EQUIPMENT FOR THE ALPS
BY J. P. FARRAR
EQUIPMENT
Too much attention cannot be paid to the question of equipment. The
careful mountaineer must always be prepared to face bad weather and
the possibility of an involuntary bivouac when the exposure maybe very
severe. At the same time, his outfit must be as light and simple as
possible. My recommendations are based on the experience of a great
many years’ active service in mountaineering, during which I have had
to face most of the contingencies which the pursuit involves.
[Sidenote: Boots.]
Boots should be made of very stout cowhide, _unlined_, worked to the
softness of thick buckskin. The back and sides should be in one piece
(‘navvy back’) and of rather thinner hide, and as soft as buckskin
gloves. The front part must, above all things, not be tight over the
big toe-joint which needs plenty of play, or over the toes, i.e. there
must be plenty of _height_ (i.e. like a modified ski-boot) as well as
width for the toes. The test is, that one must be able to move one’s
toes readily--in fact, crumple them up inside the boot.
The boots must fit tightly over the instep, so as to prevent the foot
jamming forward when descending. The eyelet holes should be close
together, not more than half an inch centre to centre, the first and
last ones being put close to the ends of the lacing. The tongue of
thin, soft leather must be sewn to the sides.
For many years I have had the uppers of my boots made very short--just
over the ankles like a rather high shoe (four inches from the top of
the heel to the upper edge). They leave the foot very free, lighten the
boot, and, when properly fitting and of soft leather, lace up tightly
and prevent any snow or stones getting into the boot, thus dispensing
entirely with putties or gaiters except on big, cold snow-mountains.
The soles should be not over ⅝-inch thick, and the same thickness in
the waist. They should not project, but must give width enough for a
full tread. The heels should be not more than one inch thick, made long
and _rather projecting_, so as to give a firm, wide tread. They must be
sewn--not pegged--to the sole. Fatal accidents have occurred through
the heel tearing away from the sole. Attention must be paid to the
inner sole or floor of the boot, the edges of which must be bevelled
off or they will damage the sole of the foot. A loose sole of cork or
felt should be worn inside the boot.
I dispense with toecaps, or have a very short one just covering the
ends of the toes, as I have never found a bootmaker who could put on a
toecap of the regular length without contracting the end of the boot
and compressing the toes in a dangerous manner.
The ordinary bootmaker knows nothing about an alpine boot, which
is very different from a shooting boot. The fault of Swiss-made
mountain boots is that the leather is very hard and the boots much
too cumbersome and heavy. A guide’s equipment is the very last to be
imitated.
The measurements for boots should be taken standing evenly on both
feet and over the mountain sock and stocking intended to be worn. The
boots must not press uncomfortably at any point even when quite new.
They need not permit of the inner sole being worn for the first time or
two of using, but must after then permit of _lacing up quite tightly_.
No hesitation must be permitted in rejecting boots that do not fit
perfectly well, as damaged feet may lay a man up and cause his party
delay and loss.
Of course, a mountain boot should be broken in beforehand.
A good pair of London-made boots will cost, pre-war, from £2, 10s. to
£3, and are worth the money. The fit and make of boots is of the utmost
importance. Boots tight in the toes cost one of my companions the loss
from frost-bite of the toes of both feet.
_Never let your boots out of your possession._ Boots burnt in the
drying caused severe frost-bite to a very well-known alpine climber and
Himalayan explorer.
An _unlined_ boot such as described will dry very quickly if stuffed
with dry paper, hay, straw or oats--changed at intervals--and only
requires a little castor-oil rubbed in before each expedition to render
it quite supple and able to turn a lot of water. Boots should never be
dried by a fire nor put in a hot sun for more than a very few minutes.
The _unlined_ boot is also more porous, so that the foot has less
tendency to get hot and damp and subsequently cold.
In a hut, boots should always be stuffed as described, and this is
even more important in a planned as well as an impromptu bivouac, as
otherwise they freeze hard in a bent or twisted shape, and are very
awkward to get on. A pair of light cloth slippers may be carried, or a
pair of very light shoes for walking on occasion.
[Sidenote: Nailing Boots.]
Do not use too many nails. The so-called wing-nails overlapping each
other all round the soles are absurd, and wear perfectly smooth. About
six wing-nails kept in position by flanking hobnails as described may
be used for the toes.
Wrought-iron cube-headed nails with long shafts, obtainable in the
alpine centres, set all round the edge of the soles ¾-inch centre to
centre, including the waists, and clenched through, do all right. About
seven or eight nails placed at suitable intervals are enough for the
tread part of the soles.
The front edge of the heel should have about six nails set close
together, as it takes a lot of strain downhill; the others can be
placed as on the sole-edges. One nail is enough for the centre of the
heel.
Several patent nails have been introduced, among which the so-called
=U.H.U.= Stollen, which are screwed on, are very efficient, but require
some attention to see that the screws do not work loose. I have used
them for years with satisfaction. They are obtainable from Max Seib,
Karlsruhe.
An even better nail appears to be the lately invented Tricouni nail
obtainable from W. Stern, 40 Brazennose Street, Manchester, illustrated
opposite. The notched pattern (Model D), price now 11s. per 100, are
best. They must be set _as close to the edge_ of the sole as possible,
with intervals of ¾-inch to 1 inch, and continued right up to the
heel. They must, of course, not be driven in the sewing of the boot.
Along and close up to the front edge of the heel should be set four of
the nails _broadside_ on, the two outer ones reinforced close behind
by two nails _endwise_ and with three others round the heel at equal
intervals. Tricouni nails can be used for the tread of the soles, or
almost preferably half a dozen wrought-iron hobnails suitably spaced.
Tricouni nails are specially hardened, and are said to retain their
sharpness till quite worn out. The plates, no doubt, protect the sole
somewhat. They certainly give a firmer stand than any ordinary nail,
besides saving considerable weight.[4] A few small hobnails may be set
in the waist of the boot.
[Illustration]
[Sidenote: Stockings.]
A short sock of Norwegian natural wool--thick and coarse--and
_perfectly easy_, especially over the toes, should be worn. They are
obtainable at the alpine centres, and also at Lockwoods, 42 Jermyn
Street, S.W., being used for ski-boots. Over this should be worn a long
woollen stocking of stout, rough wool. The feet must be big enough to
fit _comfortably_ over the inner sock _without contracting the toes in
the least_. They should be long enough to come 4 to 6 inches above the
knee in case of an impromptu bivouac or very cold weather. Continental
climbers wear ‘Wadenstutzen,’ i.e. stockings without feet. With these
only spare socks need be carried.
Buy socks and stockings big enough, as they shrink.
The double sock and stocking and inner sole are meant not only for
warmth, but also to save the foot from damage ensuing from long days on
rocks and rough paths.
Remember your whole journey may be spoilt, and your own and your
companions’ time and money wasted by damaged feet.
[Sidenote: Gaiters.]
Gaiters are not really needed except for long snow expeditions. Putties
are, however, often worn even for an ordinary climb; since they tend
to stop the circulation they must be used with caution in very cold
weather. If for big snow mountains, the pattern with spat keeps the
foot warmer, and can be kept tight on the boot by a bit of stout
string passing under the instep. This is easily replaced when worn.
If an ordinary puttie is worn, it is best, in order to prevent the
end slipping loose on the greasy upper of the boot, to have a large
size of hook (‘hook-and-eye’ pattern) sewn to the end of the puttie.
This can be hooked into the lacing of the boot at the start of the
winding. A good gaiter is the old-fashioned buttoned gaiter to come
well down nearly to the toes, made fairly loose of _unlined_ loden,
kept in position by bits of stout string attached to leather lugs sewn
_outside_ the lower edges of the gaiters, on each side, the string
passing under the waist, and brought over to tie on the spat, which is
thus kept in place and prevents any snow working up. Such gaiters are
warm, light and effective.
[Sidenote: Clothes.]
The coat should be of stout tweed. I use a specially made ‘Double
Twist’ Scotch Cheviot, treated with alum, which renders it showerproof.
The coat must button up tight round the throat to exclude driving snow.
The sleeves must be made with gussets like shirt sleeves, so that one
can lift one’s arms without stirring the body of the coat. This is very
important when climbing rocks and step-cutting. A belt to the coat is a
nuisance.
_No lining whatever_, except a bit of woollen lining to protect
the _outside_ of the arm from shoulder to elbow--not even padding
or stiffening pieces. Four outside pockets, _all unlined_, and all
made with flaps and buttons. Two large inside pockets with flaps and
buttons. The pockets should be rather larger at the bottom than at the
opening. If safe pockets are desired, to protect watch or glasses on
severe rock-climbing, small pockets with flaps should be placed inside
and high up, almost under each armpit.
The coat should be made double thickness of cloth on the front, and
should be perfectly loose everywhere.
The buttons should be closer together than usual, so as to keep out
driving snow.
The lower pockets should be set high enough, so that when full they do
not catch in the groin when mounting steep slopes. The sleeves must
have a second button to button tight round the wrist in storm.
Such a coat, if taken off now and again and shaken, will stand quite a
little rain, and will in any case be lighter and _dry far quicker than
a lined coat_. Pin half a dozen stout safety pins under the collar.
Waistcoat should be of the same cloth throughout, _including the
back_--_unlined throughout_--made rather longer than the ordinary
waistcoat, especially at back--no back strap--four pockets outside with
flap and button--all unlined--one inside pocket with flap and button
for letter-case. Collar to button close up.
Knickerbockers of the same cloth, made very long in the seat so that
they do not catch at the knee when mounting steep slopes--waistband to
be unlined--two outside hip-pockets with flap and buttons besides the
ordinary pockets--to be made wide at the knees, but the width to be on
the outside of the knee, as if on the inside the crampons are apt to
catch. The riding-breeches pattern is no good, as the knees get wet
much quicker and remain wet longer.
I myself have my knickerbockers made wide enough to turn right up over
the knees, being kept there by safety pins; one walks thus bare-kneed
with great ease and comfort.
The seat and knees may be made double by means of patches. Pin half a
dozen stout safety pins in the waistband.
[Sidenote: Hat.]
The best hat is a grey or buff stout felt (unlined) ‘smasher’
hat--medium width brim and with a felt Jäger lining-band instead of the
usual leather one. If too thin, the brim flaps about in the wind and
needs pinning back with a safety pin. Fit a ‘sweat-band’ of oiled silk
under the lining band, to prevent the hat getting stained with sweat.
The cow-boy pattern with stiff brims does not do, as it is apt to get
knocked off by contact with rocks, and one cannot sleep in it. Carry
some sort of light cap.
[Sidenote: Shirt, etc.]
The ‘K’ or ‘KK’ Jaeger shirts answer well. Their short ‘G’ pants also
answer well. No undervest should be worn.
_Remember, if you do not want to feel cold, avoid getting hot._
The proper place for the coat, except in very cold weather or on
difficult work, is over the shoulders or in the sack, the sleeves being
tucked through the shoulder straps. Even when starting very early do
not pile on clothes.
[Sidenote: Extra Clothes.]
Carry a light woollen sweater and a very light woollen muffler, about
one foot wide and six feet long at least. In very cold weather, or if
sleeping out, pass this tight twice _round the stomach_ and fasten with
safety pins. Carry two or three large silk handkerchiefs. The coat,
sweater and a silk handkerchief will protect the throat enough.
_Keep your stomach warm, as it furnishes the heat to the rest._
Carry a light waterproof cape. They are obtainable at Fritsch & Co.,
Zurich, made of Japanese silk--cost about 30s., weight about a ½ lb.
They save one the annoyance of getting wet going up to a hut or bivouac
or in the valley, and are useful in the case of an impromptu bivouac,
as they keep off the wind. They cannot, of course, be well used when
climbing.
Carry a light woollen helmet or _passe-montagne_ to come right over the
head and neck, with opening for eyes, nose and mouth.
Carry, _without fail_, an extra pair of stockings a bit thinner, since
weight counts, than your heavy climbing stockings, but strong enough
to use in an emergency or to change if benighted. And it is also very
desirable to carry a light spare shirt on long-exposed expeditions.
Carry two pairs of gloves made of coarse, thick wool, without separate
fingers and amply large. They should also be long enough to cover the
wrist of the sleeve. Short gloves are useless. Pin each pair together
with a safety pin. Carry one pair at the bottom of the sack, the other
pair in the outside pocket of the sack. A pair of mittens is useful.
* * * * *
Captain Farrar allows me to insert some suggestions on an alternative
dress suitable for men sensitive to sudden changes of temperature.
[Sidenote: Some Alternatives (by G.W.Y.).]
THE COAT.--Unlined except for the lining on the outside of the arms,
before mentioned, and a single strip of loose Jaeger fabric, stitched
only at the upper edge and ends, across the shoulders. I prefer also
a lighter material, very close woven, for both coat and breeches.
Heavy friezes, as often worn, absorb wet and admit wind as the fabric
slackens with wear.
[Sidenote: For the Alps.]
So-called ‘tropical’ and ‘waterproof’ materials dissolve like paper on
rough rock work. The collar turns down well away from the neck, and,
when needed, buttons in front with a flap which is sewn on to the coat,
under the collar, along its _lower edge_, so that when buttoned up to
the two sides of the collar the flap leaves no hole where snow or wind
can enter.
THE BREECHES.--Trousers, such as used to be worn, had the advantage
of leaving the knee free; but they are uncomfortable with putties and
clumsy at the ankle. Best of all leg-gear, in some respects, are the
‘shorts,’ as worn by the Tyrolese; but these leave the knee unprotected
for rocks or against bad weather. I prefer a compromise: the breeches
made loose to the knee, as above described, but the leg of the breech
below the knee carried on and down, in the same material and shaped
to the calf, low enough to be easily covered at the end by a sock. To
allow passage to the foot, the extension opens down the _inside_ of
the calf, and is secured there by a row of four small press springs.
Buttons or buckles at the knees are always breaking on rocks, and can
be painful. Lacing is better, but apt to be too tight. One set of
these small press springs, in spite of warnings, has lasted me for
five years, without a single one coming open or losing its strength.
They are, of course, well protected, as placed on the inside against
the ‘give’ of the calf. The advantage of such long breeches is that
they do not, like the usual type, constrict the knee or calf, and they
do not, like trousers, drag over it, since the weight of the leg is
partly carried by shaping and by the support of the sock. They are worn
with socks and not stockings. This both economizes carrying and avoids
the clumsy ‘gump’ where a puttie is twisted at its upper end over the
stocking top. With two pairs of socks worn, one holding the end of
the breech leg and one turned down over the boot, the climber need
only put on the puttie for deep snow, or to protect the shin on sharp
rocks. In contact with rough surfaces the cloth leg is, of course, more
durable than any woollen stocking. They should be made ample between
the legs, and the seam stitched strongly and far up the front, closing
with a flap or fob, as in riding-breeches. For snow, wind and wear
this is a better protection than the usual single row of buttons. Two
buckle-straps above the seat behind, the lower set rather far down
and kept the tighter, enable one, if the breeches are well cut, to do
without braces or belt. At the same time, they avoid constricting the
waist or lower part of the lungs, as the line of tension, or close-fit,
hangs thus round the outside of the hip-bone, and the waistband can be
left quite loose.
UNDERWEAR.--I prefer, as an alternative to a shirt, two or three very
light silky-woollen ‘Shetlands,’ opening down the front and sitting
close to the body all the way. One at least should come right down
to the thighs. The lowest, a zephyr or almost silk-web, with short
sleeves; the second, an ordinary warm light Shetland, with longer
sleeves over the elbow; the third, thicker, of looser fabric, with no
sleeves. These can be thrown open, put on or taken off, one or more, in
a few seconds, as the temperature varies. They dry at once, in wind or
sun, or from the heat of the body, and are at once warmer, drier and
less oppressive wear than a full absorbent shirt. I wear no waistcoat.
A silk scarf is pleasant to the feel, and protective against sun or
cold. I find the best and cheapest to be a yard and a half of silk
motor veiling. This dries at once, and can be used for any purpose,
from a sling to a turban or dressing-gown.
[Sidenote: For Rock Climbing in Britain.]
Corduroy or close-woven frieze provides the best wear. Coat and
breeches should be _unlined_. The knees can be strengthened by a double
thickness or by buckskin. In the latter case ordinary ‘strapping’ will
do, set over and not inside the knee. It is well to have removable
oilskin bags for some of the pockets, to keep food, etc., dry in rain,
or, at need, to sit upon.
A sweater worn, as is often done, without a coat is a mistake. It
catches on rocks, absorbs mist and rain, admits wind, and has no
pockets. Experience teaches that the wet or windy cold of British hills
can be far more trying than the dry cold of alpine days.
Boots may be lighter and more lightly nailed than for the Alps. For
this see “Rock Climbing,” p. 154. As they are liable to get over-wet
on British hills, and over-dried and warped in British kitchens, it is
well to have a pair of very light aluminium toe-trees, adjusted to the
size of the boot, which can be inserted the moment the boots are taken
off in the evening. These serve to keep the shape.
Rubber or rope soled boots or shoes are now considered almost
indispensable: made of light canvas, to go in a pocket.
Putties are superfluous; a light leather anklet, or a couple of feet
cut off an old puttie and twisted round the boot-top, sufficiently
prevents the entrance of small scree. For wear in snow, and this
applies also to the winter snow of the Alps, it is a good device to
have a narrow band of strong, soft material sewn on round the top of
the boot, which laces up, close round the ankle, in a line with the
bootlacing. This is adequate protection for all but prolonged snow wear.
A good British head-wear is a strong tam-o’-shanter. It is better wind
and rain protection, and cooler, than a cap, and leaves the forehead
freer than a felt hat. Best of all is no head-gear at all.
For those whose hands suffer from cold on wet rocks, or who, like
myself, have once had their fingers frost-touched, some sort of gloves
are necessary. In rock climbing, gloves, and still more fingerless
‘gubs,’ destroy the touch and grip. I find the best compromise to be
strong woollen finger-mittens, with fingers extending as far as the
first joint. Some climbers profess to get comfort from warming their
fingers (and thawing out their rock holds) with the small pocket
Japanese ‘Instra.’
It is well to have everything _marked_, or of distinctive colouring. In
Britain, the orgies of the ‘drying-room’ are a daily trial to temper
and time.
It is well also to remember that, in all mountaineering, we are to
form the foreground of our companions’ holiday views of great scenery,
and that it is our duty not to inflict a larger proportion of the
incongruous or ugly upon their daily outlook than is required by the
first condition of our own comfort and protection.
* * * * *
Women have learnt by experience that convention must give way to common
sense in the matter of costume.
[Sidenote: Costume for Women (by Miss Bronwen Jones).]
For alpine work, clothing should be entirely woollen; the suit,
comprising coat, breeches and skirt, of light weight and colour,
and--this is essential--wind-proof. For British climbing, gaberdine or
cord can be substituted for wool, as, here, protection against rain is
of more importance than protection against wind. The coat should be
shaped like a man’s jacket, furnished with an adjustable collar, storm
sleeves, and an ample supply of pockets, closed by flaps. It should be
of such a length as to reach within eight inches of the knee.
The skirt is still often looked upon as a necessity in the Alps, but
it is discarded early in an ascent. It should therefore be of a soft
and light material, so as to be easily carried in a rucksack. It should
stop at least ten inches from the ground, and be not more than two
yards wide.
The breeches should be as close-fitting as those of a man, as
over-fullness is apt to be a hindrance on rocks. They should also be
laced rather than buttoned at the knee, buttons being a source of
discomfort when kneeling.
A sweater is generally preferred to a blouse for wear under the coat,
as it is loose-fitting, warmer and does not impede the movements of the
arms.
The most suitable hat is made of either grey or white soft felt, wide
enough to provide a shade from the sun. A stiff brim should be avoided
on account of the discomfort caused by its coming into contact with the
rope. Hatpins should obviously be replaced by an elastic.
It is not advisable to wear gloves for rock climbing, as they lessen
the sense of touch. Woollen gloves, with no divisions for the fingers,
are recommended for wear on snow or when stationary.
A silk scarf, tied tightly over the hat, has been found a great boon
during high winds in the Alps.
Boots, stockings, etc., are the same as those advised for men.
In order to avoid great subsequent discomfort, the face and neck
should be carefully protected against sunburn. For this purpose an
even layer of some good colour salve is most effective. Failing this,
a layer of lanoline covered with toilet powder has proved a fairly
good substitute. A small pocket-mirror should be carried for use
when applying the mixture, so that one can see that no place is left
uncovered. Should the face become sunburnt it should be bathed in very
hot water and then covered with grease.
OUTFIT
BY J.P. FARRAR
Even the beginner had better accustom himself to carry a sack, which
may contain his gloves, sweater, etc.
[Sidenote: Rucksack.]
A good size is 21 inches wide and 21 inches deep, the bottom and
side walls 4 inches wide, as this gives a flatter sack. Two outside
pockets with flap and button--the carrying straps of woollen webbing
1½ inch wide--the whole made of waterproof sailcloth with a flap. A
good pattern is supplied by Alpine outfitters such as Fritsch & Co.
of Zurich, who issue elaborate catalogues of alpine equipment. The
Continental dealers supply a very light frame which goes between the
back and the sack, thus preventing the back getting hot. The best
I know is the “Touristenfreund Rucksackstütze,” No. 20, 3½ marks,
supplied by Fritsch. The Norwegians make a novel kind of sack, the
weight of which is carried partly by the hips.
[Sidenote: Ice-axe.]
The best ice-axes I know are made by Schenk in Grindelwald (difficult
to get delivery). The same pattern is also made by Fritz Jörg,
Zweilütschinen, near Interlaken, from whom I have had several good
axes. It is necessary, however, to specify the pattern, as he makes
several. Sizes are as follows:
Length of adze-side of head from centre of
handle 5” (12 cms.)
Length of pick-side of head from centre
of handle 7” (18 cms.)
Width of blade of adze 2½” (6 cms.)
Depth of socket of head (to give weight) 2” (5 cms.)
Length of side irons of head from lower
edge of socket 7” to 8” (about 20 cms.)
Side Irons should be fastened to the stock
by 3 copper rivets, not screws.[5]
Length of ferrule of axe handle 2½” (6 cms.)
Length of point of axe handle 2” (5 cms.)
The point must not be sharp, and if longer
than stated, may tear one’s clothes when
cutting. The point and ferrule made in
one piece are very objectionable, as they
allow the point no play if caught.
Length of stock or handle, including point 39” (1 m.)
This is a good average length for general
purposes. Longer axes offer no advantages,
and are awkward. I use a
36-inch axe, which is very handy, but
it is short for cutting downhill.
Diameter of handle immediately under
socket of axehead 1⅛” by 1⅜”, say 30 by 35 mm.
Diameter of handle immediately above
ferrule 1-1/16” by 1-5/16”, say 27 by 33 mm.
These sizes give strength enough. If exceeded,
they fill the grasp of an ordinary
hand so that, as is often needed,
nothing else can be gripped. If the
lower end is thinner it will cramp the
hand when cutting.
The axe should balance at about 9 inches
from the top.
An axe as described weighs 3 lb., and will be equal to any work usually
met with on a mountain expedition. If the balance and the curves of the
head come out well, it will cut ice clean and without any recoiling jar
to the arms. Notches on the underside of the head of the axe, often
seen in shop axes, are very objectionable.
[Illustration]
Mr. Eckenstein has designed an ice axe differing radically from the
normal type, to be used in conjunction with his crampons. It is
34 inches long over all, and has a much smaller head. The few who
have used it in conjunction with the special crampons claim for the
combination advantages in difficult ice. The subject has been treated
by Dr. J. Jacot Guillarmod in an elaborate paper with scale drawings
and many sketches in the _Jahrbuch des S. A. C._, vol. xlv. pp. 344-53,
and undoubtedly deserves the closest attention.[6]
This axe, and crampons, are made by A. Hupfauf, Einsiedeln,
Switzerland.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--THUMB KNOT. CORRECT]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--INCORRECT]
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--FIGURE OF 8 KNOT. CORRECT]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--FIGURE OF 8 TIE. CORRECT]
[Sidenote: Axe Sling.]
When climbing rocks the axe has often to be slung on the arm. A good
sling for rocks only is made of lamp wick joined to form a circle of 25
inches. This is carried in the pocket, and is easily put on and off.
The fixed hemp sling, so often seen, gets wet and cut if any steps have
to be cut.
The best combined sling, invented by Mr. V. Fynn, and supplied by
Fritsch & Co., Zurich, consists of a leather loop attached to a brass
ring running on the axe handle between the head and a stop. This sling
serves for rock work like an ordinary sling, and, in addition, is
looped round the wrist when step-cutting, thus preventing the loss of
the axe, which to a party of climbers engaged in difficult work might
be a source of danger. I always use it.
[Sidenote: Rope.]
The greatest attention must be paid to ropes, as fatalities due to the
breakage of these have been very numerous.
I was, in consequence, induced to institute some very careful inquiries
into the question of the most suitable ropes for alpine work, and some
very exhaustive tests were thereupon made of various ropes by Mr. O.
Eckenstein, which have been confirmed by subsequent tests made by Swiss
climbers. The result was the evolution of a flax rope, which, in point
of ultimate tensile strength and extension (i.e. elasticity), surpasses
considerably any other rope, weight for weight.
The following table gives the ascertained results of the two best ropes
tested:
+---------+--------+--------+---------------+--------+---------------+
| | | | Ultimate | | Work required |
| | | | tensile | | to break test |
| | | | strength, | Exten- | length of 5 |
| | | | in | sion, | feet, in |
| |Circum- | Weight | pounds. |measured| foot-pounds. |
| Make. |ference,|per 100 +-----+---------+ on test+-----+---------+
| | in |feet, in| |Relative,| length | |Relative,|
| | inches.|pounds. |Abso-|for rope | of 5 |Abso-|for rope |
| | | |lute.| of | feet, |lute.| of |
| | | | |standard | per | |standard |
| | | | | weight. | cent. | | weight.|
+---------+--------+--------+-----+---------+--------+-----+---------+
|No. 1.-- | | | | | | | |
| English,| | | | | | | |
| Flax | 1·4 | 4·375 |1904 | 2176 | 16·3 | 451 | 515 |
|No. 2.-- | | | | | | | |
| English,| | | | | | | |
| Manila | 1·4 | 4·65 |1792 | 1927 | 12·3 |331·5| 356 |
|No. 3.-- | | | | | | | |
| No. 1, | | | | | | | |
| worn | 1·4 | 4·69 |1456 | 1552 | 13·2 | 288 | 307 |
+---------+--------+--------+-----+---------+--------+-----+---------+
The No. 1 rope is manufactured by Frost Brothers Ltd., 342 Commercial
Road, London, E., and is known as Frost’s left-hand alpine rope, 1¼
inch.
It is beautifully flexible to handle and knot, and after the first
wetting shows no tendency to kink. I do not know much of its wearing
capacities--in this respect it is probably excelled by the harder
Manila ropes. For the haulage of duffers where the rope is constantly
dragged against rocks, no doubt a much heavier rope of Manila or
possibly wire would be preferable. The Frost rope now described is
designed for the use of trained mountaineers. All that I demand and all
that ought to be demanded of an alpine rope is that it shall not show
undue wear during a single season.
I never use for a _second_ season a rope on which life may depend when
a new one can be obtained for a few shillings. Even when a rope shows
no appreciable wear, it may have been subjected to some sudden severe
strain which has robbed it of a portion of its virtue. I go so far as
to say that used ropes ought _not_ to be given away to guides who will
go on using them for an indefinite time.
The No. 3 rope in the table was a Frost rope used by the late Mr. H.
O. Jones for one season. The decline in its resisting power is marked,
although it is still a fairly strong rope.
[Sidenote: Knots.]
With respect to knots for use in alpine ropes, Mr. Eckenstein was
again good enough to investigate the question, and the accompanying
illustrations have been prepared from photographs taken under his
instructions. They are all applicable to a _left-hand rope_.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--SINGLE FISHERMAN’S BEND. CORRECT]
[Illustration: FIG. 6--INCORRECT]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--INCORRECT]
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--BOWLINE AND OVERHAND KNOT. CORRECT]
The following is an extract from his covering letter to me:
“A laid rope usually consists of three strands twisted together. Each
strand thus forms a helix. The strands are ‘laid’ together to form
the rope, and the way in which they are laid together is called the
‘lay.’ Now if we begin to tie a knot, we similarly ‘lay’ together,
two ropes, and each rope then forms a portion of a helix. The general
rule is this: if the strands of the rope used form right-hand helices
(as is the case with the old Alpine Club rope), then in that part
of the knot which is subjected to the greatest strain (I use the
word ‘strain’ in its popular sense) the two ropes must each form a
left-hand helix. Conversely, if we use a rope the strands of which
form left-hand helices (as is the case with the new Frost rope), then
in that part of the knot which is subjected to the greatest strain
the two ropes must each form a right-hand helix. [See also my paper,
“Knots with the Lay,” in the _Climbers’ Club Journal_, vol. xi., No.
44, p. 144, June 1909.]
“The annexed figures include three classes of knots: simple or
elementary knots; knots for uniting two ropes; loop knots. All are
shown tied with left-hand rope. The correct way of tying the knots is
shown in each case, as well as some incorrect ways. Each knot is shown
open, before it is drawn taut.
“The single fisherman’s bend, shown in Fig. 7, is excellent for
uniting two ropes of similar size for temporary purposes, as it can
readily be undone. Hence it has a tendency to work loose in course of
time, and if it is necessary to unite two ropes of similar size for
longer periods, it is better to use the figure of 8 tie, also known as
the Flemish tie, shown in Fig. 4. This, though somewhat complicated,
is strong and reliable and has no tendency to work loose.
“As regards making a loop in the middle of a rope, no entirely
satisfactory knot has yet been devised. The ‘middleman noose,’ shown
in the 1892 Alpine Club Report of the Special Committee on Equipment
for Mountaineers (p. 4), has the fatal disadvantage that under certain
conditions, when a pull is applied in a certain direction, it acts
as a true noose--that is, as a slip or running knot. The best middle
loop at present known is the open-handed loop, which is free from this
disadvantage, and which is shown in Fig. 14.
“For an end loop, the bowline, shown in Fig. 11, is excellent. The
loose end should be secured by a half-hitch (see 1892 Report, p. 4),
or by an overhand knot; the latter, shown in Fig. 12, is preferable.
“Finally, a bowline on a bight, the most important ‘first aid’ knot
for transporting an injured person, is shown in Fig. 16.”
Messrs. Kirkaldy made in my presence some interesting tests of knots,
with the following results:
Middleman Knot. Strength relative to rope.
Manila rope 44 per cent.
Flax rope 50 per cent.
Single bowline Knot. Strength relative to rope.
Manila rope 55 per cent.
Flax rope 59 per cent.
This again shows that a knot reduces the efficiency of a flax rope less
than that of the Manila rope.
_New ropes should not be wetted or stretched before use_, but the kinks
should be carefully worked out by hand. And a wet rope must be dried
_in the shade_.
The best length of rope for a party of three is 100 to 120 feet. It is
a good plan on long, snow-covered glacier expeditions to carry a spare
50-foot rope, and on some difficult rock climbs a long spare rope is
necessary. This can be of a lighter kind, about 1 inch circumference.
Beale, 194 Shaftesbury Avenue, London, supplies a Manila alpine line
very suitable for such a purpose.
[Sidenote: Pitons.]
Pitons are occasionally necessary for difficult rock climbs.[7] They
are spikes of Swedish iron ½-inch in diameter and about 6 to 9 inches
long, turned over to form a loop at one end, through which the rope can
be passed, and drawn at the other to a wedge-shaped edge so as to allow
of driving into a crevice of rock.
[Sidenote: Kletterschuhe.]
Kletterschuhe are much used in the Dolomites, and it has lately been
shown that they can be used with advantage not only on dry rocks but
also in great climbs like the Ecrins and the Ailefroide. A good kind is
the so-called Sexten pattern, the soles of which are built up of layers
of cloth.
[Sidenote: Crampons.]
Crampons add security, and are very useful in saving step-cutting on
great ice climbs; but otherwise, especially on journeys, are scarcely
worth carrying.
Mr. Eckenstein has designed a very effective kind, the only drawback
being their weight (about 3 lb. the pair). A useful crampon is the
so-called Allgäuer model, 8-spiked, weight about 1⅝ lb. per pair. A.
Hupfauf of Einsiedeln, Switzerland, is a reliable maker (also of
ice-axes if pattern is sent). The crampons should have a hemp strap
with branches sewn on to the two pairs of back rings and buckling over
the instep, and a separate toe-strap sewn on to the front pair of rings
and buckling over the fore-foot. This strap must not be buckled tight,
as hemp shrinks when damp, and pressure might cause frost-bite.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--BOWLINE. CORRECT]
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--INCORRECT]
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--INCORRECT]
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--INCORRECT]
This form of fastening (as on the old wooden skate) cramps the foot
less, and is much more quickly adjusted than a single long cross-over
strap. The crampon requires careful fitting to the sole of the boot (a
stiff cardboard template of each sole should be sent to the maker of
the crampon), and when nailing the boots, gaps should be left for the
limbs of the crampons.
In using crampons care must be taken to keep the feet apart and not
lift them more than necessary, as serious accidents have occurred
through the spikes catching in the stockings or even knickerbockers.
Crampons are not for use on rocks, except possibly when iced, but they
are particularly necessary on steep grass mountains, like the Höfats.
[Sidenote: Spectacles and Grease.]
Both spectacles and grease are very necessary on glacier expeditions.
The spectacles can either be smoked glasses or, better still, the new
green-yellow glasses. I prefer 1½ inch convexo-concave glasses in
strong steel or horn frames without any wire netting.
The best grease for the face which I know is the Pomade Sèchehaye; but
there are other similar preparations which rightly depend upon colour
for their effectiveness. Lanoline is too thin. Blackening the face and
all round the eyes with burnt cork is also an efficient remedy against
sunburn, and suffices in the case of loss or breakage of spectacles. Or
a mask of paper, with eye-slits, can be made.
[Sidenote: Field-glass.]
A Zeiss 8-power _monocular_ prismatic glass weighs about a ½ lb., and
can be carried in the pocket without any case for instant use.
The binocular glasses are too cumbersome.
This glass can also be used for sweeping terrain for chamois, but for
detailed work a 30-power aluminium telescope is better.
Less effective, but lighter to carry, and sufficient for most alpine
prospecting, is the pocket telescope, made by Messrs. Ross, for
sporting purposes. It is about 4 inches in length, and weighs only a
few ounces.
[Sidenote: Aneroid and Compass.]
Good mountain aneroids, graduated to 5000 metres, are made by Casella,
London, and by Usteri-Reinacher, Zurich. Even on an ordinary expedition
they are interesting, and can be useful to elucidate one’s position in
thick weather.
_A compass must always be carried._ Hughes, 59 Fenchurch Street, E.C.,
make an excellent liquid-filler compass which renders the needle very
steady.
[Sidenote: Maps.]
The best map of the district must always be carried with the party.
[Sidenote: Water-bottle and Drinking-cup.]
I have for many years used bottles made of Para rubber with wide
(1¼-inch) mouth and screw stopper. Contents 1 litre, weight 6 ounces,
price 6½ marks (H. Schwaiger, Munich). If cured for a few days with
weak white wine and water or coffee they do not impart any taste to
contents, even if left in for a couple of days. When empty, they take
next to no room.
The full bottle must, of course, be perched on top of the other things
in the sack.
Guides prefer a tin or aluminium receptacle to hold two or three
litres, and the goatskin bottles usual in Dauphiné are also very
practical. As a drinking-cup I know nothing better than the ¼-litre
oval aluminium mug of the Federal troops.
Carry an aluminium dessertspoon.
[Sidenote: Lantern.]
Several patterns of folding lantern are made. Schwaiger supplies one in
aluminium (Alpenvereins), weight 6 ounces, price 6¼ marks.
[Sidenote: Cooking Apparatus.]
I have never carried cooking apparatus, as cooking on an expedition
takes far too long and is a needless luxury. A good one is the
Ideal-Kocher in aluminium supplied by Schwaiger and others, size 1
litre, 6 marks; 2 litres, 8 marks. They are useful for guideless
climbers in crowded huts.
It is not at all a bad plan to carry an aluminium saucepan with lid
(about 1 quart), which will often enable one to cook in a crowded
hut without waiting one’s turn. For a bivouac, a couple of aluminium
saucepans fitting into each other save carrying heavy cooking pots.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.--OPEN-HANDED IKOP. CORRECT]
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--INCORRECT]
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--BOWLINE ON A BIGHT. CORRECT]
[Illustration: FIG. 16.--INCORRECT]
[Sidenote: Outfit for Bivouac.]
The best sleeping sack I know is made of thin Willesden canvas lined
with opossum. The sack should be made to button all round--not sewn.
A suitable size is 6 feet 6 inches long and 2 feet 6 inches wide when
done up. Opossum fur is, however, now expensive, and a very efficient
lining is eiderdown made up in thin merino covering. W. Ratcliff,
saddler, Olney, Bucks, can supply a good sack, made with straps to
roll up, cost £3 to £4, according to the weight of down used (price
pre-war). A light silk sack is made by Heal & Sons, Tottenham Court
Road, cost £2, 10s., but requires a waterproof sheet.
For putting under the hip, a square rubber air-cushion about 2 feet
square is very desirable.
A tent is rarely necessary for a bivouac for one night, as if the
weather were bad enough to need a tent, the conditions next day would
not permit a big climb. The Mummery silk tents are well spoken of. A
light tent of the Mummery pattern, tested and improved upon by Dr.
Longstaff in the Himalayas, and with further improvements by Mr. Young,
is made by Messrs. Piggott, Bishopsgate Street Without. The Cottage
tent of the Amateur Camping Club, London (address, 4 New Union Street,
E.C.; sub., 5s. per annum), is very light, roomy and strong. Their
catalogue is well worth study.
For extended expeditions I have used a tent made of Egyptian flax,
so-called silk. A good size is 9 by 6 by 6 feet to ridge, or better, 12
by 8 by 6 feet to ridge, unless the country is too mountainous. It only
needs two poles, which can in some countries be improvised on the spot;
or the ridge cord can be tied to trees or other obstacles, and poles
dispensed with. These tents are quite waterproof and stand weather
well, whilst they are very light.[8]
One’s endurance and enterprise are not improved by sleeping on the
ground, even on spruce, night after night. The X Compactum bed is a
good portable bed, folds up to 3 feet by 5 inches by 5 inches, weight
20 lb., cost 24s. 6d. This, with a sleeping sack, a couple of Hudson
Bay No. 4 red blankets, a waterproof sheet 7 feet by 5 feet and a hair
pillow, make a good sleeping outfit for a main camp.
[Sidenote: Medicine.]
For alpine purposes I find chlorodyne, Cockle’s pills, a couple of
bandages and a roll of ½-inch American plaster very useful to carry in
the sack.[9]
Small and very light pocket-cases, suitable for mountaineering purposes
(one of medical and the other of surgical remedies), are now supplied
by Messrs. Burroughs & Wellcome.
These notes cover the _special_ requirements of the mountaineer in the
Alps, and I have not thought it necessary to enumerate the many small
things which he needs anyhow, and of which he is the best judge.
_Note._--All prices are pre-war except where stated.
FOOTNOTES:
[4] Cf. an article by O. Eckenstein in the _Climbers’ Club
Journal_, 1914.
[5] See article in the _Climbers’ Club Journal_, 1912, p. 147.
[6] See also pp. 206, 292.
[7] See “Pegs and Aids,” p. 200.
[8] See also “The Himalaya” and “Mountaineering in the Tropics.”
[9] For further medical outfit, see “Mountaineering in the Tropics.”