[The familiar field for travellers.] The environs of Manila, the Pasig,
and the Lagoon of Bay, which are visited by every fresh arrival in the
colony, have been so often described that I have restricted myself
to a few short notes upon these parts of the country, and intend to
relate in detail only my excursions into the south-eastern provinces
of Luzon, Camarines, and Albay, and the islands which lie to the east
of them, Samar and Leyte. Before doing this, however, it will not be
out of place to glance at the map and give some slight description
of their geographical conditions.
[Archipelago's great extent.] The Philippine Archipelago lies between
Borneo and Formosa, and separates the northern Pacific Ocean from the
China Sea. It covers fourteen and one-half degrees of latitude, and
extends from the Sulu Islands in the south, in the fifth parallel of
north latitude, to the Babuyans in the north in latitude 19° 30'. If,
however, the Bashee or Batanes Islands be included, its area may be
said to extend to the twenty-first parallel of north latitude. But
neither southwards or northwards does Spanish rule extend to these
extreme limits, nor, in fact, does it always reach the far interior
of the larger islands. From the eastern to the western extremity of
the Philippines the distance is about nine degrees of longitude. Two
islands, Luzon, with an area of two thousand, and Mindanao, with one of
more than one thousand five hundred square miles, are together larger
than all the rest. The seven next largest islands are Palawan, Samar,
Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Negros, and Cebu; of which the first measures
about two hundred and fifty, and the last about one hundred square
miles. Then come Bohol and Masbate, each about half the size of Cebu;
twenty smaller islands, still of some importance; and numerous tiny
islets, rocks, and reefs.
[Favored by position and conditions.] The Philippines are extremely
favored by their position and conditions. Their extension from
north to south, over 16° of latitude, obtains for them a variety of
climate which the Dutch Indies, whose largest diameter, their extent
in latitude north and south of the equator being but trifling, runs
from the east to the west, by no means enjoy. The advantages accruing
from their neighborhood to the equator are added to those acquired
from the natural variety of their climate; and the produce of both the
torrid and temperate zones, the palm-tree and the fir, the pine-apple,
the corn ear and the potato, flourish side by side upon their shores.
[Harbors and water highways.] The larger islands contain vast inland
seas, considerable navigable rivers, and many creeks running far
into the interior; they are rich, too, in safe harbors and countless
natural ports of refuge for ships in distress. Another attribute
which, though not to be realized by a glance at the map, is yet one
of the most fortunate the Islands possess, is the countless number
of small streams which pour down from the inland hills, and open out,
ere they reach the ocean, into broad estuaries; up these watercourses
coasting vessels of shallow draught can sail to the very foot of the
mountains and take in their cargo. [Soil and sea alike productive.] The
fertility of the soil is unsurpassed; both the sea around the coasts
and the inland lakes swarm with fish and shell-fish, while in the whole
archipelago there is scarcely a wild beast to be found. It seems that
only two civets happen to appear: Miro (paradoxurus philippinensis
Tem.) and galong (viverra tangalunga Gray). Luzon surpasses all the
other islands, not only in size, but in importance; and its fertility
and other natural superiority well entitle it to be called, as it is
by Crawfurd, "the most beautiful spot in the tropics."
[Luzon.] The mainland of the isle of Luzon stretches itself in a
compact long quadrangle, twenty-five miles broad, from 18° 40' north
latitude to the Bay of Manila (14° 30'); and then projects, amid
large lakes and deep creeks, a rugged promontory to the east, joined
to the main continent by but two narrow isthmuses which stretch east
and west of the large inland Lagoon of Bay. Many traces of recent
upheavals betoken that the two portions were once separated and
formed two distinct islands. The large eastern promontory, well-nigh
as long as the northern portion, is nearly cut in half by two deep
bays, which, starting from opposite points on the south-eastern
and north-western coasts, almost merge their waters in the center
of the peninsula; the Bay of Ragay, and the Bay of Sogod. In fact,
the southern portion of Luzon may be better described as two small
peninsulas lying next to one another in parallel positions, and joined
together by a narrow neck of land scarcely three miles broad. Two small
streams which rise nearly in the same spot and pour themselves into
the two opposite gulfs, make the separation almost complete, and form
at the same time the boundary between the province of Tayabas on the
west, and that of Camarines on the east. The western portion, indeed,
consists almost entirely of the first-named district, and the eastern
is divided into the provinces of North Camarines, South Camarines,
and Albay. The first of these three is divided from Tayabas by the
boundary already mentioned, and from South Camarines by a line drawn
from the southern shore of the Bay of San Miguel on the north to the
opposite coast. The eastern extremity of the peninsula forms the
province of Albay; separated from South Camarines by a line which
runs from Donzol, on the south coast, northwards across the volcano
of Mayon, and which then, inclining to the west, reaches the northern
shore. A look at the map will make these explanations clearer.
[The monsoons.] There are two seasons in the Philippines, the wet and
the dry. The south-west monsoon brings the rainy season, at the time of
our summer, to the provinces which lie exposed to the south and west
winds. On the northern and eastern coasts the heaviest downpours take
place (in our winter months) during the north-eastern monsoons. The
ruggedness of the country and its numerous mountains cause, in
certain districts, many variations in these normal meteorological
conditions. The dry season lasts in Manila from November till June
(duration of the north-east monsoon); rain prevails during the
remaining months (duration of the south-west monsoon). The heaviest
rainfall occurs in September; March and April are frequently free from
rain. From October to February inclusively the weather is cool and dry
(prevalence of N.W., N., and N.E. winds); March, April, and May are
warm and dry (prevalence of E.N.E., E., and E.S.E. winds); and from
June till the end of September it is humid and moderately warm.
There has been an observatory for many years past in Manila under
the management of the Jesuits. The following is an epitome of the
yearly meteorological report for 1867, for which I am indebted to
Professor Dove:
Barometrical readings.--The average height of the mercury was, in 1867,
755.5; in 1865, 754.57; and in 1866, 753.37 millimeters.
In 1867 the difference between the highest and lowest barometrical
readings was not more than 13.96 millimetres, and would have been
much less if the mercury had not been much depressed by storms in July
and September. The hourly variations amounted to very few millimeters.
Daily reading of the barometer.--The mercury rises in the early morning
till about 9 a.m., it then falls up to 3 or 4 p.m., from then it rises
again till 9 p.m., and then again falls till towards day-break. Both
the principal atmospheric currents prevalent in Manila exercise
a great influence over the mercury in the barometer; the northern
current causes it to rise (to an average height of 756 millimeters),
the southern causes it to fall (to about 753 millimeters).
Temperature.--The heat increases from January till the end of May,
and then decreases till December. Average yearly temperature, 27.9°
C. The highest temperature ever recorded (on the 15th of April at 3
p.m.) was 37.7° C.; the lowest (on the 14th of December and on the
30th of January at 6 a.m.), 19.4° C. Difference, 18.3° C. [59]
Thermometrical variations.--The differences between the highest
and lowest readings of the thermometer were, in January, 13.9°;
in February, 14.2°; in March, 15°; in April, 14.6°; in May, 11.1°;
in June, 9.9°; in July, 9°; in August, 9°; in September, 10°; in
October, 11.9°; in November, 11.8°; and in December, 11.7°.
Coolest months.--November, December and January, with northerly winds.
Hottest months.--April and May. Their high temperature is caused by
the change of monsoon from the north-east to the south-west. The
state of the temperature is most normal from June to September;
the variations are least marked during this period owing to the
uninterrupted rainfall and the clouded atmosphere.
Daily variations of the thermometer.--The coolest portion of the day
is from 6 to 7 a.m.; the heat gradually increases, reaches its maximum
about 2 or 3 p.m., and then again gradually decreases. During some
hours of the night the temperature remains unchanged, but towards
morning it falls rapidly.
[Winds.] The direction of the wind is very regular at all seasons
of the year, even when local causes make it vary a little. In the
course of a twelvemonth the wind goes around the whole compass. In
January and February north winds prevail; in March and April they blow
from the south-east; and in May, June, July, August, and September,
from the south-west. In the beginning of October they vary between
south-east and south-west, and settle down towards the close of the
month in the north-east, in which quarter they remain tolerably fixed
during the two following months. The two changes of monsoon always
take place in April and May, and in October. As a rule, the direction
of both monsoons preserves its equilibrium; but in Manila, which is
protected towards the north by a high range of hills, the north-east
monsoon is often diverted to the south-east and north-west. The same
cause gives greater force to the south-west wind.
[Sunshine and rain.] The sky is generally partially clouded; entirely
sunny days are of rare occurrence, in fact, they only occur from
January to April during the north-east monsoons. Number of rainy days
in the year, 168. The most continuous and heaviest rain falls from
June till the end of October. During this period the rain comes down
in torrents; in September alone the rainfall amounted to 1.5 meters,
nearly as much as falls in Berlin in the course of the whole year,
3,072.8 millimeters of rain fell in the twelve month; but this is
rather more than the average.
The evaporation only amounted to 2,307.3 millimeters; in ordinary
years it is generally about equal to the downfall, taking the early
averages, not those of single months.
The average daily evaporation was about 6.3 millimeters.
[Storms.] The changes of monsoons are often accompanied with tremendous
storms; during one of these, which occurred in September, the velocity
of the wind was as much as thirty-seven or thirty-eight meters per
second. An official report of the English vice-consul mentions a
typhoon which visited the Islands on September 27, 1865, and which
did much damage at Manila, driving seventeen vessels ashore.
* * * * *
[Provinces and districts.] The Philippines are divided into provinces
(P), and districts (D), each of which is administered by an alcalde of
the 1st (A1), 2nd (A2), or 3rd class (A3) (de termino, de ascenso, de
entrada); by a political and military governor (G), or by a commandant
(C). In some provinces an alcalde of the 3rd class is appointed as
coadjutor to the governor. These divisions are frequently changed.
[Population.] The population is estimated approximately at about
five millions.
[Language and dialects.] In spite of the long possessions of the
Islands by the Spaniards their language has scarcely acquired any
footing there. A great diversity of languages and dialects prevails;
amongst them the Bisayan, Tagalog, Ilocano, Bicol, Pangasinan, and
Pampangan are the most important.
[Luzon Provinces and their languages and populations.]
Island of Luzon
Rank of Rank of Name Prevailing Population Pueblos
Official District Dialect
G. P. Abra Ilocano 34,337 5
A1. P. Albay Bicol 330,121 34
A2. P. Bataan Tagalog,
Pampangan 44,794 10
A1. P. Batangas Tagalog 280,100
D. Benguet Igorot,
Ilocano,
Pangasinan 8,465
D. Bontoc Suflin,
Ilocano,
Igorot 7,052
A1. P. Bulacan Tagalog 240,341 23
A1. P. Cagayan Ibanag,
Itanes,
Idayan,
Gaddan,
Ilocano,
Dadaya,
Apayao,
Malaneg 64,437 16
A2. P. Camarines Norte Tagalog,
Bicol 25,372 7
A2(?) P. Camarines Sur Bicol 81,047 31
A3. P. Cavite Spanish,
Tagalog 109,501 17
A1. P. Ilocos Norte Ilocano,
Tinguian 134,767 12
A1. P. Ilocos Sur Ilocano 105,251 18
C. D. Infanta Tagalog 7,813 2
G. P. Isabela Ibanag,
Gaddan,
Tagalog 29,200 9
A1. P. Laguna Tagalog,
Spanish 121,251 25
D. Lepanto Igorot,
Ilocano 8,851 48
3A1. P. Manila Tagalog,
Spanish,
Chinese 323,683 23
C. D. Morong Tagalog 44,239 12
A2. P. Nueva Ecija Tagalog,
Pangasinan,
Pampangan,
Ilocano 84,520 12
A3. P. Nueva Vizcaya Gaddan,
Ifugao,
Ibilao,
Ilongote 32,961 8
A1. P. Pampanga Pampangan,
Ilocano 193,423 24
A1. P. Pangasinan Pangasinan,
Ilocano 253,472 25
D. Porac Pampangan 6,950 1
C. D. Principe Tagalog,
Ilocano,
Ilongote 3,609 3
D. Saltan Gaddan 6,540
A2. P. Tayabas Tagalog,
Bicol 93,918 17
D. Tiagan Different
Igorot
dialects 5,723
G. P. Union Ilocano 88,024 11
A2. P. Zambales Zambal,
Ilocano,
Acta,
Pampangan,
Tagalog,
Pangasinan 72,936 16
[Bisayas.]
Islands between Luzon and Mindanao
G a3. P. Antique (Panay) Bisayan 88,874 13
G a3. P. Bohol Bisayan 187,327 26
C. Burias Bicol 1,786 1
G a3. P. Capiz (Panay) Bisayan 206,288 26
G a2. P. Cebu Bisayan 318,715 44
G a3. P. Iloilo (Panay) Bisayan 565,500 35
G a3. P. Leyte Bisayan 170,591 28
D. Masbate, Ticao Bisayan 12,457 9
A2. P. Mindoro Tagalog 23,050 10
G a3. P. Negros Cebuan,
Panayan,
Bisayan 144,923 31
D. Romblon Bisayan 21,579 4
G a3. P. Samar Bisayan 146,539 28
[Mindanao.]
Mindanao
D. Cotabato Spanish,
Manobo 1,103 1
G a3. D. Misamis (J) Bisayan 63,639 14
G a3. D. Surigao (J) 24,104 12
D. Zamboanga (J) Mandaya,
Spanish 9,608 2
G a3. D. Davao Bisayan 1,537
[Outlying Islands.]
Distant Islands
G a3. P. Batanes Ibanag 8,381 6
G a3. P. Calamianes Coyuvo,
Agutaino Calamiano 17,703 5
G. P. Marianas Chamorro, Carolino 5,940 6
[Unreliability of government reports.] The statistics of the above
table are taken from a small work, by Sr. [Vicente] Barrantes,
the Secretary-General of the Philippines; but I have arranged
them differently to render them more easily intelligible to the
eye. Although Sr. Barrantes had the best official materials at his
disposal, too much value must not be attributed to his figures,
for the sources from which he drew them are tainted with errors
to an extent that can hardly be realized in Europe. For example,
he derives the following contradictory statements from his official
sources:--The population of Cavite is set down as 115,300 and 65,225;
that of Mindoro as 45,630, and 23,054; that of Manila as 230,443,
and 323,683; and that of Capiz as 788,947, and 191,818.