taken in concentrated solution, losing its corrosive effect and becoming
irritant when more dilute. It also exerts a specific effect on the heart,
frequently causing death from syncope. Taken in the form either of the
crystals or solution it is likely to cause death in a very short time.
Failure of heart action and the attendant small pulse, weakness,
staggering, and convulsions are the more noticeable symptoms. Acetic acid
is irritant to the gastrointestinal tract, and may cause sudden paralysis
of the heart.
_Treatment._--The action of the acid should be counteracted by the use of
alkalies, as advised above, by limewater or lime or plaster given promptly,
by protectives to the digestive tract, and by stimulants.
POISONING BY ALKALIES.
The carbonates of potash and soda and the alkalies themselves in
concentrated form cause symptoms of intestinal irritation similar to those
produced by mineral acids. Ammonia, caustic soda, and caustic potash (lye)
are those to which animals are most exposed. The degree of their caustic
irritant effects depends on their degree of concentration. When they reach
the stomach the symptoms are nearly as well marked as in the case of the
acids. The irritation is even more noticeable, and purgation is likely to
be a more prominent symptom. If death is not caused soon, the irritation of
the gastrointestinal tract and malnutrition will last for a long time.
_Treatment._--Treatment consists in neutralizing the alkali by an acid,
such as dilute sulphuric acid (1 per cent) or strong vinegar. The
administration of such an antidote and its action must be carefully watched
during administration. In the chemical change which takes place when the
acid and alkali are combined, carbonic-acid gas is liberated, which may be
to an extent sufficient to cause considerable distention of the abdomen,
and even to produce asphyxia from pressure forward on the diaphragm. Should
this danger present itself, it may be averted by opening the flank,
permitting the gas to escape. (See "Acute tympanites, or Bloating," p. 22.)
Flaxseed or slippery-elm decoction must be given to sooth the inflamed
mucous surface. Opium may be used to allay pain.
COAL-OIL POISONING.
Coal oil is sometimes administered empirically as a treatment for
intestinal parasites. If given in large doses it produces poisonous
effects, which are likely to be manifested some time after the
administration. It acts as an irritant to the digestive tract, causing
dribbling of ropy saliva from the mouth, diarrhea, tenesmus, and loss of
appetite, with increased temperature and cold extremities. Visible mucous
membranes are injected, pupils of the eyes are contracted, and there is a
watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils. Remotely it exerts a
depressing influence on the functions of the brain and slight coma, and
occasionally convulsions, from which the animal is easily aroused. The
kidneys also suffer. The urine is dark colored and has the characteristic
odor of coal oil. Death may result from gastroenteritis or convulsions.
_Treatment._--The patient's strength should be fostered by the frequent
administration of mild stimulants, of which aromatic spirits of ammonia is
perhaps the best. The animal should be encouraged to eat soft feed and
given mucilaginous drinks.
Crude coal oil is sometimes applied to the skin to kill parasites. If too
much is used, especially in hot weather, great weakness and depression may
be caused and in some cases death may result.
CARBOLIC-ACID POISONING.
Although one of the most valuable antiseptic remedies, carbolic acid in a
concentrated form, when taken internally or used over a large surface
externally, is likely to produce poisonous effects. It causes whitening,
shrinking, and numbness of the structures with which it comes in contact,
and, besides its irritant effect, exerts a powerful influence on the
nervous system. Being readily absorbed, it produces its effect whether
swallowed, injected into the rectum, inhaled, or applied to wounds, or even
to a large tract of unbroken skin. Used extensively as a dressing, it may
produce nausea, dizziness, and smoky or blackish colored urine. The last
symptom is nearly always noticeable where the poisonous effect is produced.
In more concentrated form, or used in larger quantities, convulsions,
followed by fatal coma, are likely to take place. Even in smaller
quantities, dullness, trembling, and disinclination for food often continue
for several days. In a tolerably concentrated solution it coagulates
albumen and acts as an astringent.
_Treatment._--As an antidote internally, a solution of sulphate of soda or
sulphate of magnesia (Glauber's or Epsom salt) may be given. The white of
egg is also useful. Stimulants may be given if needed. When the poisoning
occurs through too extensive applications to wounds or the skin, as in
treatment of mange, cold water should be freely applied so as to wash off
any of the acid that may still remain unabsorbed. As a surgical dressing a
3 per cent solution is strong enough for ordinary purposes. Water will not
hold more than 5 per cent in permanent solution. No preparation stronger
than the saturated solution should be used medicinally under any
circumstances.
SALTPETER POISONING.
Both nitrate of soda and nitrate of potassium are poisonous to cattle.
These substances are used for manure and for preserving meats. They may be
administered in a drench by error in place of Glauber's salt, or they may
be exposed within reach of cattle and thus be eaten. The toxic dose depends
upon the condition of fullness of the stomach. If in solution and given on
an empty stomach, as little as 3 ounces of saltpeter (nitrate of potassium)
may be fatal to a cow. More of the Chile saltpeter (nitrate of soda) is
required to cause serious trouble.
_Symptoms._--Severe gastroenteritis, colic, tympanites, diarrhea, excessive
urination, weakness, trembling, convulsions, collapse.
_Treatment._--Same as for poisoning by common salt.
POISONING BY COMMON SALT.
A few pounds (3 to 5) of common salt will produce well-marked signs of
poisoning in cattle. So much salt as this will not be taken by cattle
except under unusual conditions. If the feed is poor in salt, and if no
salt has been given for a long time, an intense "salt hunger" may occur
that may lead an animal to eat a poisonous quantity, or an overdose of salt
may be given by error as a drench. In order to prevent overeating of salt,
it is doubtless better in salting cattle to use rock salt rather than that
in more or less finely divided form.
Herring and mackerel brine and pork pickle are also poisonous, and are
especially dangerous for hogs. In these substances there are, in addition
to salt, certain products extracted from the fish or meat which undergo
change and add to the toxicity of the solution. Sometimes saltpeter is
present in such brines.
_Symptoms._--The symptoms are great thirst, abdominal pain, diarrhea, poor
appetite, redness and dryness of the mouth, increased urination, paralysis
of the hind legs, weak pulse, general paralysis, coma, and death in from
six to eight hours.
_Treatment._--Allow as much warm water as the animal will drink; give
protectives, such as linseed tea, etc. Linseed or olive oil may be given.
To keep up the heart action give ether, alcohol, camphor, digitalis, or
coffee. To allay pain, give opium.
VEGETABLE POISONS.
Vegetable poisons may be divided into two classes--those that are likely to
be administered to the animal as medicine, and such as may be taken in the
feed, either in the shape of poisonous plants or as plants or feeds of
vegetable origin that have been damaged by fungi or by bacteria which have
produced fermentation or putrefaction.
VEGETABLE POISONS USED AS MEDICINE.
OPIUM (MORPHIN, LAUDANUM) POISONING.
Opium and its alkaloid, morphia, are so commonly used in the practice of
medicine that the poisonous result of an overdose is not uncommon. The
common preparations are gum opium, the inspissated juice of the poppy;
powdered opium, made from the gum; tincture of opium, commonly called
laudanum; and the alkaloid or active principle, morphia. Laudanum has about
one-eighth the strength of the gum or powder. Morphia is present in good
opium to the extent of about 10 per cent. In medicine it is a most useful
agent in allaying pain. It first produces a stimulating action, which is
followed by drowsiness, a disposition to sleep or complete anesthesia,
depending on the quantity of the drug used. In poisonous doses a state of
exhilaration is well marked at first. This is particularly noticeable in
cattle and in horses. The animal becomes much excited, and this stage does
not pass into insensibility unless an enormous dose has been given. If the
dose is large enough, a second stage sometimes supervenes, in which the
symptoms are those of congestion of the brain. The visible membranes have a
bluish tint (cyanotic) from interference with the air supply. The breathing
is slow, labored, and later stertorous; the pupils of the eyes are very
much contracted; the skin dry and warm. Gas accumulates in the stomach, so
that tympanites is a prominent symptom. The patient may be aroused by great
noise or the infliction of sharp pain, when the breathing becomes more
natural. A lapse into the comatose condition takes place when the
excitement ceases. Later, there is perfect coma and the patient can no
longer be aroused from the insensible condition. The contraction of the
pupil becomes more marked, the breathing intermittent and slower, there is
perspiration, the pulse more feeble and rapid, till death takes place.
Poisoning of cattle with opium or its products rarely goes beyond the stage
of excitement, because the quantity of the drug required for the later
effects is so great. Seventy-five grains of morphia administered
subcutaneously has sufficed merely to excite for 12 hours.
_Treatment._--Give strong coffee, 1 to 4 quarts, aromatic spirits of
ammonia or carbonate of ammonia. Atropia is the physiological antidote.
STRYCHNIN POISONING.
Strychnin is a very concentrated poison and produces its effect very
quickly, usually only a few minutes being necessary if given in sufficient
dose and in such a way that it will be at once absorbed. When employed as a
medicine, as a rule, minimum doses should be used, as cattle are quite
susceptible to its effects and may be killed by the maximum doses given in
the common manuals of veterinary medicine. The first noticeable symptom is
evidence of unrest or mental excitement; at the same time the muscles over
the shoulder and croup may be seen to quiver or twitch, and later there
occurs a more or less well-marked convulsion; the head is jerked back, the
back arched and leg extended, the eyes drawn. The spasm continues for only
a few minutes, when it relaxes and another occurs in a short time. The
return is hastened by excitement and in a short time again disappears,
continuing to disappear and reappear until death results. As the poisonous
effect advances the intervals between the spasms become shorter and less
marked and the spasms more severe until the animal dies in violent
struggles.
_Treatment._--The best method is to put the patient under the influence of
chloral, chloroform, or ether, and keep it there continuously until the
effect of the poison has passed off. Alcohol may be given in large doses.
ACONITE POISONING.
In recent years tincture of aconite has become a popular stable remedy. If
an animal is ailing, aconite is given whether indicated or not. Fortunately
the dose used is generally small, and for this reason the damage done is
much less than it would otherwise be. Aconite is one of the most deadly
poisons known. It produces paralysis of motion and sensation, depresses the
heart's action, and causes death by paralysis of respiration. In large
doses it causes profuse salivation, champing of the jaws, and attempts at
swallowing. If not sufficient to cause death, there is impaired appetite
with more or less nausea for some time after. In poisonous doses it causes
the animal to tremble violently, to lose power to support itself, and
brings on slight convulsions, with perspiration. The pulse is depressed,
irregular, and afterwards intermittent.
_Treatment._--The chemical antidote is tannic acid, which forms an
insoluble compound with the aconitin. The depressing effect on the heart
should be counteracted by the use of ammonia, digitalis, alcohol, camphor,
or other diffusible stimulants, which have a physiological effect opposite
to aconite.
POISONOUS PLANTS.
An important group of poisons may be classed under this head. In most cases
it is poison naturally belonging in the plant; in other cases the poisonous
principle is developed in what would otherwise be harmless plants as a
plant disease, or as a fermentation or putrefaction due to bacterial growth
and observed in forage, grain, or meal that has become heated, damaged, or
"spoilt."
The subject of poisonous plants is an important one and is of especial
interest to those using the western stock ranges, for it is probable that
there is no other single cause producing so many fatalities. In this
article only a few of the more important plants are treated in a brief way,
for an extended treatise would be necessary if the subject were to be
handled adequately. Further information should be sought in the more
elaborate publications. Many of the American poisonous plants have been
treated in bulletins issued by the United States Department of Agriculture.
_Treatment for plant poisoning._--Remedies given by the mouth in most cases
fail to give relief to cattle affected by poisonous plants. The material of
the poisonous plants in the first stomach is not very largely affected by a
remedy given as a drench. If any beneficial result is effected, it must be
on the material which has already passed into the fourth stomach, so that
to get any real antidotal result the remedy must be given repeatedly in
order to meet the alkaloid poisons as they are passing through the fourth
stomach. While certain substances like tannic acid and potassium
permanganate are the logical antidotes for plant poisons, in practical
application they are very disappointing in the treatment of ruminant
animals. Reliance must be mainly on prevention and upon such remedies as
will increase elimination. A laxative or purgative is always helpful, and
for this purpose Epsom salt may be given in pound doses, or linseed oil in
doses of 1 or 2 pints. In some few cases special remedies can be given as
is indicated below.
It is well to bear in mind that cattle while grazing freely in good pasture
are not likely to eat poisonous plants to any extent. If these same plants
are gathered and thrown in a pile, the animals, through a kind of
pernicious curiosity, may eat them with disastrous results. This has
frequently happened when freshly cut branches of cherry, yew, oleander, and
other plants have been thrown where dairy cattle could get at them.
OAKS.
The foliage of oaks is a valuable constituent of the forage on many ranges
and pastures. It has been shown, however, that when this is eaten without
some admixture of other food, cattle frequently sicken and die. Many cases
of the poisoning of cattle by acorns have been reported in England and
Germany, and there have been some complaints in the United States. Harmful
results from eating acorns do not seem likely to occur except as they are
eaten in considerable quantities.
_Symptoms._--The symptoms of oak poisoning are constipation, mucus and
blood in the feces, emaciation, and edema. The symptoms of acorn poisoning
are much the same.
_Treatment._--Change of pasture or an addition of other food material.
HORSE CHESTNUT--BUCKEYE.
All the species of _∆sculus,_ popularly known as horse chestnut or buckeye,
are considered poisonous. The bark, leaves, and fruit are injurious. It is
said that if the fruit is boiled or roasted and washed out it becomes
harmless and even is a desirable addition to the feed of cattle. The
Indians in time of scarcity of food have used the fruit after preparing it
in this way. The buckeyes are said to have a specific effect in producing
abortion in cattle and goats.
DEATH CAMAS (SPECIES OF ZYGADENUS).
The death-camas plants, which are commonly known in the Pacific States as
"lobelia," are especially destructive of sheep, but cattle sometimes eat
them and are poisoned. Cases of cattle poisoning are not likely to result
fatally.
_Symptoms._--The symptoms are salivation, nausea accompanied by vomiting,
great weakness, and lowered temperature.
_Treatment._--There is no effective treatment for death-camas poisoning.
FLY POISON (CHROSPERMA MUSC∆TORIUM).
This plant, which is closely related to the death-camas plants, is
sometimes known as "stagger grass" and causes a considerable loss in the
Southern States. It grows earlier than the grasses, and on this account is
more likely to be eaten. Like death camas, it produces pronounced nausea,
resulting in vomiting and weakness, and in cases which recover the effects
may continue for several days. Apparently the injurious effects are more
common in the case of cattle than in other domestic animals. There is no
known way of treating these animals, though doubtless purgatives would be
beneficial.
YEW (TAXUS BACCATA).
The European yew has long been known as a very poisonous plant. It is
cultivated in America, and while cases of poisoning have not been common,
it is well to recognize its dangerous character. A comparatively small dose
is poisonous and ordinarily acts with great rapidity. It causes respiratory
paralysis and the animal dies in convulsions.
LAUREL.
The laurels, including the broad-leafed laurel, _Kalmia latifolia_, the
narrow-leafed laurel, _Kalmia angustifolia_, the rhododendrons, and other
closely related plants are poisonous and cause considerable losses. It is
dangerous to let cattle graze where these plants are abundant at times when
other forage is scarce. The symptoms are salivation, nausea and vomiting,
spasms, dizziness, stupor, and death.
FERN.
The common brake or bracken fern, _Pteris aquilina_, has been considered
responsible for the poisoning of many horses and cattle. Many cases have
been reported in England and Germany, and some well-authenticated cases in
the United States. Very little has been learned experimentally of fern
poisoning, but there seems to be little question that it has been the cause
of many deaths. The symptoms are said to be temperature higher than normal,
loss of appetite, bloody discharges from mouth, nose, and bowels, and great
depression followed by coma and death. Some authors say that the urine is
colored by blood. It is thought by some that the disease known as "red
water" in the northwestern United States and Canada is caused by eating
ferns.
SORGHUM POISONING.
Under certain conditions sorghum contains enough hydrocyanic acid to make
it exceedingly dangerous to cattle. These cases of poisoning most commonly
occur when cattle are pastured upon the young plant or upon a field where
the crop has been cut and is making a second growth. Conditions of drought
make the sorghum especially dangerous. There is some reason to think that
the frosted second growth is particularly rich in hydrocyanic acid. The
cases of poisoning occur when animals are grazed upon the plant, but not
from the harvested crop or from silage. If cattle are grazed on sorghum or
sorghum stubble they should at first be under constant observation and
should be removed as soon as any signs of illness appear. Similar
precautions should be used in grazing kafir.
CORNSTALK DISEASE.
Considerable losses of cattle have occurred when they were turned upon
cornfields in the fall. Deaths come very suddenly and there is no
opportunity to apply remedies. It has been thought that these fatalities,
like those from sorghum, were caused by hydrocyanic acid, but there is good
reason to think that this is not true, and at the present time there is no
accepted explanation of this disease, although there seems to be no doubt
that it is connected in some way with the condition of the corn. Whether a
given field is poisonous or not can only be determined by experiment, and
the wise farmer will keep his cattle under close observation when they are
first turned into a cornfield.
WATER HEMLOCK (CICUTA).
This plant, growing in wet places by ditches and along creeks, is the most
poisonous of North American plants. The root is the poisonous part, and
cattle generally get it when it is plowed up or washed out by high water.
Sometimes they pull it up, for the plant occasionally grows out into
ditches so that the whole plant will be taken in grazing. The most marked
symptoms of Cicuta poisoning are the violent convulsions, which remind one
of the effect of strychnin.
_Treatment._--Little can be done in the way of treatment. The logical thing
is to attempt to control the convulsions by means of morphia, but in view
of the fact that the stomach can not be emptied, the prognosis is not good,
and most cases die.
LARKSPURS.
The larkspurs are a source of heavy loss to cattle owners in the higher
ranges of the West. There are a number of species, growing at altitudes
from 4,000 feet to timber line, and all are poisonous. A few cases of
poisoning by larkspurs have been reported in the eastern United States, but
most of the losses are confined to the West, both because larkspurs grow
there in greater profusion and because cattle are grazed in that region on
the open ranges. The losses are confined to cattle, for sheep and horses
can graze on larkspur with no resulting harm. Most of the larkspur losses
occur in the spring and early summer, as the plants lose their toxicity
after maturing.
_Symptoms._--Larkspur poisoning is accompanied by a definite line of
symptoms. In range animals the first symptom noted is generally the sudden
falling of the animal and consequent inability to rise. After a while it
may rise, only to fall again. This may happen repeatedly. In severe cases
the animal lies prone and exhibits nausea, accompanied by vomiting. It dies
of respiratory paralysis, death many times being hastened by the asphyxia
following the vomiting.
_Treatment._--The animal, if found down, should be turned so that its head
is uphill in order to relieve the lungs. Many cases will recover with no
further treatment. Nearly all cases will recover if a hypodermic injection
is given immediately of physostigmin salicylate 1 grain, pilocarpin
hydrochlorid 2 grains, strychnin sulphate 1/2 grain.
LOCO.
The loco plants have caused especially heavy losses of cattle, horses, and
sheep. They grow in the semiarid regions of the West and sometimes in great
luxuriance. The best known are the "blue loco," the "woolly loco" or
"purple loco," and the "white loco" or "rattle-weed." The blue loco is
common in parts of New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. It affects both horses
and cattle. The purple loco, _Astragalus mollissimus_, is common in Texas
and the adjoining States and extends north as far as Nebraska and Colorado.
It is especially destructive to horses. The white loco, _Oxytropis
lamberti_, is still more widely distributed, being found in the plains
region from Alaska to Mexico and west of the Rocky Mountains to central
Utah. The white loco is much more important than the purple loco, for it
affects not only horses but cattle and sheep. These plants belong to the
pea family, and there are a number of other species of this family that are
loco plants and produce the same symptoms.