CHAPTER XXVII

MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT SCIENCE

I submit, as the final chapter of this little volume of miscellaneous

diversions, a few words intended to meet what has become a recurrent

misrepresentation and absurdity for which the annual congress of the

British Association for the Advancement of Science furnishes the

opportunity. Glib writers in various journals regularly seize this

occasion to pour forth their lamentations concerning the incapacity of

"science" and the disappointment which they experience in finding that

it does not do what it never professed to do. They deplore that those

engaged in the making of that new knowledge of nature which we call

"science" do not discover things which they never set out to discover

or thought it possible to discover, although the glib gentlemen who

write, with a false assumption of knowledge, pretend that these things

are what the investigations of scientific inquirers are intended to

ascertain. We read, at that season of the year, articles upon "What

Scientists do not know" and "The Bankruptcy of Science," in which it

is pretended that the purpose of science is to solve the mystery, or,

as it has been called, the "riddle," of the universe, and it is

pointed out, with something like malicious satisfaction, that, to

judge by the proceedings of the congress of scientific investigators

just concluded, we are no nearer a solution of that mystery than men

were in the days of Aristotle: and it is added that false hopes have

been raised, and that matters which were once considered settled have

again passed into the melting-pot!

This kind of lamentation is not only (if I may use an expressive term)

"twaddle," but is injurious misrepresentation, dangerous to the

public welfare. The actual attitude of the investigators and makers of

new knowledge of nature is stated in a few words which I wrote ten

years ago: "The whole order of nature, including living and lifeless

matter--from man to gas--is a network of mechanism, the main features

and many details of which have been made more or less obvious to the

wondering intelligence of mankind by the labour and ingenuity of

scientific investigators. But no sane man has ever pretended, since

science became a definite body of doctrine, that we know or ever can

hope to know or conceive of the possibility of knowing, whence this

mechanism has come, why it is there, whither it is going, and what

there may or may not be beyond and beside it which our senses are

incapable of appreciating. These things are not 'explained' by science

and never can be."

So much for those who reproach science with the non-fulfilment of

their own unwarranted and perfectly gratuitous expectations.

When, however, having created in their readers' minds an unreasonable

sense of failure and a mistrust of science, such writers go on to make

use of the want of confidence thus produced, in order to throw doubt

upon the real conquests of science--the new knowledge actually made

and established by the investigators of the last century--it becomes

necessary to say a little more. The public is told by these false

witnesses that science has "dogmas," and that men of science are less

satisfied than they were with the "dogmas" of the last century.

Science has no dogmas; all its conclusions are open to revision by

experiment and demonstration, and are continually so revised. But

science takes no heed of empty assertion unaccompanied by evidence

which can be weighed and measured. "_Nullius in verba_" is the motto

of one of the most famous Societies for the promotion of the knowledge

of nature--the Royal Society of London.

It is especially in the area of biology--the knowledge of living

things--that the enemies of science make their most audacious

attempts to discredit well-ascertained facts and conclusions. They

tell their readers that those greater problems of the science (as they

erroneously term them), such as the nature of variation among

individuals, the laws of heredity, the nature of growth and

reproduction, the peculiarities of sex, the characteristics of habits,

instinct, and intelligence, and the meaning of life itself, have

advanced very little beyond the standpoint of the first and greatest

biologist, Aristotle. This statement is vague and indefinite; the

conclusion which it suggests is absolutely untrue. Aristotle knew next

to nothing about the mechanism of the processes in living things above

cited. At the present day we know an enormous amount about it in

detail. But when men of science are told that they do not know the

"nature" of this and the "meaning" of that, they frankly admit that

they do not know the real "nature" (for the expression is capable of

endless variety of significance) of anything nor the real "meaning"

not only of life, but of the existence of the universe, and they say,

moreover, that they have no intention or expectation of knowing the

ultimate "nature" or the ultimate "meaning" (in a philosophical sense)

of any such things. These are not problems of science--and it is

misleading and injurious to pretend that they are.

I recently read an essay in which the writer is good enough to say

that, owing to the work of Darwin, the fact that the differences which

we see between organisms have been reached by a gradual evolution, is

not now disputed. That, at any rate, seems to be a solid achievement.

But he went on to declare that when we inquire by what method this

evolution was brought about biologists can return no answer. That

appears to me to be a most extraordinary perversion of the truth. The

reason why the gradual evolution of the various kinds of organisms is

not now disputed is that Darwin showed the method by which that

evolution can and must be brought about. So far from "returning no

answer," Darwin and succeeding generations of biologists do return a

very full answer to the question, "By what method has organic

evolution been brought about?" Our misleading writer proceeds as

follows: "The Darwinian theory of natural selection acting on minute

differences is generally considered nowadays to be inadequate, but no

alternative theory has taken its place." This is an entirely erroneous

statement. Though Darwin held that natural selection acted most widely

and largely on minute differences, he did not suppose that its

operation was confined to them, and he considered and gave importance

to a number of other characteristics of organisms which have an

important part in the process of organic evolution. The assertion that

the theory of natural selection as left by Darwin "is now generally

held to be inadequate" is fallacious. Darwin's conclusions on this

matter are generally held to be essentially true. It is obvious that

his argument is capable of further elaboration and development by

additional knowledge, and always was regarded as being so by its

author and by every other competent person. But that is a very

different thing from holding Darwin's theory of natural selection to

be "inadequate." It is adequate, because it furnishes the foundation

on which we build, and it is so solid, complete and far-reaching that

what has been added since Darwin's death is very small by comparison

with his original structure.

Lastly, we are told by the anonymous writer already quoted that at the

present time discussion is chiefly concentrated on the question as to

whether life is dependent only on the physical and chemical properties

of the living substance, protoplasm, or whether there is at work an

independent vital principle which sharply separates living from

non-living matter! And the obvious and common-place conclusion is

announced that "the ultimate problems of biology are as inscrutable as

of old." All ultimate problems are, I admit, inscrutable. It is, on

the other hand, the business, and has been the glory and triumph, of

science, to examine and solve problems which are scrutable! It is

certainly not the case that, at the present time, discussion is

concentrated on the question of the existence of a vital principle.

There is absolutely no discussion in progress on the subject. No one

even knows or attempts to state what is meant by "a vital principle."

It is a phrase which belongs to "the dead past," when men of science

had not discovered that you get no nearer to understanding a difficult

subject by inventing a name to cover your ignorance. Thirty-five years

ago the word "vitality" was used as some few philosophising writers

are now using the term "vital principle." Huxley at that time attacked

the views of Dr. Lionel Beale, who called in the aid of a mystical

"principle," which he named "vitality," in order to "account for" some

of the remarkable properties of protoplasm. As Huxley pointed out,

this supposed principle "accounted for" nothing, since it was merely a

name for the phenomena for which it was supposed to account. Huxley

pointed out that many chemical compounds have remarkable

properties--as assuredly have the chemical compounds which are present

in protoplasm--but men of science have not found it to help them in

investigating the mechanism of those properties to ascribe them to

mystical intangible "principles" differing from the agencies at work

in other less exceptional substances.

Thus, for instance, water, though a very common and abundant chemical

compound formed by the union of two chemical elements, hydrogen and

oxygen, which, at the temperature and pressure of the earth's surface,

are gaseous, offers many strange properties to our consideration not

shared by other compounds of gaseous elements. For instance, hydrogen,

when it combines with gaseous elements other than oxygen, does not

form a compound which is liquid at the temperature and pressure of the

earth's surface. Its combinations with nitrogen, with chlorine, with

fluorine, and even some with the solid element carbon, are under those

conditions gaseous. What a special character, therefore, has water!

Moreover, water, though a liquid, yet behaves in a most peculiar way

when either cooled below ordinary temperatures or heated above them.

It becomes solid when cooled, but expands at the same time, so that it

is less dense when solid than when liquid--a most unusual proceeding!

And when heated it is converted into vapour, but with a loss or

"making latent" of heat, which, like its behaviour when solidifying,

indicates that water is endowed with a very peculiar structure or

mechanism in the putting together of its molecules. We might call

these combined peculiarities of water "aquosity," and as we certainly

cannot say why water should possess the lot of them, whilst other

compounds of either hydrogen or of oxygen, or, in fact, of any other

elements, do not possess this combination, we might say that their

presence is due to "the aqueous principle," or "aquosity," which

enters into water when it is formed, but does not exist in other

natural bodies, and, indeed, "sharply separates aqueous from

non-aqueous matter."

Happily, though such a view would have been considered high philosophy

200 years ago, no one is deluded at the present day into the belief

that by calling the remarkable properties of water "aquosity" you have

added anything to our knowledge of them. Yet those who invoke "a vital

principle" or "vitality" in connection with protoplasm should, if they

were consistent, apply their method to the mystery of water. Let us

see how it would run. Though we may (the "vitalists" or "aquosists"

would say) experiment with water, determine exactly the temperature

and pressure at which these remarkable phenomena are exhibited, though

we may determine its surface tension and its crystalline form, and

even though we may weigh exactly the proportion of hydrogen to oxygen

in its composition, yet when we look at a drop of water, there it is,

a wonder of wonders, endowed with "aquosity," the ultimate nature of

which is as inscrutable now as it was to Aristotle! It is perfectly

true (we concede to the "aquosists") that the properties of water are

not accounted for by science; that is to say that, though we can

imagine the molecular and atomic mechanism necessary for their

exhibition, we cannot offer any suggestion as to how it is that that

particular mechanism is present in the chemical compound which the

chemist denotes as H_{2}O, and is not present in other compounds,

still less can we say "why" these remarkable properties are

present--that is to say, for what purpose, although we know that if

they were not present the whole history and economy of our globe would

be utterly different from what it is. Nevertheless, in spite of their

ignorance about the real nature of water, men of science do not invent

an "aqueous principle" or "aquosity" with the notion of "explaining"

water. And I have yet to hear of any duly trained and qualified

biologist who is prepared at the present moment to maintain the

existence of a "vital principle," or of a force to be called

"vitality," supposed to be something different in character and

quality from the recognised physical forces, and having its existence

alongside, yet apart from, the manifestations of those forces.

Lord Justice Fletcher Moulton recently said: "The advance in science

takes the workers in science more and more beyond the ken of the

ordinary public, and their work grows to be a little understood and

much misunderstood; and I have felt that, as in many other cases, the

need would come for interpreters between those who are carrying on

scientific research and the public, in order to explain and justify

their work." Probably everyone will agree with the Lord Justice: but

what are we to say of those responsible owners of great journals who

not only abstain from providing such interpretation but allow

anonymous and incompetent writers to mislead the public? Is the

literary critic of a prosperous journal employed to write the City

article?

There has been a repetition this year (1912) of the usual

misrepresentation on the occasion of the meeting of the British

Association. The President, Professor Schaefer, had let it be known

that his address would be concerned with the chemistry of living

processes, the gradual passage of chemical combinations into the

condition which we call "living," and the possibility of bringing

about this passage in the chemical laboratory without the use of

materials already elaborated by previously existing "living" material.

The announcement was immediately made in some "newspapers" that

"startling revelations" were to be made by the President, that he was

"to throw a bomb-shell" into the camp, etc. He did nothing of the

kind. He gave an admirable and clear statement of the progress during

recent years towards the realisation of the construction in the

laboratory by chemical methods of the complex chemical combination

which exhibits those "activities"--essentially movements, unions,

disruptions and re-unions of extremely minute particles--which we call

"living." The conclusion that such a gradual building up has taken

place in past ages of the history of our earth was formulated more

than forty years ago by Spencer, Tyndall, Huxley, Haeckel, and others,

and has not been seriously attacked in the interval, but, on the

contrary, generally accepted as a legitimate inference from the facts

ascertained and the theory of the evolution or gradual development of

what we call the material universe.

Professor Schaefer expressed the opinion, anticipated and shared by

many other investigators, that the progress of chemical experiment

renders it probable that further steps, culminating in the successful

construction of "living" matter in the laboratory, are not beset by

any insurmountable obstacles and will sooner or later be accomplished.

There was no "bomb-shell" in this statement, and no excitement as its

result among scientific workers nor amongst those who do not neglect

to study the writings of the "interpreters" desired by Lord Justice

Moulton. There are still some such interpreters carrying on the work

of Huxley and of Tyndall, those great interpreters whose writings

should be studied and treasured as classics.

The most interesting result of the attempt to treat the discussions

at Dundee as a newspaper "sensation," comparable to the reports

relating to motor-car bandits or the pronouncements of political

factions, has been its complete failure. Serious thinkers of all

schools seem to have adjusted themselves to the more modern way of

regarding natural processes even when these relate to matters of such

age-long interest to mankind as the inception of "living" organisms

and of conscious humanity itself. There are fewer now than there were

forty years ago who insist on the older barbaric "explanations" of

these marvels. Few indeed venture to assert the existence of

"spirits"--ghostly essences of various grades and capacities which

enter the bodies of living things and escape from them like so much

gas when they die.[10] The vegetable soul, the animal soul and the

human soul are no longer imagined and described to us as definite

"things" supposed to "explain" the complex processes which go on

respectively in plants, animals and men.

Seventy years ago the facts which were known as to that changing state

of material substances which we describe by the words "hot" and

"cold," were held to be "explained" by the existence of a ghostly

thing called "caloric," which was believed to enter various bodies and

make them hot and then to escape from them and so make them cold.

Primitive man multiplied such ways of explaining each and every

process going on in the world around him and in himself. Mere words or

names lost their first simple signification and acquired permanent

association with imaginary spirits, demons, and haunting intangible

ghosts, by reference to which our ancestors in their earliest

"reasoning" explained to their own satisfaction the strange and sudden

events fraught to them with the daily experience of pain or pleasure.

The whole world was held by them to be "bewitched," and it was only by

slow and painful steps that some knowledge of the persistent order of

Nature was obtained, whilst the phantastic imagery which had served in

its place, bit by bit disappeared. "Caloric" was a late lingerer, and

was only got rid of when what had been so called was shown to be a

vibration of particles--a mode or kind of motion--a "state," and not a

mysterious fluid existing as a thing in itself.

Just as "caloric" no longer serves and is no longer possible as the

supposed "explanation" of the behaviour of bodies in the hot or the

cold state, so we no longer require the supposition of "spirits" of

one kind or another as "explanations" of the living state of those

products of our mother earth which are called plants, animals and men.

In neither case do such "spirits" really "explain" the state in

question; they are only names for the activity which it was imagined

that they served to explain. These states or affections of matter

remain as wonderful and important to us as they were before. But by

giving up the prehistoric notions about them which have been handed on

until the present day we can think of them in a more satisfactory

way--a way which avoids the multiplication of unnecessary imaginary

agencies and the conception of an intermittent and hesitating Creative

Power, and substitutes for it the operation of continuous orderly and

preordained forces.

It is true that we can neither ascertain nor imagine either the

beginning or the end of the orderly process which we discover in

operation to-day. We can trace it back by well-established inference

into a remote past, but a beginning of it is not within the

possibilities of human thought. We can, with reasonable probability of

being correct, foretell the changes and developments which time will

bring in many combinations and dispositions which are the

manifestations of that process at this moment of time, but we cannot

even think of a cessation of that process.

Should we ask, "Why does this process exist?" there is no answer.

Nature does not reply; an awful silence meets our inquiry. The

reproach is often urged against science--the knowledge of the order of

nature--that it does not tell us "why we are here." Man inevitably

desires to know why he is here; but "science," as that word is now

understood, does not profess or even seek to answer that question,

although the false hope has been raised in ignorant minds, sometimes

by knavery, sometimes by honest delusion, that it could do so. By

knowledge of nature mankind can escape much suffering and gain the

highest happiness, but that is all that we can hope for from it. We

shall never satisfy our curiosity; we shall never know in the same way

as we know the order of nature, why--to what end, for what

purpose--that order and not another order exists.

It is very generally supposed that it is the business and profession

of science "to explain" things--that is to say, to show how this or

that must and does come about in consequence of the operation of the

great general properties of matter, known as the "laws" of chemistry

and physics. This is true enough, but it is equally the work of

science to assert that of many things for which mankind demands "an

explanation," there is no explanation. It is further the work and the

service of science to destroy and to remove from men's minds the

baseless and pretended "explanations" which are no explanations but

causes of error, blindness, and suffering.

Science, the destroyer of "explanations," is the purifier of the human

mind, its cleanser from the crippling infection of prehistoric error

and from domination by the terrifying nightmares of our half-animal

ancestry.

Finally, in reference to the very ancient attempt to "explain" life

and consciousness by the assertion that they are due to "spirits"

which enter the bodies of animals and men, I must caution the reader

against supposing that--for those who do not accept the belief that

such spirits exist--the gravity and mystery of the manifestations of

life and consciousness are in any way lessened. Those who reject the

belief in "spirits" do not in consequence reject the ethical and moral

doctrines which have too long been rendered "suspect" by the shadow

cast over them by ancient superstition. The disappearance of that

shadow will reveal friends where enemies were supposed to be

entrenched.

At the meeting of the British Association in 1879 I delivered an

address on "Degeneration: a Chapter in Darwinism." In the printed

version of that address, published in the same year, there are some

statements bearing on the matter above discussed which I reproduce

here, since I can still make them with conviction.

"Assuredly it cannot lower our conception of man's dignity if we have

to regard him as 'the flower of all the ages' bursting from the great

stream of life which has flowed on through countless epochs with one

increasing purpose, rather than as an isolated miraculous being, put

together abnormally from elemental clay, and cut off by such

portentous origin from his fellow animals and from that gracious

nature to whom he yearns with filial instinct, knowing her, in spite

of fables, to be his dear mother."

"A certain number of thoughtful persons admit the development of man's

body by natural processes from ape-like ancestry, but believe in the

non-natural intervention of a Creator at a certain definite stage in

that development, in order to introduce into the animal which was at

that moment a man-like ape, something called 'a conscious soul' in

virtue of which he became an ape-like man."

"No one ventures to deny, at the present day, that every human being

grows from the egg _in utero_, just as a dog or a monkey does; the

facts are before us and can be scrutinised in detail. We may ask of

those who refuse to admit the gradual and natural development of man's

consciousness in the ancestral series, passing from ape-like forms

into indubitable man, 'How do you propose to divide the series

presented by every individual man in his growth from the egg? At what

particular phase in the embryonic series is the soul with its

consciousness implanted? Is it in the egg? in the foetus of this

month or that? in the new-born infant? or at five years of age?' This,

it is notorious, is a point upon which churches have never been able

to agree; and it is equally notorious that the unbroken series

exists--that the egg becomes the foetus, the foetus the child, and

the child the man. On the other hand we have the historical

series--the series, the existence of which is inferred by Darwin and

his adherents. This is a series leading from simple egg-like organisms

to ape-like creatures, and from these to man. Will those who cannot

answer our previous inquiries undertake to assert dogmatically in the

present case at what point in the historical series there is a break

or division? At what step are we to be asked to suppose that the order

of nature was stopped, and a non-natural soul introduced?... The

theologian is content in the case of individual development of the egg

to admit the fact of individual evolution, and to make assumptions

which lie altogether outside the region of scientific inquiry. So,

too, it would seem only reasonable that he should deal with the

historical series, and frankly accept the natural evolution of man

from lower animals, declaring dogmatically, if he so please, but not

as an inference of the same order as are the inferences of science,

that something called the soul arrived at any point in the series

which he may think suitable. At the same time, it would appear to be

sufficient even for the purposes of the theologian, to hold that

whatever the two above-mentioned series of living thing contain or

imply, they do so as the result of a natural and uniform process of

development, that there has been one 'miracle' once and for all

time....

"The difficulties which the theologian has to meet when he is called

upon to give some account of the origin and nature of the soul

certainly cannot be said to have been increased by the establishment

of the Darwinian theory. For from the earliest days of the Church,

ingenious speculation has been lavished on the subject.

"St. Augustine says (I give a translation of the Latin original):

'With regard to the four following opinions concerning the soul--viz.

(1) whether souls are handed on from parent to child by propagation;

or (2) are suddenly created in individuals at birth; or (3) existing

already elsewhere are divinely sent into the bodies of the new-born;

or (4) slip into them of their own motion--it is undesirable for

anyone to make a rash pronouncement, since up to the present time the

question has never been discussed and decided by catholic writers of

holy books on account of its obscurity and perplexity--or, if it has

been dealt with, no such treatises have hitherto come into my hands.'"

There must be many who will be glad to shake off the illusion of

explanation which is no explanation, and to escape from the futile

discussion of the possible behaviour of spirits and ghosts born in the

dreams of primaeval savages. They will gladly accept the conclusion

that the marvellous qualities and activities of living things and that

inscrutable wonder, the mind of man, are outcomes of the orderly

process of Nature no less than are the miracles which we call a

buttercup, a rock crystal, a glacier, the noon-day sun! We can trace,

by observation and inference, the orderly growth and development of

these things from simpler things; we can discover continuity and

common properties determining their diverse existence. But we find no

explanation of them; we cannot account for the properties of matter

which determine them, nor for the existence of anything--whether it be

a drop of water, or human thought and consciousness. There are no

special and exceptional "incomprehensibles" requiring us to assume

that special "principles" or "spirits" are concerned with them whilst

the rest are to be accounted for and explained in a more general way.

Wherever we push our inquiries we come equally and inevitably, as did

primaeval man, to that of which there is no explanation--the perpetual

miracle, the miracle of the nature of things, of existence itself. The

man of science bows his head in the presence of this all-pervading

mystery. He is called arrogant by those who arrogate to themselves the

right to "explain" things and to deal in vital spirits and

metaphysical nostrums for that purpose. From time to time they fill

with their proclamations the great silence which he has learnt to

accept with reverence and humility. As the years roll on their hollow

phrases are less frequent, and acquire the pathetic interest which

belongs to all such decaying remnants of the thought and effort of the

childhood of man.

It seems still to be necessary to insist that it is not reasonable to

assume as an indisputable fact that man can arrive at an "explanation"

of existence and the nature of things. This assumption has been made

in the past, and, by a well-known trick of advocacy, it has been

argued that since science fails to "explain" these things, the old

prehistoric fancies as to spirits--even though they "explain" nothing

and have themselves to be "explained"--hold the field and must be

accepted as true. There is an alternative, and that is to admit our

ignorance. No man has ever seen or knows what is on the other side of

the moon, that which does not face our earth. There are few amongst us

who, in this admitted and complete state of ignorance, would persist

in declaring that we must accept as true the suppositions of ancient

races of men as to the existence there of men-like creatures, or would

be deluded by the argument that since we do not know what is there the

suppositions in question must be accepted as true. We cannot, as a

matter of observation, assert that these supposed beings are not

there, but we can find no reason to make it appear even probable, nor

any means of proving by experiment, that they are. We refuse to

entertain such suppositions.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 10: This subject is discussed and some account of the

chemical nature of protoplasm given in my book, "Science from an Easy

Chair" (Methuen, 1910), which consists of a first series of papers

similar to those which are collected in the present volume as a

"Second Series." The chapters in the earlier volume to which I wish to

direct the reader's attention are those entitled "The Universal

Structure of Living Things," "Protoplasm, Life and Death," "Chemistry

and Protoplasm," "The Simplest Living Things."]

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