister mentioned for sprain of the shoulder may be
applied with advantage, and if this proves insufficient, as a last resort
we may fire in points over the joint.
SPRAIN OF THE BACK.--Sprain of the back, particularly in the region of the
loins, is not an uncommon accident among cattle. It is liable to occur from
the animals slipping with both hind feet sidewise so as to twist the back,
or from slipping violently backward so that great stress is thrown on the
loins. The patient moves with difficulty, using the hind parts in a guarded
manner, as if afraid of causing severe pain. Occasionally, if the sprain is
severe, the animal will rise with difficulty. Pressure on the back in the
immediate region of the loins causes pain. Such cases may be mistaken for
paralysis, and, in fact, in severe cases, during the early stages of the
injury, although the nerve supply is not interfered with, the injury to the
muscles and resulting pain is so great that the condition is almost equal
to paralysis, although liable to be attended with more favorable results.
Hot applications, such as blankets wrung out of hot water and changed
often, will be likely to afford relief during the earlier stages.
Afterwards the blister mentioned for sprain of the shoulder may be applied
with advantage.
FRACTURES (BROKEN BONES).
Bones may be accidentally broken in many ways and from different causes.
Fractures in general are liable to be produced by external force suddenly
and violently applied, either directly to the part or at a distance, the
force being transmitted through the stronger bones until it expends itself
by breaking a weaker one remote from the seat of the injury. Occasionally
violent contraction of muscles is sufficient to break a bone. Certain
bones, those of the limbs in particular, owing to their exposed position,
are more liable to fracture than others. Owing to certain predisposing
causes, such as age, habit, or hereditary constitutional weakness, the
bones of some animals are more easily fractured than those of others. The
bones of an animal advanced in years are more subject to fracture because
of the preponderance of inorganic matter rendering them more brittle. They
are also occasionally rendered liable to fracture by a previously existing
diseased condition. Fractures are divided into four classes--partial,
simple, compound, and comminuted.