THE PORCELAIN OF CHINA
Difficulties.--The Porcelain Tower at Nanking.--First Making of
Porcelain.--Kaolin and Pe-tun-tse.--Marco Polo.--Portuguese
Importation.--The City of King-te-chin.--Jacquemart's
Groups.--Symbolic Decoration.--Inscriptions.--The Ming Period.--The
Celestial Blue.--The Celadons.--Reticulated Cups.--The
Crackle.--Various Periods.--Individualism.--Marks and Dates.
No people and no civilization have been or are still of greater interest
than those of the "Flowery Kingdom;" and, spite of much study and
careful investigation, of none are we less certain than of these.
Through thousands of years a peculiar people have developed a peculiar
social system--most striking, most distinct, and, in its way, as
complete as any other, even if compared with ours, of which we loudly
boast. And now this singular people--a people who have grown into a
population of four hundred millions, having their barriers broken down
by the guns and rams of England, so that trade should enter--are
themselves coming out to do the work of the world cheaper than any
others can do it. We see them in Batavia, in Siam, in Singapore, in
great numbers, as workers, as brokers, as merchants, as manufacturers,
and now they are flowing a steady tide into California; and who can say
where the flood will reach, where it will stop, and whom it will
submerge? No other question of such importance now presses upon us as
this.
But here we have to deal only with one of the most perfect and most
beautiful of industries--one which seems to have had its rise and its
culmination with this strange people.
What we know of it we can hardly be said to _know_. The Chinese have
always kept their own secrets, and have not cared to convert us to their
methods, or to cater to our ways. We therefore gather, here and there, a
scrap of information upon the subject of porcelains; we get, when we
can, examples of their work; we try to learn something of their
processes; but, after all, can only submit what we gather with some
misgivings as to the absolute truth.
We do not know how to spell their names in our letters, and they vary
infinitely; so too the inscriptions upon their plates and dishes vary
with the knowledge and the fancy of the translator. Of course, we
approximate to the truth, but not more; for no two Chinese quite agree
as to what this most flexible writing may mean. As to dates on the
pieces, some certainty seems to have been reached; and such is valuable.
I have added to this article _marks_ and dates as now understood by the
best authorities in England, and as arranged by Mr. A. W. Franks, who is
the latest writer upon the subject. The knowledge of these helps the
student, and is valuable to the collector.
[Illustration: FIG. 96.--_Pou-tai, "The God of Content."_]
The opening cut (Fig. 96) in our chapter shows the Chinese god
Pou-tai--the "God of Content." He is described as "corpulent, his chest
uncovered, mounted upon or leaning on the wine-skin which holds his
terrestrial goods; his face, with half-closed eyes, beaming with an
eternal laugh."
His image, done in porcelain, is found in the workshops of China, where
men wish more than they can obtain; he allays, perhaps, but does not
quench. This image would be most useful--at least, most suggestive--if
it could be set up in every _bourse_ of the Western world.
[Illustration: FIG. 97.--_The Porcelain Tower at Nanking._]
The Nanking Tower (Fig. 97) once stood near the city of Nanking, from
which city much of our finest porcelain comes. It was built with bricks
or pottery, the face of which was coated with a dip or slip of
porcelain; and the whole thing was valuable and interesting as a
monument of the potter's art. It is now razed to the ground, the last
destruction being that of the Taiping rebels.
The history of pottery is in a good degree the history of man. All
nations have done something in this way, from the rude clay pots of the
barbarians, through the gayly-painted dishes of the incipient
civilization, up to the culmination of the art, when perfection seems to
have been reached in China through the centuries extending up to the
sixteenth. This manufacture, which reached in China and Japan to the
point of finest art, has not been surpassed by any civilized race, if
equaled. I am unable to do anything but admire a people whose workmen
did and liked to do such fine and faithful work, and found such large
patronage for it; and it seems a ludicrous and stupid judgment for us,
who admire and pay for the sculptures of Mr. Mills and Miss Ream, to
call those peoples barbarians!
Are they not justified in calling _us_ "outside barbarians?"
This chapter will treat briefly upon these Oriental productions, and I
hope no apology is needed.
Three thousand years (2697 B. C.) before our Christian era these Chinese
were great potters, had reached to a high point in form and decoration;
and porcelain, the finest pottery, began to be made some two hundred
years before our era. At that time our ancestors were in a state of
gross, if not beastly, barbarism; while _they_ showed skill, taste,
refinement, in this and in other ways.
As late as the seventeenth century cups and trenchers of "honest tre,"
or wood, were used in the best castles of England, and the dishes were
often square bits of board; and down even to a much later day the
fingers were used to carry the meat to the mouth.
Some two hundred years, then, before Christ, it appears that the Chinese
had discovered and applied to the making of porcelain two fine clays,
one called _kaolin_, and the other _pe-tun-tse_; the first is a decayed
feldspar; combined, these clays produce the fine semi-transparent body
which we call china or porcelain. All china, then, has in a greater or
less degree this quality of translucency. It appears, therefore, that
most of the Canton ware brought to us is not porcelain at all, but
simply a kind of stone or earthen ware, coated with an enamel or "slip,"
which sometimes may contain porcelain.
So, too, the most beautiful Satsuma ware from Japan is not porcelain,
but a fine sort of pottery or earthen-ware, the decoration of which is
most marked and harmonious.
For more than two thousand years the "heathen Chinee" has been working
at the production of porcelain--and apparently most intelligently and
skillfully. He has accomplished this:
1. The materials used are selected with the greatest care.
2. They are combined, and ground, and mixed, with consummate knowledge.
3. The articles desired are turned and modeled with great precision and
dexterity, oftentimes with the keenest perception of beauty of line.
4. The decorations exhibit an exquisite feeling as to value and harmony
of color, and freedom of design.
This combination of knowledge, skill, and taste, the Chinese were the
first to combine in pottery and porcelain, and they have not been
excelled.
To those who are ignorant, it seems a very paltry thing to make a
dinner-plate; but to make a perfect one requires most of the best
faculties of man. Ignorant and foolish people hold the china-lovers in
contempt; we reciprocate: we believe that the man who does not perceive
and enjoy all this beautiful handiwork is willfully ignorant or pitiably
stupid: he has our pity and our prayers.
Traces of porcelain are found in the ancient tombs and among the mummies
of Egypt, in the form of small bottles as here shown (Fig. 98). Just
what was their use or significance we do not know; but some think they
prove that intercourse existed between those countries in very early
days.
Marco Polo visited China in the latter half of the thirteenth century,
and he told of the great factories for the production of porcelain
there; and how certain kinds of earth were collected, and, after being
exposed to air and rains for thirty or forty years, were then fit to be
made into cups and bowls. Great quantities were sold in the city. "For a
Venetian groat you may purchase eight porcelain cups."
Beginning of course with useful articles simply, this manufacture
progressed until pots and vases and dishes were made for purely
decorative purposes.
[Illustration: FIG. 98.--_Porcelain Bottle, from Egyptian Tomb._]
As porcelain was introduced into Europe by the Portuguese about the year
1518, we are obliged to pierce into the dimness of the past with the aid
of the Chinese themselves. M. Julien,[9] a Frenchman, has compiled from
the Chinese writings mostly all we know, some parts of which may come
into this chapter. Jacquemart, Marryat, Chaffers, Demmin, and others,
have drawn from him.
As early as the Tchoin dynasty (about 583) fine qualities were produced,
and the court of the emperors demanded it. Artists began to appear, and
rare and rarer qualities were made. We find that different styles were
sought for and were held in highest esteem; that "the Tsin held the blue
china in high estimation;" the Soni or Sui (581 to 618) gave the
preference to green. The Thang dynasty (618 to 907) required that it
should be white; and in 621 Ho made porcelain for the emperor of a white
ground, "brilliant as jade;" while the Emperor Tchi-tsong (954 to 959)
gave his family name to a beautiful blue, the most highly esteemed of
all the ancient porcelains of China.[10] How fine this was we cannot
know, as it is not likely that any piece of it exists with us, even if
among the Chinese. The production grew, until in 1369 in the city of
King-te-chin, according to the statement of Father d'Entrecolles, it
was estimated at a million pieces a year. A vast and varied industry in
making china was carried forward here, down even to the present times,
when the Taiping rebels (who we are told were _Christians_) completely
destroyed it.
From the accounts, mostly of the French missionaries, it seems that
while the three thousand furnaces at King-te-chin baked the porcelain
which was modeled there, it was taken to Nanking and Canton to be
decorated; and, as far as we know, the painting of Nanking was superior
to that of Canton. King-te-chin is swept away, and Nanking is almost
destroyed; so that we can expect no more fine art-work in porcelain from
China.
It is likely, however, that much decoration was done at the great city
of King-te-chin; but what we know now as "the celestial" or Nanking blue
was probably done at Nanking; of this more will be said in the progress
of this chapter.
It is impossible here to dwell upon or to know much of the various
descriptions of china made down to the period of the Ming dynasty (1368
to 1649). Upon the productions of this period the Chinese collectors and
antiquaries place the highest value--in many cases much greater even
than is now given to them in Europe.
Some examples of this period are to be seen in Europe and a few in
America.
One of our commissioners, who met the Chinese and Japanese at the Vienna
Exposition, was told by them that they were purchasing choice pieces of
porcelain, intending to take them back to their countries, where they
are more valuable than in Europe: for, from the earliest days, it seems
that both the Chinese and Japanese have been keen critics and lovers of
this most fascinating work.
Jacquemart and others have attempted to arrange the decorated work into
groups as follows:
The ARCHAIC--of which perhaps none exists.
The CHRYSANTHEMO-PÆONIENNE.
The FAMILLE-VERT, or GREEN.
The FAMILLE-ROSE, or PINK.
Besides these are many sub-varieties. These groups indicate the style
of decoration of which we shall attempt to give some sketches, although,
as they want color, they must necessarily be faint.
The chrysanthemo-pæonienne exhibits the use in various ways of the
chrysanthemum and peony. We give here examples to show the style of
decoration, as far as we are able to do it without color.
[Illustration: FIG. 99.--_Pot from Mrs. Burlingame's Collection._]
Fig. 99 is a pot from Mrs. Burlingame's collection. It stands about
twenty inches high, and is a fine example of the early style of work.
The paste and glaze are not so good as in the rose family, but still all
is excellent. The chrysanthemums are yellow, red, and black. This work
is no doubt very old.
We give (Fig. 100) a sketch of a small snuff-bottle from the same
collection, drawn the real size. It is a perfect piece of work: the
paste
[Illustration: FIG. 100.--_From Mrs. Burlingame's Collection._]
[Illustration: FIG. 101.--_From Mrs. Burlingame's Collection._]
is a fine white; the overturned preserve-pot is a clear lemon-yellow,
with a little color in the rings; the grasshopper is alive and is
brilliant with greens, blacks, and blues. The stopper is a bit of purple
amethyst. It is so _complete_ that it fills the mind with satisfaction,
more thorough than the sight of St. Peter's can give.
[Illustration: FIG. 102.--_Chinese Vase._]
[Illustration: FIG. 103.--_From Miss Wyman's Collection._]
The _famille-vert_, or green, is so called because a clear, brilliant
green is the only or prevailing color.
The plate here shown (Fig. 101) is also from Mrs. Burlingame's
collection. The paste is a brilliant white, the glaze perfect; and the
dragons, in green, have all that freedom and fancy for which the early
Chinese artists were remarkable.
The vase, Fig. 102, also belonging to the green-family, from Jacquemart,
is a beautiful example of this style of work. The figures are most
deftly drawn and colored. The subject we suppose to be historical.
[Illustration: FIG. 104.--_From Mr. Wales's Collection._]
The _famille-rose_, or red, describes a group where the rose and ruby
colors are the distinguishing ones. This fine color is produced from
gold. Nearly all of this work shows the color in low-relief.
Three very fine examples are given of this rose-family.
Fig. 103 is an octagon plate, with an exquisitely flowered and diapered
border, from the collection of Miss Wyman, of Cambridge.
Figs. 104 and 105 are equally good, from Mr. Wales's collection. In this
class rank the delicate egg-shell cups and saucers with "rose-backs," in
which Mr. Andrews's collection at New York is so rich.
In these three divisions is contained much of the very best productions
of China. The chrysanthemum and peony decoration was probably most in
use, and was made in greater quantities than any. Some of the older
pieces of this show the chrysanthemum in black (Fig. 99), as well as in
other colors. The body of this group is not so fine as the two later
descriptions, but the decoration is full of beauty and variety. In the
green and rose groups, the paste, the decoration, and the coloring,
reached perfection; and it is impossible to surpass the best work of
these classes.
[Illustration: FIG. 105.--_From Mr. Wales's Collection._]
But in all this work there is no imitation, no absolute copying of the
flower, the bud, the landscape, the lady.
The Chinese were fond of a symbolic or fabulous decoration. The
engraving (Fig. 106) pictures a conflict going on between the spirits or
demons of the water and the air; it is most free and effective. This
vase belongs to the collection of Mrs. Burlingame.
I saw in England a small blue vase, at Mr. Talbert's, upon which was
shown the Trinity (three figures) in a sort of balcony in the sky;
beneath them was a sea of fire, out of which appeared the dragon or
devil spitting venom at the Godhead, one of which was warding it off
with a drawn sword. It was curious, if not true, and showed their
notions of European beliefs, obtained, no doubt, from the early
missionaries.
The Dog of Fo is one of the sacred symbolic animals, and was placed at
the thresholds of temples to defend them from harm.
[Illustration: FIG. 106.--_From Mrs. Burlingame's Collection._]
He has feet armed with claws, a great grinning face full of teeth, a
curly mane, and might be supposed to be modeled, by an Oriental fancy,
from the lion. Sometimes this creature has been described as a chimera.
The fong-hoang also is sometimes pictured. This is a strange and
immortal bird, which descends from the regions of highest heaven to
bless mankind. It bears a fleshy head, soft silky feathers about its
neck, the body ending with a tail combining the feathers of the peacock
and the argus pheasant.
In very early centuries this bird was the symbol of royalty.
Other symbolic and sacred creatures are often pictured, among them the
kylin, which was believed to foretell good fortune.
"Its body is covered with scales; its branched head represents that of
the dragon; its four delicate feet are terminated by cloven hoofs,
resembling those of a stag; it is so gentle and benevolent,
notwithstanding its formidable aspect, that it avoids, in its light
step, to tread under foot the smallest worm."[11]
The dragon, symbol there of empire and power, is thus described:
"It is the largest of reptiles with feet and scales; it can make itself
dark or luminous, subtile and thin, or heavy and thick; can shorten or
lengthen itself at pleasure. In the spring it rises to the skies, in the
autumn it plunges into the water. There are the scaly dragon, the winged
dragon, the horned and the hornless dragon, and the dragon rolled within
itself, which has not yet taken its flight into the upper regions."[12]
The example (Fig. 101) shows this dragon as pictured by the Chinese.
The dragon is shown with five claws, for the imperial household; four
claws, for a lower rank in China; while in Japan the creature is usually
figured with but three claws. He appears to have been accepted as the
symbol of power, much as the lion has been with Occidental nations.
The white stag, the axis deer, and the crane, express longevity; the
mandarin duck, affection.
Symbolism also prevailed in the uses of colors and of flowers. Green and
vermilion upon the walls of a house belonged only to the emperors.
The primary colors were applied in this way:
Red belonged to fire;
Black to water;
Green to wood;
White to metal;
Earth was represented by a square;
Fire by a circle;
Water by a dragon;
Mountains by a hind.
Pots and vases were made for special occupations, such as those for
soldiers, governors, writers, etc. Jacquemart describes a bowl in his
collection:
"It is a cup of 'the learned;' at the bottom is seen the author, seated
under a fir-tree, in deep meditation; his _ssé_, placed near him,
permits him to modulate the songs he may have composed. On the exterior
we see the scholar, with his elbows on the table, surrounded by his
literary treasures. He reflects, and from his forehead, which he leans
on his hand, issues a stroke which unrolls into a vast phylactery, upon
which the painter has traced various scenes of the drama to which his
genius is giving birth." In Mr. Avery's collection is an admirable
example of this cup.
Vases, figures, etc., were made for religious uses, and upon the
household altars were placed vases for burning perfumes, cups and bowls
for wine, images of Fo and other representative deities.
Use was, at the beginning, the motive for the production of all fictile
dishes; and china was at first, and it has always been, made for the
purposes of the table. Twelve small dishes of fine porcelain were
presented to Mrs. Burlingame while at Peking; and the high compliment
was enhanced by the fact that they were sent to her unwashed after they
had been eaten from by the Chinese owner. The paste and glaze are
excellent, and the decoration of the outsides exquisite; but the insides
show painting of a much commoner type.
A gift of this kind is considered the height of courtesy in China, where
the visitor is treated as a friend.
In Chinese houses are found decorative pieces of the highest excellence
and value. It is no uncommon thing for a piece of rare china to sell for
a thousand dollars there.
Many of them bear inscriptions, such as: "A precious thing to offer;"
"Splendid, like the gold of the house of Jade;" "I am the friend of
Yu-Tchouen."
The chrysanthemo-pæonienne, the customary decoration, while most in use,
is, so far as I know, never seen on dinner-services sent to us.
I may ask attention to a characteristic of all the best Oriental art:
_it is not imitative_--not absolutely a copy.
The artist seizes the _spirit_, the action, the color, of a bird or
flower, and, by a few fine, keen strokes, fastens them upon the china.
No attempt is made to display a botanical or ornithological specimen.
All is free, bold, effective--a sketch, but not a slovenly one. It is
not easy for words to explain this.
Now, the methods of the Occidental and civilized peoples, as we call
them, are the reverse of this. At Sèvres and Dresden, for example, is to
be seen the most elaborate, careful, and detailed penciling or imitation
of a flower, or a face, or a landscape, requiring extreme and persistent
attention and labor.
This is copying--the _spirit_ is rarely seized; the other is art, and is
certainly the highest and the most satisfactory.
The Oriental feels;
The Occidental reasons.
The Oriental perceives and creates;
The Occidental criticises and copies.
Herein lies a supreme difference, sufficient to explain why so much of
the Oriental china touches the imagination, and why the European china
so rarely does.
The Oriental leads us away out of the region of the real and the
commonplace, into a state of ideal and spiritual-sensuous art. He is
never without body, the real part, the base of all life and art; but he
has glorified it by a display of the fine and subtile essence which may
be called its soul.
This is not always so. Often he is most clumsy and rude in form, and
common in decoration; but, when he is an _artist_, he is the finest we
know of.
It is probable that the Chinese had some blue equivalent to cobalt
[Illustration: FIG. 107.--_From Mrs. Burlingame's Collection._]
from an early day, but the real cobalt blue was introduced into China
from Europe during the Ming period (about 1500). They at once seized it,
and from it was produced that charming variety known as the "heavenly"
or "celestial" blue; the glaze, the clay, and the color, are all
perfect; and it certainly deserves its name of heavenly. A mania for it
has existed, and continues to exist, in Europe. One of the finest
collections in England--that of Mr. Rossetti, the poet--was recently
sold. In America, Mr. Avery and Mr. Hoe, of New York, Mr. Wales, of
Boston, and Mrs. Burlingame, of Cambridge, have many beautiful examples.
Fine pieces of this blue sell for from twenty-five to
[Illustration: FIG. 108.--_Celestial Blue Teapot._]
[Illustration: FIG. 109.--_Celestial Blue Snuff-Bottle._]
five hundred dollars. The color varies from light to dark; some
collectors choose one, some the other. Some pieces are known as the
"six-mark," and many attach an added value to this evidence; but it does
not seem to indicate greater perfection: many of the finest pieces I
have seen have no potter's mark. Within the last twenty-five years a
very active desire for these fine blues has broken out in England, which
does not abate. It has not been so keen in France, and prices have not
there gone so high.
[Illustration: FIG. 110.--_Pot in Boston Art Museum._]
This celestial blue was painted at Nanking, and is a wholly different
thing from the ordinary Canton blue of trade. It is probable that some
of this blue dates back to the Ming dynasty. The color was mostly
painted under the glaze.
This luminous blue is nothing like the turquoise, which also the Chinese
carried to great perfection. The turquoise was produced from copper, the
celestial from cobalt.
The pieces Figs. 107, 108, and 109 are excellent examples of the
celestial blue. Fig. 107 is a large vase of Mrs. Burlingame's, and has
the stately palm which is much used in this color. The vase is some
eighteen inches high. Fig. 108 is a delicately-formed teapot, with
exquisite glaze and paste, the blue showing in the reserves and along
the handle and spout. It was given to the writer by a gentleman in
Holland. Fig. 109 is a most dainty bit, a small snuff-bottle. There are
some few others in this country--two of them, mounted in silver, belong
to Mr. Schlesinger, of Boston.
[Illustration: FIG. 111.--_Incense-Pot, from Mr. Avery's Collection._]
The Art-Museum of Boston has now two exquisite pots of turquoise blue,
bought at the sale of Mr. Heard's collection for some six hundred
dollars. We picture one of these to show the form, and the dragon which
finishes the top (Fig. 110). The dragon is in dark red, the pot in
turquoise blue; but this blue has another and a rare quality: it is
covered all over with delicate spots or dots of the same color, what is
called "soufflé"--this is said to be produced by blowing the color
through a fine screen or gauze on to the clay.
The sea-greens (_céladons_) are among the rarest Chinese colors, and
some pieces are thought to be among the oldest--dating back possibly one
thousand years.
The violets and crimsons are also rare and beautiful; they are almost
always applied to vases and bottles; and are often flamed, splashed, or
clouded.
The imperial yellow, some pieces of which are in the Green Vaults at
Dresden, was never sold; it was made only for the royal family of
Peking. I have not seen it, but it is described as a very clear and
beautiful citron-color. Marryat mentions two pieces in Mr. Beckford's
collection as having been sold for their weight in gold; they would now
sell for ten times that.
The small incense-pot (Fig. 111) is from Mr. Avery's collection. It is a
very pure lemon-yellow, and is quaint in form and peculiar in every way.
Nothing can be better here than the condensed information prepared for
his catalogue by Mr. A. W. Franks. It is as follows:
"The tints are very numerous; we find, for instance, sea-green or
_céladon_, yellow, red, blue, purple, brown, black, and several
variegated hues. These glazes owe their color to various metallic
oxides, of which an account may be found in the 'History of
King-te-chin,' book vi., section xi. The exact tint must be in some
measure due to the amount of firing which the vase has undergone, and
the mottlings and other variations of color which they present must have
been to a certain extent accidental.
"Among these simple colors the first place must be assigned to the
bluish or sea-green tint, termed by the French _céladon_. It is probably
of considerable antiquity; and it is remarkable that the earliest
specimen of porcelain that can now be referred to as having been brought
to England before the Reformation--the cup of Archbishop Warham, at New
College, Oxford--is of this kind. By the Persians and Turks it is termed
_mertebani_, and it is much valued by them as a detector of poisonous
food. Specimens of this porcelain were sent to Lorenzo de' Medici, in
1487, by the Sultan of Egypt. It owes its preservation, no doubt, to its
great thickness. The surface is sometimes covered with impressed or
engraved patterns filled in with the glaze.
"Yellow glazed porcelain is much valued by collectors, owing to the
supposed scarcity of specimens of this color, it being the imperial
color of the reigning dynasty. Many of them, however, bear dates of the
Ming dynasty, when the imperial color was green, and can therefore have
no relation to the emperor.
"The red glaze is of considerable antiquity; some of the vases made
under the Sung dynasty at Tsing-cheou are mentioned as resembling
chiseled red jade. One tint, the _sang de boeuf_ of French collectors,
is much valued in China. Occasionally portions of red glazed vases
appear purple, owing probably to a different chemical condition of the
coloring-matter in those parts.
"Blue glazes must have come into use in very early times, as blue is
stated to have been the color of the vases of the Tsin dynasty (A. D.
265 to 419). The tints appear to have varied greatly, one of the most
celebrated being the blue of the sky after rain, which was the tint
selected for the palace use by the Emperor Chi-tsung (954 to 959).
"The purple glaze is another beautiful variety. Specimens of this color
are mentioned as early as the Sung dynasty (900 to 1279). The brown and
coffee-colored glazes do not appear to be very ancient, as Père
d'Entrecolles, writing in 1712, mentions them as recent inventions.
"A brilliant black glaze is by no means common, excepting where it is
used in combination with gilding, and is probably not very ancient, as a
brilliant black is said to have been invented under the reign of the
Emperor Keen-lung (1736 to 1795).
"The variegated and mottled glazes may properly be included under this
head, as they owe their appearance not so much to a difference in the
coloring-matter as in the mode in which it is applied. They are called
by the French _flambé_, and were no doubt originally accidentally
produced. According to Père d'Entrecolles (second letter, section xi.),
such vases are called _Yao pien_, or transmutation-vases.
"It is probable that many of the specimens which are covered with single
glazes are of a coarse ware--rather a kind of stone-ware than true
porcelain. Some of the glazes have been applied at a somewhat lower
temperature, called by the French _demi-grand feu_."
Porcelain-painting is done in two ways: under the glaze directly on the
clay, or upon the glaze. Most of it is upon the glaze, into which it is
melted by a mild heat. To show to the uninitiated what time, talent, and
labor, are applied to pottery and porcelain, it may be well to state
that fine work requires many firings, and that the delicate teacup,
which fools hardly look at, passes through some seventy hands to reach
its perfectness! In some eyes a big thing (even if ugly) is admirable; a
small thing, however beautiful, is contemptible. In the eye of God is
anything small, anything large?
ENAMELING is a style of glaze mostly applied to a stronger, more opaque
body, often not porcelain at all. The enamel, which is made from oxide
of tin, may be applied in masses of color upon the glaze so as to
produce the effect of slight relief, or cameo. Much of it is beautiful,
but it often lacks the fineness and preciousness of china.
Of the EGG-SHELL china most have seen excellent examples brought from
Japan, where it is now made. The cups are turned down to an extreme
thinness, almost to that of thick writing-paper, before the last glaze
is applied. The oldest egg-shell was a pure white; later, flowers in
colors were applied.
[Illustration: FIG. 112.--_Grains-of-Rice Pot._]
The "reticulated" cups are very curious and interesting; the inner cup
for holding the tea is surrounded by another pierced through its side
with a variety of designs. It is difficult to see how these could have
been baked together without fusing and fastening them.
The "grains-of-rice" cups are made by cutting the design through the
body, which spaces are then filled with a translucent glaze; the cut
spaces show when held up to the light, and resemble in most cases grains
of rice. The engraving (Fig. 112) represents a pot in Mr. Avery's
collection.
Just when the "crackle" decoration was applied cannot well be known, but
it was in vogue in the beginning of the Ming dynasty.
It seems that the purity of the paste was greater during this period
than later, and that the colors, therefore, became more brilliant.
"Crackle" china has long been prized, and much sought for, especially
the best specimens. This ware shows a network of veins covering the
whole piece, the lines of which are sometimes filled with a color such
as brown, black, green, etc. It remains a mystery to us how this effect
is produced, though it is still made. Marryat seems to believe that the
crackle is produced in the glaze, and possibly by subjecting it, when
heated, to sudden cold, which causes the contraction and crackle; a
close examination shows that the crackles are in the body itself, and
are afterward covered with the glaze. This decoration is curious rather
than beautiful. The crackles vary in size from a half-inch to a very
fine network; and this last is most valued.
Mr. Franks gives the following as the result of his investigations:
"This is one of the most peculiar productions of the art of the Chinese
potter, and has not been successfully imitated elsewhere. Occasionally
European pieces assume a crackled appearance, but this has not been
intentionally produced, and has been subsequent to the baking.
"There is a considerable variety in the colored glazes which are thus
crackled. Some colors, such as turquoise-blue and apple-green, seem
nearly always to assume a crackled appearance; others, such as the reds,
are rarely affected. The color chiefly selected is a grayish white; the
forms are archaic, and with ornaments in dark brown, occasionally gilt.
The crackled appearance, though now always artificial, doubtless owes
its origin in the first instance to accident, and at an early period.
Some of the vases of the Sung dynasty (A. D. 960 to 1270) are noticed as
being crackled. The productions of the two brothers Chang, who lived
under that dynasty, were distinguished by one being crackled and the
other not. Crackled vases were called 'Tsui-khi-yao,' under the southern
Sung dynasty (1127 to 1279), and are thus described in the 'History of
King-te-chin:' 'The clay employed was coarse and compact, the vases were
thick and heavy; some were of a rice-white, others pale blue. They used
to take some Hoa-chi (steatite), powder it, and mix it with the glaze.
The vases exhibited cracks running in every direction, as though broken
into a thousand pieces. The cracks were rubbed over with Indian-ink or a
red color, and the superfluity removed. Then was seen a network of
charming veins, red or black, imitating the cracks of ice. There were
also vases on which blue flowers were painted on the crackled ground.'
[Illustration: FIG. 113.--_Crackle Vase._]
"A different mode of making the crackles is described in another Chinese
work, and is as follows: 'After covering the vases with glaze, they are
exposed to a very hot sun, and, when they have become hot, they are
plunged into cold water for a moment. On being baked, they appear
covered with innumerable cracks.' The way in which the size of the
crackle is regulated seems to be indicated in one of the receipts for
making crackle-vases, given in the 'History of King-te-chin' (page 214),
from which we learn that the material of the glaze was to be finely or
coarsely washed, according to the size of the crackle required.
"The difference between the paste and the thick glaze is well
illustrated by fragments of ancient vases, some of which are exhibited.
The interior is of a coarse paste, nearly resembling stone-ware, and of
a buff or even pale-red color. This is coated on both sides with a
white material, in which alone the crackles appear. This illustrates a
passage in the 'History of King-te-chin,' where porcelain is spoken of
as having red bones. Such vases would not be transparent."
[Illustration: FIG. 114.--_From Mr. Avery's Collection._]
The Japanese now produce a crackle under the glaze, and also a very fine
crackle in the glaze itself; which last is probably much the easiest to
do.
Fig. 113, copied from M. Jacquemart's work, represents a rather
clumsily-shaped vase with the larger crackle, which is less prized. Fig.
114 is finely crackled, and is most subtile in form. It is in Mr.
Avery's collection.
At the end of this chapter will be found some of the most important
_marks_ for dates, etc.
These few are used by the Chinese as symbolic:
[Illustration: _Pearl._]
[Illustration: _Sonorous Stone._]
The _Pearl_ is the symbol of talent, and was sometimes used to mark
pieces intended for poets and literary men; the _Sonorous Stone_ was for
high judicial functionaries; the _Tablet of Honor_ for men in official
positions; the _Sacred Axe_ for warriors; the "Cockscomb" promised
longevity; and the "Outang or Leaf," the "Shell," the "Precious
Articles," had each a significance, and often indicate pieces of china
intended as presents or as expressions of honor.
[Illustration: _Tablet of Honor._]
[Illustration: _Sacred Axe._]
[Illustration: _Cockscomb (flower)._]
[Illustration: _Outang._]
[Illustration: _Shell._]
[Illustration: _Precious Articles._]
It is probable that many of the best examples of Chinese porcelain date
from the Ming dynasty, some of which are to be found in our public and
private collections. The history of the manufacture there since that
time is thus summed up by Mr. Franks:
"The troubles of the later emperors of the Ming dynasty, who succeeded
one another rapidly, and were constantly at war with the Tartars,
probably caused the porcelain-works to fall into decay; we hear, at any
rate, nothing of their productions, nor have any dated specimens been
seen.
"With the accession of the Tsing dynasty of Tartars, still occupying the
throne of China, a new period of activity commenced. Under Kang-he, the
second emperor of the dynasty (1661 to 1722), a great impulse was given
to the ceramic arts. The long and peaceful reign of this emperor,
extending to sixty-one years, his great understanding, and the
assistance perhaps of the Jesuit missionaries, led to many improvements
in the porcelain-manufacture, and to the introduction of several new
colors. It is probably to this reign that we may refer most of the old
specimens of Chinese porcelain that are to be seen in collections, even
when they bear earlier dates. The wares made under his successor,
Yung-ching (1723 to 1736), do not appear to have been remarkable.
"The fourth emperor, Keen-lung (1736 to 1795), reigned for sixty years,
when he abdicated. A large quantity of fine china was made during his
long reign, much of it exhibiting very rich and minute decoration. Under
his successors the manufacture appears again to have diminished in
excellence; and the destruction caused by the rebellion of the Taipings
not only greatly interfered with the extent of production, but caused
the downfall of the most celebrated of the fabrics--that of
King-te-chin.
"As we have already said, however, the native accounts do not furnish
much information that can be rendered available; but they show very
clearly that at all times the porcelain-makers were in the habit of
copying the works of their predecessors, and instances are given where
they have even succeeded in imposing upon the best judges of their own
country.
"The places at which manufactories of porcelain have existed or still
exist in China are very numerous, no less than fifty-seven being
recorded in the 'History of King-te-chin.' They extend to thirteen of
the eighteen provinces into which the country is divided, but are
especially numerous in Honan, Chihkiang, and Kiangsi, probably owing to
the presence of the materials for the manufacture in these provinces.
The following is a summary:
Chihli 5
Keang-nan 5
Shansi 5
Shantung 2
Honan 13
Shensi 4
Kansuh 1
Chihkiang 8
Kiangsi 8
Szechuen 1
Fokien 2
Kwangtung 1
Hoonan 2
"Of all these manufactories, the most famous appears to be that of
King-te-chin, in the province of Kiangsi. It has long been the site of a
fabrique, as in A. D. 583 the then emperor ordered the inhabitants of
the district now called King-te-chin to send him porcelain vases. The
old name was Chang-nan-chin, and the present one was assumed in the
period King-te (A. D. 1004 to 1007), whence its name. In 1712 Père
d'Entrecolles states that there were three thousand porcelain furnaces
in this town, which found employment for an immense multitude of people.
The manufactory has suffered severely, as we have already stated, during
the rebellion of the Taipings.
"Porcelain is termed by the Chinese _Yao_, a name which seems to have
been brought into use at the commencement of the Tang dynasty (A. D.
618), before which it had been called _Tao_. The word 'porcelain' is
European, possibly Italian, and is supposed to have been derived from
the similarity of the glazed surface to that of the cowrie-shell
(_porcellana_), which itself took its name from its form (_porcella_, a
little pig). Marco Polo employs the word in both senses. In French
mediæval inventories the word '_pourcelaine_' is often found, and
evidently denoted a substance which could be sculptured. M. de Laborde
has collected a number of quotations, in the valuable 'Glossaire'
appended to his catalogue, of the enamels in the Louvre, and has come to
the conclusion that mother-of-pearl was intended; it will, however, be
safer to consider that the word was used for any kind of shell, the
cowrie and other shells being as well, or even better, adapted for
carving than mother-of-pearl. In later inventories the word seems to
have been used both for shell and Oriental porcelain.
"The claim of greatest antiquity that has been hitherto put forward for
specimens found out of the limits of the Celestial Empire have been in
favor of the little Chinese bottles, which were stated by Rossellini and
others to have been found in undisturbed Egyptian tombs, dating from not
less than 1800 years B. C. This claim has, however, been disallowed. The
bottles are of good white porcelain, painted in colors, and bearing
inscriptions. Now, we have seen that the Chinese themselves do not claim
a greater antiquity for the invention of porcelain than between B. C.
206 and A. D. 87. Color-painting must have been introduced at a much
later date. The inscriptions are in the grass-character, which was not
invented till B. C. 48, and contain passages from poems which were not
written till the eighth century of our era. They are, in fact, identical
with snuff-bottles still for sale in China. Their introduction,
therefore, into Egyptian tombs must have been due to the fraud of Arab
workmen. The whole subject has been gone into by M. Stanislas Julien, in
the preface to the 'History of King-te-chin,' as well as by others.
"The next claim has been made on behalf of the _murrhine_ vases of the
ancients, which are described as 'cooked in Parthian fires.' Now, it is
probable that, at the commencement of our era, Chinese porcelain was not
far advanced beyond pottery or stone-ware, and little superior to the
so-called Egyptian porcelain. No fragments of Chinese vases have been
found with Greek or Roman antiquities, nor of imitations of them in
other materials, so as to correspond with the false murrhine of the
ancients. It is therefore far more probable, as has been suggested by
Mr. Nesbitt, in his notes on the 'History of Glass-making,' that the
murrhine vases were made of agates and other hard stones, of which the
colors had been modified in the East by heating and staining. The false
murrhines would then be the glass bowls imitating hard stones, but with
various strange tints not to be found in natural stones.
"In 1171 we first find any distinct mention of porcelain out of China.
In that year Saladin sent to Nur-ed-din various presents, among which
were forty pieces of Chinese porcelain.
"Marco Polo, traveling in 1280, visited one of the sites of the
porcelain manufacture, and mentions that it was exported all over the
world. It is probable that he may have been the means of calling the
attention of his countrymen to this production of the far East. Many
other notices from travelers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
might be cited. It was probably through Egypt that it reached Europe; at
any rate, a present of porcelain vases was sent by the Sultan of Egypt,
in 1487, to Lorenzo de' Medici. To the Portuguese is no doubt due the
first direct importation of Chinese wares into Europe, in which they
were followed by the various India companies of Holland, England,
France, Sweden, etc.
"It may be convenient shortly to describe the mode of making porcelain
in China, as derived from the letters of Père d'Entrecolles (1712 to
1722), and the 'History of King-te-chin,' in which M. Julien has
reproduced the Chinese plates illustrating the processes.
"Porcelain in China is usually formed of two materials: the one, termed
in Chinese _Pe-tun-tse_, is a white, fusible material--a mixture of
feldspar and quartz, obtained from a pounded rock by repeated washing,
and formed into cakes or bricks, whence its Chinese name, 'white-clay
bricks;' the other, termed Kaolin from its locality, is infusible, being
a hydrated silicate of alumina, derived from the decomposed feldspar of
granite; this is also formed into cakes. These two materials, having
been thoroughly cleansed, are kneaded together in varying proportions,
and form a clay ready for the potter. The wet clay is turned on the
wheel or potter's table, and, after passing through the hands of several
workmen, who add handles and other accessories made in moulds, smooth
the surface, etc., the vessel is put out to dry, the foot still
remaining a solid mass; any decoration in blue, or other colors which
require to be highly fired, is then added. The glaze is next applied,
either by dipping, or by blowing it on with a tube. This strengthens the
vessel sufficiently to enable the workmen to fashion the foot on the
wheel, and to inscribe any mark; this being likewise coated with glaze,
the vessel is ready for the furnace. The pieces of porcelain are packed
in clay seggars to protect them from injury, and placed according to the
degree of heat which each specimen requires. The furnace is then
lighted, the entrance walled up, and it is kept supplied with wood
during a night and a day, when it is allowed to cool and the porcelain
removed. If enamel-colors are to be applied, it then passes into the
hands of the painters, who are very numerous, and each confined to his
own special detail; any gilding or silvering is added at this stage. It
is then baked again, at a much lower temperature, in a small muffle or
an open furnace. It should be mentioned that the glaze is formed of
Pe-tun-tse, mixed with fern-ashes and lime, but other materials are
occasionally used; for instance, Hwa-chi (steatite) is employed,
sometimes mixed with the glaze, as well as sometimes with the paste of
the porcelain. Any colors which will bear to be highly fired, and are
required to cover the whole surface, are mixed with the glaze before it
is applied.
"There is considerable difficulty in distinguishing glazed vases of
Chinese pottery from true porcelain, as the colored glaze in many cases
conceals the material, and the thickness prevents their being
translucent--a distinguishing quality of porcelain. The substance of
many of the vases is coarse, sometimes gray or even red, and such as
would, in European fabriques, be termed stone-ware. By Chinese writers,
however, no distinction seems to be made, and even enamels on copper are
included in the term they use for porcelain. It has, therefore, been
thought best to class together glazed Chinese pottery and porcelain,
though some of the specimens are undoubtedly stone-ware."
The key to Oriental decoration may be expressed by the word
_individualism_. The artist did draw from the "depths of his moral
consciousness," and did not copy blindly. He seems to have expressed
what he _felt_, rather than what he saw. His perception and arrangement
of color seem to have been inspired, not learned. He is daring; he does
not hesitate to hang his ladies in a balcony up in the air above the
procession passing beneath, as may be seen in a very ancient vase
belonging to Mrs. Gridley Bryant, of Boston; he does not fear to put
blue leaves to his trees, or to make a green horse; his butterfly is as
large as a man, if he wishes to show a figure or a mass of color; his
boats are smaller than the passenger, if that suits his fancy; he
attempts little perspective, and it is, we may say, impossible on a
china bowl; symmetry he abhors; pairs do not exist.
What is the result? We see it in the porcelain of China and Japan, the
shawls and carpets of India, the pottery of the Persians and the Moors,
the architecture of Karnak and the Alhambra, all of which are satisfying
to the eye and to the taste.
I believe they had no schools of art; they were not _taught_ to do what
some one else had done, to copy a master or to copy Nature, or to think
symmetry beauty, or the circle the perfect line.
The artist was, as he ought to be, a law to himself; he saw what _he_
saw, and felt what _he_ felt, and he expressed these in his own way; not
in Titian's way, or Rembrandt's way, or Giorgione's way. There is,
therefore, a freedom, a freshness, an _abandon_ about this work that we
find nowhere else, and a charm which never tires.
We are intellectualists rather than artists; and, moreover, we are
ruined by cheap and incompetent criticism, the whole gospel of which is,
"Always condemn, never praise." Too much writing _about_ art and too
little doing it, is the fashion of to-day; and he who does least finds
most fault with him who creates. The artist is the creator, the critic
the destroyer; and yet the last values himself most! The "third estate"
did not rule in China.
If _we_ are to have a true and high artistic expression, our artists,
must dare; and we must allow them to dare; we must encourage rather than
discourage.
We must, above all, get rid of the base old notion that head-work is
divine and "gentlemanly," hand-work ignoble and vulgar: both are divine,
and when the two are combined we shall see the finest possible man--an
_artist_, whether he works with paint, marble, wood, clay, or metal.
MARKS, ETC.--The following copies of marks, as translated by Mr. Franks,
will be found useful:
[Illustration: 1.
A. D. 1721.]
[Illustration: 2.
A. D. 1078 to 1086.]
[Illustration: 3.
A. D. 1368 to 1399.]
[Illustration: 4.
A. D. 1403 to 1425.]
[Illustration: 5.
A. D. 1426 to 1436.]
[Illustration: 6.
A. D. 1465 to 1488.]
[Illustration: 7.
A. D. 1465 to 1488.]
[Illustration: 8.
A. D. 1488 to 1506.]
[Illustration: 9.
A. D. 1506 to 1522.]
[Illustration: 10.
A. D. 1522 to 1567.]
[Illustration: 11.
A. D. 1567 to 1573.]
[Illustration: 12.
A. D. 1573 to 1620.]
[Illustration: 13.
A. D. 1644 to 1661.]
[Illustration: 14.
A. D. 1661 to 1722.]
[Illustration: 15.
A. D. 1723 to 1736.]
[Illustration: 16.
A. D. 1736 to 1795.]
[Illustration: 17.
A. D. 1796 to 1821.]
[Illustration: 18.
A. D. 1821 to 1851.]
[Illustration: 19.
A. D. 1851 to 1862.]
[Illustration: 20.
A. D. 1862 to 1875.]
[Illustration: 21.
A. D. 1875.]
[Illustration: 22.
A. D. 1004 to 1097.]
[Illustration: 23.
A. D. 1403 to 1425.]
[Illustration: 24.
A. D. 1426 to 1436.]
[Illustration: 25.
A. D. 1723 to 1736.]
[Illustration: 26.
A. D. 1736 to 1795.]
[Illustration: 27.
A. D. 1736 to 1795.]
[Illustration: 28.
A. D. 1796 to 1821.]
[Illustration: 29.
A. D. 1821 to 1851.]
[Illustration: 30.
A. D. 1851 to 1862.]
[Illustration: 31.
A. D. 1862 to 1875.]