CARACCIOLO, FRANCESCO, PRINCE (1732-1799), Neapolitan admiral and
revolutionist, was born on the 18th of January 1732, of a noble
Neapolitan family. He entered the navy and learned his seamanship under
Rodney. He fought with distinction in the British service in the
American War of Independence, against the Barbary pirates, and against
the French at Toulon under Lord Hotham. The Bourbons placed the greatest
confidence in his skill. When on the approach of the French to Naples
King Ferdinand IV. and Queen Mary Caroline fled to Sicily on board
Nelson's ship the "Vanguard" (December 1798), Caracciolo escorted them
on the frigate "Sannita." He was the only prominent Neapolitan trusted
by the king, but even the admiral's loyalty was shaken by Ferdinand's
cowardly flight. On reaching Palermo Caracciolo asked permission to
return to Naples to look after his own private affairs (January 1799).
This was granted, but when he arrived at Naples he found all the
aristocracy and educated middle classes infatuated with the French
revolutionary ideas, and he himself was received with great enthusiasm.
He seems at first to have intended to live a retired life; but, finding
that he must either join the Republican party or escape to Procida, then
in the hands of the English, in which case even his intimates would
regard him as a traitor and his property would have been confiscated, he
was induced to adhere to the new order of things and took command of the
republic's naval forces. Once at sea, he fought actively against the
British and Neapolitan squadrons and prevented the landing of some
Royalist bands. A few days later all the French troops in Naples, except
500 men, were recalled to the north of Italy.
Caracciolo then attacked Admiral Thurn, who from the "Minerva" commanded
the Royalist fleet, and did some damage to that vessel. But the British
fleet on the one hand and Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo's army on the other
made resistance impossible. The Republicans and the 500 French had
retired to the castles, and Caracciolo landed and tried to escape in
disguise. But he was betrayed and arrested by a Royalist officer, who on
the 29th of June brought him in chains on board Nelson's flagship the
"Foudroyant." It is doubtful whether Caracciolo should have been
included in the capitulation concluded with the Republicans in the
castles, as that document promised life and liberty to those who
surrendered before the blockade of the forts, whereas he was arrested
afterwards, but as the whole capitulation was violated the point is
immaterial. Moreover, the admiral's fate was decided even before his
capture, because on the 27th of June the British minister, Sir W.
Hamilton, had communicated to Nelson Queen Mary Caroline's wish that
Caracciolo should be hanged. As soon as he was brought on board, Nelson
ordered Thurn to summon a court martial composed of Caracciolo's former
officers, Thurn himself being a personal enemy of the accused. The court
was held on board the "Foudroyant," which was British territory--a most
indefensible proceeding. Caracciolo was charged with high treason; he
had asked to be judged by British officers, which was refused, nor was
he allowed to summon witnesses in his defence. He was condemned to death
by three votes to two, and as soon as the sentence was communicated to
Nelson the latter ordered that he should be hanged at the yard-arm of
the "Minerva" the next morning, and his body thrown into the sea at
sundown. Even the customary twenty-four hours' respite for confession
was denied him, and his request to be shot instead of hanged refused.
The sentence was duly carried out on the 30th of June 1799.
Caracciolo was technically a traitor to the king whose uniform he had
worn, but apart from the wave of revolutionary enthusiasm which had
spread all over the educated classes of Italy, and the fact that treason
to a government like that of the Neapolitan Bourbons could hardly be
regarded as a crime, there was no necessity for Nelson to make himself
the executor of the revenge of Ferdinand and Mary Caroline. His greatest
offence, as Captain Mahan remarks (_Life of Nelson_, i. 440), was
committed against his own country by sacrificing his inalienable
character as the representative of the king of Great Britain to his
secondary and artificial character as delegate of the king of Naples.
The only explanation of Nelson's conduct is to be found in his
infatuation for Lady Hamilton, whose low ambition made her use her
influence over him in the interest of Queen Mary Caroline's malignant
spite.
AUTHORITIES.--Besides the general works on Nelson and Naples, such as
P. Colletta's _Storia del Reame di Napoli_ (Florence, 1848), there is
a large amount of special literature on the subject. _Nelson and the
Neapolitan Jacobins_ (Navy Records Society, 1903), contains all the
documents on the episode, including those incorrectly transcribed by
A. Dumas in his _Borboni di Napoli_ (Naples, 1862-1863), with an
introduction defending Nelson by H.C. Gutteridge; the work contains a
bibliography. The case against Nelson is set forth by Professor P.
Villari in his article "Nelson, Caracciolo, e la Repubblica
Napolitana" (_Nuova Antologia_, 16th February 1899); Captain A.T.
Mahan has replied in "The Neapolitan Republic and Nelson's Accusers"
(_English Historical Review_, July 1899), "Nelson at Naples" (_ibid._,
October 1900), and "Nelson at Naples" (_Athenaeum_, 8th July 1899);
see also F. Lemmi, _Nelson e Caracciolo_ (Florence, 1898); C.
Giglioli, _Naples in 1799_ (London, 1903); Freiherr von Helfert,
_Fabrizio Ruffo_ (Vienna, 1882); H. Huffer, _Die neapolitanische
Republik des Jahres 1799_ (Leipzig, 1884). (L. V.*)
CARACOLE (a Fr. word, the origin of which is doubtful, meaning the
wheeling about of a horse; in Spanish and Portuguese _caracol_ means a
snail with a spiral shell), a turn or wheeling in horsemanship to the
left or right, or to both alternately, so that the movements of the
horse describe a zig-zag course. The term has been used loosely and
erroneously to describe any display of fancy riding. It is also used for
a spiral staircase in a tower.
CARACTACUS, strictly CARATACUS, the Latin form of a Celtic name, which
survives in Caradoc and other proper names. The most famous bearer of
the name was the British chieftain who led the native resistance to the
Roman invaders in A.D. 48-51, and was finally captured and sent to Rome
(Tac. _Ann._ xii. 33, Dio. lx.). Two old camps on the Welsh border are
now called Caer Caradoc, but the names seem to be the invention of
antiquaries and not genuinely ancient memorials of the Celtic hero.
CARADOC SERIES, in geology, the name introduced by R.I. Murchison in
1839 for the sandstone series of Caer Caradoc in Shropshire, England.
The limits of Murchison's Caradoc series have since been somewhat
modified, and through the labours of C. Lapworth the several members of
the series have been precisely defined by means of graptolitic zones.
These zones are identical with those found in the rocks of the same age
in North Wales, the Bala series (q.v.), and the terms Bala or Caradoc
series are used indifferently by geologists when referring to the
uppermost substage of the Ordovician System. The Ordovician rocks of the
Caradoc district have been subdivided into the following beds, in
descending order: the _Trinucleus_ shales, Acton Scott beds, Longville
flags, Chatwell and Soudley sandstones, Harnage shales and Hoar Edge
grits and limestone. In the Corndon district in the same county the
Caradoc series is represented by the Harrington group of ashes and
shales and the Spy Wood group beneath them; these two groups of strata
are sometimes spoken of as the Chirbury series. In the Breidden district
are the barren Criggeon shales with ashes and flows of andesite.
In the Lake district the Coniston limestone series represents the
Upper Caradocian, the lower portion being taken up by part of the
great Borrowdale volcanic series of rocks. The Coniston limestone
series contains the following subdivisions:--
Ashgill group (Ashgill shales and _Staurocephalus_ limestone).
Kiesley limestone.
Sleddale group (Applethwaite beds = Upper Coniston limestone
conglomerate; Yarlside rhyolite; stye end beds = Lower Coniston
limestone).
Roman Fell group (Corona beds).
The Dufton shales and Drygill shales are equivalents of the Sleddale
group.
Rocks of Caradoc age are well developed in southern Scotland; in the
Girvan district they have been described as the Ardmillan series with
the Drummock group and Barren Flagstone group in the upper portion,
and the Whitehouse, Ardwell and Balclatchie groups in the lower part.
Similarly, two divisions, known as the Upper and Lower Hartfell
series, are recognized in the southern and central area, in
Peeblesshire, Ayrshire and Dumfriesshire.
In Ireland the Caradoc or Bala series is represented by the limestones
of Portraine near Dublin and of the Chair of Kildare; by the
Ballymoney series of Wexford and Carnalea shales of Co. Down. In the
Lough Mask district beds of this age are found, as in Wales,
interstratified with volcanic lavas and tuffs. Other localities are
known in counties Tyrone, Meath and Louth, also in Lambay Island.
See ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM; also C. Lapworth, _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._,
5th series, vol. vi., 1880; _Geol. Mag._, 1889; C. Lapworth and W.W.
Watts, _Proc. Geol. Assoc._, xiii., 1894; J.E. Marr, _Geol. Mag._,
1892; J.E. Marr and T. Roberts, _Q.J.G.S._, 1885; B.N. Peach and J.
Home, "Silurian Rocks of Great Britain," vol. I., 1899 (_Mem. Geol.
Survey_). (J. A. H.)
CARALES (Gr. [Greek: K['a]ralis], mod. _Cagliari_, q.v.), the most
important ancient city of Sardinia, situated on the south coast of the
island. Its foundation is generally attributed to the Carthaginians, and
Punic tombs exist in considerable numbers near the present cemetery on
the east and still more on the rocky plateau to the north-west of the
town. It first appears in Roman history in the Second Punic War, and
probably obtained full Roman civic rights from Julius Caesar. In
imperial times it was the most important town in the island, mainly
owing to its fine sheltered harbour, where a detachment of the _classis
Misenas_ was stationed. In the 4th and 5th centuries it was probably the
seat of the _praeses Sardiniae_. It is mentioned as an important harbour
in the Gothic and Gildonic wars. It was also the chief point of the road
system of Sardinia. Roads ran hence to Olbia by the east coast, and
through the centre of the island, to Othoca (Oristano) direct, and
thence to Olbia (probably the most frequented route), through the mining
district to Sulci and along the south and west coasts to Othoca. The
hill occupied by the Pisan fortifications and the medieval town within
them must have been the acropolis of the Carthaginian settlement; it is
impossible to suppose that a citadel presenting such natural advantages
was not occupied. The Romans, too, probably made use of it, though the
lower quarters were mainly occupied in imperial times. A. Taramelli
(_Notizie degli Scavi_, 1905, 41 seq.) rightly points out that the
nucleus of the Roman _municipium_ is probably represented by the present
quarter of the Marina, in which the streets intersect at right angles
and Roman remains are frequently found in the subsoil. An inscription
found some way to the north towards the amphitheatre speaks of paving in
the squares and streets, and of drains constructed under Domitian in
A.D. 83 (F. Vivanet in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1897, 279). The
amphitheatre occupies a natural depression in the rock just below the
acropolis, and open towards the sea with a fine view. Its axes are
95-1/2 and 79 yds., and it is in the main cut in the rock, though some
parts of it are built with concrete. Below it, to the south, are
considerable remains of ancient reservoirs for rain-water, upon which
the city entirely depended. This nucleus extended both to the east and
to the west; in the former direction it ran some way inland, on the east
of the castle hill. Here were the _ambulationes_ or public promenades
constructed by the pro-consul Q. Caecilius Metellus before A.D. 6
(_Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, No. 7581). Here also, not far
from the shore, the remains of Roman baths, with a fine coloured mosaic
pavement, representing deities riding on marine monsters, were found in
1907. To the east was the necropolis of Bonaria, where both Punic and
Roman tombs exist, and where, on the site of the present cemetery,
Christian catacombs have been discovered (F. Vivanet in _Notizie degli
Scavi_, 1892, 183 seq.; G. Pinza in _Nuovo Bullettino di Archeologia
Cristiana_, 1901, 61 seq.). But the western quarter seems to have been
far more important; it extended along the lagoon of S. Gilla (which lies
to the north-west of the town, and which until the middle ages was an
open bay) and on the lower slopes of the hill which rises above it. The
chief discoveries which have been made are noted by Taramelli (loc.
cit.) and include some important buildings, of which a large Roman house
(or group of houses) is the only one now visible (G. Spano in _Notizie
degli Scavi_, 1876, 148, 173; 1877, 285; 1880, 105, 405). Beyond this
quarter begins an extensive Roman necropolis extending along the edge of
the hill north-east of the high road leading to the north-west; the most
important tomb is the so-called Grotta delle Vipere, the rock-hewn tomb
of Cassius Philippus and Atilia Pomptilla, the sides of which are
covered with inscriptions (_Corpus Inscr. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, Nos.
7563-7578). Other tombs are also to be found on the high ground near the
Punic tombs already mentioned. The latter are hewn perpendicularly in
the rock, while the Roman tombs are chambers excavated horizontally. In
the lagoon itself were found a large number of terra cottas, made of
local clay, some being masks of both divinities and men (among them
grotesques) others representing hands and feet, others various animals,
and of _amphorae_ of various sizes and other vases. Some of the
_amphorae_ contained animals' bones, possibly the remains of sacrifices.
These objects are of the Punic period; they were all found in groups,
and had apparently been arranged on a platform of piles in what was then
a bay, in readiness for shipment (F. Vivanet in _Notizie degli Scavi_,
1893, 255). It is probable that the acropolis of Carales was occupied
even in prehistoric times; but more abundant traces of prehistoric
settlements (pottery and fragments of obsidian, also kitchen middens,
containing bones of animals and shells of molluscs used for human food)
have been found on the Capo S. Elia to the south-east of the modern town
(see A. Taramelli in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1904, 19 seq.). An
inscription records the existence of a temple of Venus Erycina on this
promontory in Roman times. The museum contains an interesting collection
of objects from many of the sites mentioned, and also from other parts
of the island; it is in fact the most important in Sardinia, and is
especially strong in prehistoric bronzes (see SARDINIA).
For the Roman inscriptions see _C.I.L._ cit., Nos. 7552-7807.
(T. As.)
CARAN D'ACHE, the pseudonym (meaning "lead-pencil") of Emmanuel Poire
(1858-1909), French artist and illustrator, who was born and educated at
Moscow, being the grandson of one of Napoleon's officers who had settled
in Russia. He determined to be a military painter, and when he arrived
in Paris from Russia he found an artistic adviser in Detaille. He served
five years in the army, where the principal work allotted to him was the
drawing of uniforms for the ministry of war. He embellished a
short-lived journal, _La Vie militaire_, with a series of illustrations,
among them being some good-tempered caricatures of the German army,
which showed how accurately he was acquainted with military detail. His
special gift lay in pictorial anecdote, the story being represented at
its different stages with irresistible effect, in the artist's own
mannered simplicity. Much of his work was contributed to _La Vie
parisienne_, _Le Figaro illustre_, _La Caricature_, _Le Chat noir_, and
he also issued various albums of sketches, the _Carnet de cheques_,
illustrating the Panama scandals, _Album de croquis militaires et
d'histoire sans legendes_, _Histoire de Marlborough_, &c., besides
illustrating a good many books, notably the _Prince Kozakokoff_ of
Bemadaky. He died on the 26th of February 1909.
A collection of his work was exhibited at the Fine Art Society's rooms
in London in 1898. The catalogue contained a prefatory note by M.H.
Spielmann.
CARAPACE (a Fr. word, from the Span, _carapacho_, a shield or armour),
the upper shell of a crustacean, tortoise or turtle. The covering of the
armadillo is called a carapace, as is also the hard case in which
certain of the Infusoria are enclosed.
CARAPEGUA, an interior town of Paraguay, 37 m. S.E. of Asuncion on the
old route between that city and the missions. Pop. (est.) 13,000
(probably the population of the large rural district about the town is
included in this estimate). The town (founded in 1725) is situated in a
fertile country producing cotton, tobacco, Indian corn, sugar-cane and
mandioca. It has two schools, a church and modern public buildings.
CARAT (Arab. _Q[-i]r[-a]t_, weight of four grains; Gr. _[Greek:
ker['a]tion]_, little horn, the fruit of the carob or locust tree), a
small weight (originally in the form of a seed) used for diamonds and
precious stones, and a measure for determining the fineness of gold. The
exact weight of the carat, in practice, now varies slightly in different
places. In 1877 a syndicate of London, Paris and Amsterdam jewellers
fixed the weight at 205 milligrammes (3.163 troy grains). The South
African carat, according to Gardner Williams (general manager of the De
Beers mines), is equal to 3.174 grains (_The Diamond Mines of South
Africa_, 1902). The fineness of gold is measured by a ratio with 24
carats as a standard; thus 2 parts of alloy make it 22-carat gold, and
so on.
CARAUSIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, tyrant or usurper in Britain, A.D. 286-293,
was a Menapian from Belgic Gaul, a man of humble origin, who in his
early days had been a pilot. Having entered the Roman army, he rapidly
obtained promotion, and was stationed by the emperor Maximian at
Gessoriacum (Bononia, _Boulogne_) to protect the coasts and channel from
Frankish and Saxon pirates. He at first acted energetically, but was
subsequently accused of having entered into partnership with the
barbarians and was sentenced to death by the emperor. Carausius
thereupon crossed over to Britain and proclaimed himself an independent
ruler. The legions at once joined him; numbers of Franks enlisted in his
service; an increased and well-equipped fleet secured him the command of
the neighbouring seas. In 289 Maximian attempted to recover the island,
but his fleet was damaged by a storm and he was defeated. Maximian and
Diocletian were compelled to acknowledge the rule of Carausius in
Britain; numerous coins are extant with the heads of Carausius,
Diocletian and Maximian, bearing the legend "Carausius et fratres sui."
In 292 Constantius Chlorus besieged and captured Gessoriacum (hitherto
in possession of Carausius), together with part of his fleet and naval
stores. Constantius then made extensive preparations to ensure the
reconquest of Britain, but before they were completed Carausius was
murdered by Allectus, his praefect of the guards (Aurelius Victor,
_Caesares_, 39; Eutropius ix. 21, 22; Eumenius, _Panegyrici_ ii. 12, v.
12). A Roman mile-stone found near Carlisle (1895) bears the inscription
IMP. C[aes] M. AUR[elius] MAUS. The meaning of MAUS is doubtful, but it
may be an anticipation of ARAUS (see F.J. Haverfield in _Cumberland and
Westmoreland Antiquarian Soc. Transactions_, 1895, p. 437).
A copper coin found at Richborough, inscribed _Domino Carausio Ces._,
must be ascribed to a Carausius of later date, since the type of the
reverse is not found until the middle of the 4th century at the
earliest. Nothing is known of this Carausius (A.J. Evans in _Numismatic
Chronicle_, 1887, "On a coin of a second Carausius Caesar in Britain in
the Fifth Century").
See J. Watts de Peyster, _The History of Carausius, the Dutch
Augustus_ (1858); P.H. Webb, _The Reign and Coinage of Carausius_
(1908).
CARAVACA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia; near
the left bank of the river Caravaca, a tributary of the Segura. Pop.
(1900) 15,846. Caravaca is dominated by the medieval castle of Santa
Cruz, and contains several convents and a fine parish church, with a
miraculous cross celebrated for its healing power, in honour of which a
yearly festival is held on the 3rd of May. The hills which extend to the
north are rich in marble and iron. Despite the lack of railway
communication, the town is a considerable industrial centre, with large
iron-works, tanneries and manufactories of paper, chocolate and oil.
CARAVAGGIO, MICHELANGELO AMERIGHI (or MERIGI) DA (1569-1609), Italian
painter, was born in the village of Caravaggio, in Lombardy, from which
he received his name. He was originally a mason's labourer, but his
powerful genius directed him to painting, at which he worked with
immitigable energy and amazing force. He despised every sort of idealism
whether noble or emasculate, became the head of the Naturalisti
(unmodified imitators of ordinary nature) in painting, and adopted a
style of potent contrasts of light and shadow, laid on with a sort of
fury, indicative of that fierce temper which led the artist to commit a
homicide in a gambling quarrel at Rome. To avoid the consequences of his
crime he fled to Naples and to Malta, where he was imprisoned for
another attempt to avenge a quarrel. Escaping to Sicily, he was attacked
by a party sent in pursuit of him, and severely wounded. Being pardoned,
he set out for Rome; but having been arrested by mistake before his
arrival, and afterwards released, and left to shift for himself in
excessive heat, and still suffering from wounds and hardships, he died
of fever on the beach at Pontercole in 1609. His best pictures are the
"Entombment of Christ," now in the Vatican; "St Sebastian," in the Roman
Capitol; a magnificent whole-length portrait of a grand-master of the
Knights of Malta, Alof de Vignacourt, and his page, in the Louvre; and
the Borghese "Supper at Emmaus."
CARAVAGGIO, POLIDORO CALDARA DA (1495 or 1492-1543), a celebrated
painter of frieze and other decorations in the Vatican. His merits were
such that, while a mere mortar-carrier to the artists engaged in that
work, he attracted the admiration of Raphael, then employed on his great
pictures in the Loggie of the palace. Polidoro's works, as well as those
of his master, Maturino of Florence, have mostly perished, but are well
known by the fine etchings of P.S. Bartoli, C. Alberti, &c. On the sack
of Rome by the army of the Constable de Bourbon in 1527, Polidoro fled
to Naples. Thence he went to Messina, where he was much employed, and
gained a considerable fortune, with which he was about to return to the
mainland of Italy when he was robbed and murdered by an assistant, Tonno
Calabrese, in 1543. Two of his principal paintings are a Crucifixion,
painted in Messina, and "Christ bearing the Cross" in the Naples
gallery.
CARAVAN (more correctly _Karwan_), a Persian word, adopted into the
later Arabic vocabulary, and denoting, throughout Asiatic Turkey and
Persia,[1] a body of traders travelling together for greater security
against robbers (and in particular against Bedouins, Kurds, Tatars and
the like, whose grazing-grounds the proposed route may traverse) and for
mutual assistance in the matter of provisions, water and so forth. These
precautions are due to the absence of settled government, inns and
roads. These conditions having existed from time immemorial in the major
part of western Asia, and still existing, caravans always have been the
principal means for the transfer of merchandise. In these companies
camels are generally employed for the transport of heavy goods,
especially where the track, like that between Damascus and Bagdad, for
example, lies across level, sandy and arid districts. The camels are
harnessed in strings of fifty or more at a time, a hair-rope connecting
the rear of one beast with the head of another; the leader is gaily
decorated with parti-coloured trappings, tassels and bells; an unladen
ass precedes the file, for luck, say some, for guidance, say others.
Where the route is rocky and steep, as that between Damascus and Aleppo,
mules, or even asses, are used for burdens. The wealthier members ride,
where possible, on horseback. Every man carries arms; but these are in
truth more for show than for use, and are commonly flung away in the
presence of any serious robber attack. Should greater peril than
ordinary be anticipated, the protection of a company of soldiers is
habitually pre-engaged,--an expensive, and ordinarily a useless adjunct.
A leader or director, called _Karawan-Bashi_ (headman), or, out of
compliment, _Karawan-Seraskier_ (general), but most often simply
designated _Rais_ (chief), is before starting appointed by common
consent. His duties are those of general manager, spokesman, arbitrator
and so forth; his remuneration is indefinite. But in the matter of sales
or purchases, either on the way or at the destination, each member of
the caravan acts for himself.
The number of camels or mules in a single caravan varies from forty or
so up to six hundred and more; sometimes, as on the reopening of a
long-closed route, it reaches a thousand. The ordinary caravan seasons
are the months of spring, early summer and later autumn. Friday, in
accordance with a recommendation made in the Koran itself, is the
favourite day for setting out, the most auspicious hour being that
immediately following noonday prayer. The first day's march never does
more than just clear the starting-point. Subsequently each day's route
is divided into two stages,--from 3 or 4 A.M. to about 10 in the
forenoon, and from between 2 and 3 P.M. till 6 or even 8 in the evening.
Thus the time passed daily on the road averages from ten to twelve
hours, and, as the ordinary pace of a laden camel does not exceed 2 m.
an hour, that of a mule being 2-3/4, a distance varying from 23 to 28 m.
is gone over every marching day. But prolonged halts of two, three, four
and even more days often occur. The hours of halt, start and movement,
the precise lines of route, and the selection or avoidance of particular
localities are determined by common consent. But if, as sometimes
happens, the services of a professional guide, or those of a military
officer have been engaged, his decisions are final. While the caravan is
on its way, the five stated daily prayers are, within certain limits,
anticipated, deferred or curtailed, so as the better to coincide with
the regular and necessary halts,--a practice authorized by orthodox
Mahommedan custom and tradition.
Two caravans are mentioned in Genesis xxxvii.; the route on which they
were passing seems to have coincided with that nowadays travelled by
Syrian caravans on their way to Egypt. Other allusions to caravans may
be found in Job, in Isaiah and in the Psalms. Eastern literature is full
of such references.
The yearly pilgrim-bands, bound from various quarters of the Mahommedan
world to their common destination, Mecca, are sometimes, but
inaccurately, styled by European writers caravans; their proper
designation is _Hajj_, a collective word for pilgrimages and pilgrims.
The two principal pilgrim-caravans start yearly, the one from Damascus,
or, to speak more exactly, from Mozarib, a village station three days'
journey to the south of the Syrian capital, the other from Cairo in
Egypt.[2] This latter was formerly joined on its route, near Akaba of
the Red Sea, by the North African Hajj, which, however, now goes from
Egypt by sea from Suez; the former gathers up bands from Anatolia,
Kurdistan, Mesopotamia and Syria. Besides these a third, but smaller
Hajj of Persians, chiefly sets out from Suk-esh-Sheiukh, in the
neighbourhood of Meshed Ali, on the lower Euphrates; a fourth of
negroes, Nubians, etc., unites at Yambu on the Hejaz coast, whither they
have crossed from Kosseir in Upper Egypt; a fifth of Indians and Malays,
centres at Jidda; a sixth and seventh, of southern or eastern Arabs
arrive, the former from Yemen, the latter from Nejd.
The Syrian Hajj is headed by the pasha of Damascus, either in person or
by a vicarious official of high rank, and is further accompanied by the
_Sorrah Amir_ or "Guardian of the Purse," a Turkish officer from
Constantinople. The Egyptian company is commanded by an amir or ruler,
appointed by the Cairene government, and is accompanied by the famous
"Mahmal," or sacred pavilion. The other bands above mentioned have
each their own amir, besides their _mekowwams_ or agents, whose business
it is to see after provisions, water and the like, and are not seldom
encumbered with a numerous retinue of servants and other attendants.
Lastly, a considerable force of soldiery accompanies both the Syrian and
the Egyptian Hajj.
No guides properly so-called attend these pilgrim-caravans, the routes
followed being invariably the same, and well known. But Bedouin bands
generally offer themselves by way of escort, and not seldom designedly
lead their clients into the dangers from which they bargain to keep them
safe. This they are the readier to do because, in addition to the
personal luxuries with which many of the pilgrims provide themselves for
the journey, a large amount of wealth, both in merchandise and coins, is
habitually to be found among the travellers, who, in accordance with
Mahommedan tradition, consider it not merely lawful but praiseworthy to
unite mercantile speculation with religious duty. Nor has any one, the
pasha himself or the amir and the military, when present, excepted, any
acknowledged authority or general control in the pilgrim-caravans; nor
is there any orderly subdivision of management or service. The pilgrims
do, indeed, often coalesce in companies among themselves for mutual
help, but necessity, circumstance or caprice governs all details, and
thus it happens that numbers, sometimes as many as a third of the entire
Hajj, yearly perish by their own negligence or by misfortune,--dying,
some of thirst, others of fatigue and sickness, others at the hand of
robbers on the way. In fact the principal routes are in many places
lined for miles together with the bones of camels and men.
The numbers which compose these pilgrim caravans are much exaggerated by
popular rumour; yet it is certain that the Syrian and Egyptian sometimes
amount to 5000 each, with 25,000 or 30,000 camels in train. Large
supplies of food and water have to be carried, the more so at times that
the pilgrim season, following as it does the Mahommedan calendar, which
is lunar, falls for years together in the very hottest season. Hence,
too, the journey is usually accomplished by night marches, the hours
being from 3 to 4 P.M. to 6 or 7 A.M. of the following day. Torches are
lighted on the road, the pace is slower than that of an ordinary
caravan, and does not exceed 2 m. an hour.
See MECCA and MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION.