2HCO.ONH4 + CO(NH2)2 = 2HCONH2 + (NH4)2CO3;

by heating ammonium formate in a sealed tube for some hours at 230

deg. C., or by the action of sodium amalgam on a solution of potassium

cyanate (H. Basarow, _Ber._, 1871, 4, p. 409). It is a liquid which

boils _in vacuo_ at 150 deg., but at 192-195 deg. C. under ordinary

atmospheric pressure, with partial decomposition into carbon monoxide

and ammonia. It dissolves mercuric oxide, with the formation of

mercuric formamide, (HCONH)2Hg.

FORMOSA, a northern territory of the Argentine republic, bounded N. by

Bolivia, N.E. and E. by Paraguay, S. by the Chaco Territory, and W. by

Salta, with the Pilcomayo and Bermejo forming its northern and southern

boundaries. Estimated area, 41,402 sq. m. It is a vast plain, sloping

gently to the S.E., covered with marshes and tropical forests. Very

little is known of it except small areas along the Bermejo and Paraguay

rivers, where attempts have been made to form settlements. The

unexplored interior is still occupied by tribes of wild Indians. The

climate is hot, the summer temperature rising to a maximum of 104 deg. F.

Timber-cutting is the principal occupation of the settlers, though

stock-raising and agriculture engage some attention in the settlements

on the Paraguay. The capital, Formosa (founded 1879), is a small

settlement on the Paraguay with a population of about 1000 in 1900. The

settled population of the territory was 4829 in 1895, which it was

estimated had increased to 13,431 in 1905. The nomadic Indians are

estimated at 8000.

FORMOSA (called _Taiwan_ by the Chinese, and following them by the

Japanese, into whose possession it came after their war with China in

1895), an island in the western Pacific Ocean, between the Southern and

the Eastern China Sea, separated from the Chinese mainland by the

Formosa Strait, which has a width of about 90 m. in its narrowest part.

The island is 225 m. long and from 60 to 80 m. broad, has a coast-line

measuring 731 m., an area of 13,429 sq. m.--being thus nearly the same

size as Kiushiu, the most southern of the four chief islands forming the

Japanese empire proper--and extends from 20 deg. 56' to 25 deg. 15' N.

and from 120 deg. to 122 deg. E. It forms part of the long line of

islands which are interposed as a protective barrier between the Asiatic

coast and the outer Pacific, and is the cause of the immunity from

typhoons enjoyed by the ports of China from Amoy to the Yellow Sea.

Along the western coast is a low plain, not exceeding 20 m. in extreme

width; on the east coast there is a rich plain called Giran, and there

are also some fertile valleys in the neighbourhood of Karenko and Pinan,

extending up the longitudinal valleys of the rivers Karenko and Pinan,

between which and the east coast the Taito range intervenes; but the

rest of the island is mountainous and covered with virgin forest. In the

plains the soil is generally of sand or alluvial clay, covered in the

valleys with a rich vegetable mould. The scenery of Formosa is

frequently of majestic beauty, and to this it is indebted for its

European name, happily bestowed by the early Spanish navigators.

On the addition of Formosa to her dominions, Fuji ceased to be Japan's

highest mountain, and took the third place on the list. Mount Morrison

(14,270 ft.), which the Japanese renamed Niitaka-yama (New High

Mountain), stands first, and Mount Sylvia (12,480 ft.), to which they

give the name of Setzu-zan (Snowy Mountain), comes second. Mount

Morrison stands nearly under the Tropic of Cancer. It is not volcanic,

but consists of argillaceous schist and quartzite. An ascent made by Dr

Honda of the imperial university of Japan showed that, up to a height of

6000 ft., the mountain is clothed with primeval forests of palms,

banyans, cork trees, camphor trees, tree ferns, interlacing creepers and

dense thickets of rattan or stretches of grass higher than a man's

stature. The next interval of 1000 ft. has gigantic cryptomerias and

chamoecyparis; then follow pines; then, at a height of 9500 ft., a broad

plateau, and then alternate stretches of grass and forest up to the top,

which consists of several small peaks. There is no snow. Mount Morrison,

being surrounded by high ranges, is not a conspicuous object. Mount

Sylvia lies in 24 deg. 30' N. lat. There are many other mountains of

considerable elevation. In the north is Getsurobi-zan (4101 ft.); and on

either side of Setzu-zan, with which they form a range running due east

and west across the island, are Jusampunzan (4698 ft.) and Kali-zan

(7027 ft.). Twenty-two miles due south of Kali-zan stands Hakumosha-zan

(5282 ft.), and just 20 m. due south of Hakumosha-zan begins a chain of

three peaks, Suisha-zan (6200 ft.), Hoo-zan (4928), and Niitaka-yama.

These five mountains, Hari-zan, Hakumosha-zan, Suisha-zan, Hoo-zan and

Niitaka-yama, stand almost exactly under 121 deg. E. long., in the very

centre of the island. But the backbone of the island lies east of them,

extending S. from Setzu-zan through Gokan-zan, and Noko-zan and other

peaks and bending S.W. to Niitaka-yama. Yet farther south, and still

lying in line down the centre of the island, are Sankyakunan-zan (3752

ft.), Shurogi-zan (5729 ft.), Poren-zan (4957 ft.), and Kado-zan (9055

ft.), and, finally, in the south-east Arugan-zan (4985 ft.). These, it

will be observed, are all Japanese names, and the heights have been

determined by Japanese observers. In addition to these remarkable inland

mountains, Formosa's eastern shores show magnificent cliff scenery, the

bases of the hills on the seaside taking the form of almost

perpendicular walls as high as from 1500 to 2500 ft. Volcanic outbreaks

of steam and sulphur-springs are found. Owing to the precipitous

character of the east coast few rivers of any size find their way to the

sea in that direction. The west coast, on the contrary, has many

streams, but the only two of any considerable length are the Kotansui,

which rises on Shurogi-zan, and has its mouth at Toko after a course of

some 60 m. and the Seirakei, which rises on Hakumosha-zan, and enters

the sea at a point 57 m. farther north after a course of 90 m.

The climate is damp, hot and malarious. In the north, the driest and

best months are October, November and December; in the south, December,

January, February and March. The sea immediately south of Formosa is the

birthplace of innumerable typhoons, but the high mountains of the island

protect it partially against the extreme violence of the wind.

_Flora and Fauna._--The vegetation of the island is characterized by

tropical luxuriance,--the mountainous regions being clad with dense

forest, in which various species of palms, the camphor-tree (_Laurus

Camphora_), and the aloe are conspicuous. Consul R. Swinhoe obtained no

fewer than 65 different kinds of timber from a large yard in Taiwanfu;

and his specimens are now to be seen in the museum at Kew. The tree

which supplies the materials for the pith paper of the Chinese is not

uncommon, and the cassia tree is found in the mountains. Travellers are

especially struck with the beauty of some of the wild flowers, more

especially with the lilies and convolvuluses; and European greenhouses

have been enriched by several Formosan orchids and other ornamental

plants. The pine-apple grows in abundance. In the lowlands of the

western portion, the Chinese have introduced a large number of

cultivated plants and fruit trees. Rice is grown in such quantities as

to procure for Formosa, in former days, the title of the "granary of

China"; and the sweet potato, taro, millet, barley, wheat and maize are

also cultivated. Camphor, sugar, tea, indigo, ground peanuts, jute,

hemp, oil and rattans are all articles of export.

The Formosan fauna has been but partially ascertained; but at least

three kinds of deer, wild boars, bears, goats, monkeys (probably

_Macacus speciosus_), squirrels, and flying squirrels are fairly

common, and panthers and wild cats are not unfrequent. A poisonous but

beautiful green snake is often mentioned by travellers. Pheasants,

ducks, geese and snipe are abundant, and Dr C. Collingwood in his

_Naturalist's Rambles in the China Seas_ mentions _Ardea prasinosceles_

and other species of herons, several species of fly-catchers,

kingfishers, shrikes and larks, the black drongo, the _Cotyle sinensis_

and the _Prinia sonitans_. Dogs are kept by the savages for hunting. The

horse is hardly known, and his place is taken by the ox, which is

regularly bridled and saddled and ridden with all dignity. The rivers

and neighbouring seas seem to be well stocked with fish, and especial

mention must be made of the turtles, flying-fish, and brilliant

coral-fish which swarm in the waters warmed by the _Kurosiwo_ current,

the gulf-stream of the Pacific. Shell-fish form an important article of

diet to both the Chinese and the aborigines along the coast--a species

of _Cyrena_, a species of _Tapes_, _Cytheraea petechiana_ and _Modiola

teres_ being most abundant.

_Population._--The population of Formosa, according to a census in 1904,

is estimated at 3,022,687, made up as follows: aborigines 104,334,

Chinese 2,860,574 and Japanese 51,770. The inhabitants of Formosa may be

divided into four classes: the Japanese, who are comparatively few, as

there has not been much tendency to immigration; the Chinese, many of

whom immigrated from the neighbourhood of Amoy and speak the dialect of

that district, while others were Hakkas from the vicinity of Swatow; the

subjugated aborigines, who largely intermingled with the Chinese; and

the uncivilized aborigines of the eastern region who refuse to recognize

authority and carry on raids as opportunity occurs. The semi-civilized

aborigines, who adopted the Chinese language, dress and customs, were

called Pe-pa-hwan (_Anglice_ Pepo-hoans), while their wilder brethren

bear the name of Chin-hwan or "green savages," otherwise Sheng-fan or

"wild savages." They appear to belong to the Malay stock, and their

language bears out the supposition. They are broken up into almost

countless tribes and clans, many of which number only a few hundred

individuals, and their language consequently presents a variety of

dialects, of which no classification has yet been effected: in the

district of Posia alone a member of the Presbyterian mission

distinguished eight different mutually unintelligible dialects. The

people themselves are described as of "middle height, broad-chested and

muscular, with remarkably large hands and feet, the eyes large, the

forehead round, and not narrow or receding in many instances, the nose

broad, the mouth large and disfigured with betel." The custom of

tattooing is universal. In the north of the island at least, the dead

are buried in a sitting posture under the bed on which they have

expired. Petty wars are extremely common, not only along the Chinese

frontiers, but between the neighbouring clans; and the heads of the

slain are carefully preserved as trophies. In some districts the young

men and boys sleep in the skull-chambers, in order that they may be

inspired with courage. Many of the tribes that had least intercourse

with the Chinese show a considerable amount of skill in the arts of

civilization. The use of Manchester prints and other European goods is

fairly general; and the women, who make a fine native cloth from hemp,

introduce coloured threads from the foreign stuffs, so as to produce

ornamental devices. The office of chieftain is sometimes held by women.

The chief town is Taipe (called by the Japanese Taihoku), which is on

the Tamsui-yei river, and has a population of about 118,000, including

5850 Japanese. Taipe may be said to have two ports; one, Tamsui, at the

mouth of the river Tamsui-yei, 10 m. distant on the north-west coast,

the other Kelung (called by the Japanese Kiirun), on the north-east

shore, with which it is connected by rail, a run of some 18 m. The

foreign settlement at Taipe lies outside the walls of the city, and is

called Twatutia (Taitotei by the Japanese). Kelung (the ancient Pekiang)

is an excellent harbour, and the scenery is very beautiful. There are

coal-mines in the neighbourhood. Tamsui (called Tansui by the Japanese)

is usually termed Hobe by foreigners. It is the site of the first

foreign settlement, has a population of about 7000, but cannot be made a

good harbour without considerable expenditure. On the west coast there

is no place of any importance until reaching Anping (23 deg. N. lat.), a

port where a few foreign merchants reside for the sake of the sugar

trade. It is an unlovely place, surrounded by mud flats, and a hotbed of

malaria. It has a population of 4000 Chinese and 200 Japanese. At a

distance of some 2-1/2 m. inland is the former capital of Formosa, the

walled city of Tainan, which has a population of 100,000 Chinese, 2300

Japanese, and a few British merchants and missionaries. Connected with

Anping by rail (26 m.) and laying south of it is Takau, a treaty port.

It has a population of 6800, and is prettily situated on two sides of a

large lagoon. Six miles inland from Takau is a prosperous Chinese town

called Feng-shan (Japanese, Hozan). The anchorages on the east coast are

Soo, Karenko and Pinan, which do not call for special notice.

Forty-seven m. east of the extreme south coast there is a little island

called Botel-tobago (Japanese, Koto-sho), which rises to a height of

1914 ft. and is inhabited by a tribe whose customs differ essentially

from those of the natives on the main island.

_Administration and Commerce._--The island is treated as an outlying

territory; it has not been brought within the full purview of the

Japanese constitution. Its affairs are administered by a

governor-general, who is also commander-in-chief of the forces, by a

bureau of civil government, and by three prefectural governors, below

whom are the heads of twenty territorial divisions called _cho_; its

finances are not included in the general budget of the Japanese empire;

it is garrisoned by a mixed brigade taken from the home divisions; and

its currency is on a silver basis. One of the first abuses with which

the Japanese had to deal was the excessive use of opium by the Chinese

settlers. To interdict the importation of the drug altogether, as is

done in Japan, was the step advocated by Japanese public opinion. But,

influenced by medical views and by the almost insuperable difficulty of

enforcing any drastic import veto in the face of Formosa's large

communications by junk with China, the Japanese finally adopted the

middle course of licensing the preparation and sale of the drug, and

limiting its use to persons in receipt of medical sanction. Under the

administration of the Japanese the island has been largely developed.

Among other industries gold-mining is advancing rapidly. In 1902 48,400

oz. of gold representing a value of L168,626 were obtained from the

mines and alluvial washings. Coal is also found in large quantities near

Kelung and sulphur springs exist in the north of the island.

An extensive scheme of railway construction has been planned, the four

main lines projected being (1) from Takau to Tainan; (2) from Tainan to

Kagi; (3) from Kagi to Shoka; and (4) from Shoka to Kelung; these four

forming, in effect, a main trunk road running from the south-west to the

north-east, its course being along the foot of the mountains that border

the western coast-plains. The Takau-Tainan section (26 m.) was opened to

traffic on the 3rd of November 1900, and by 1905 the whole line of 259

m. was practically complete. Harbour improvements also are projected,

but in Formosa, as in Japan proper, paucity of capital constitutes a

fatal obstacle to rapid development.

There are thirteen ports of export and import, but 75% of the total

business is done at Tamsui. Tea and camphor are the staple exports. The

greater part of the former goes to Amoy for re-shipment to the west, but

it is believed that if harbour improvements were effected at Tamsui so

as to render it accessible for ocean-going steamers, shipments would be

made thence direct to New York. The camphor trade being a government

monopoly, the quantity exported is under strict control.

_History._--The island of Formosa must have been known from a very early

date to the Chinese who were established in the Pescadores. The

inhabitants are mentioned in the official works of the Yuan dynasty as

_Tung-fan_ or eastern barbarians; and under the Ming dynasty the island

begins to appear as Kilung. In the beginning of the 16th century it

began to be known to the Portuguese and Spanish navigators, and the

latter at least made some attempts at establishing settlements or

missions. The Dutch were the first, however, to take footing in the

island; in 1624 they built a fort, Zelandia, on the east coast, where

subsequently rose the town of Taiwan, and the settlement was maintained

for thirty-seven years. On the expulsion of the Ming dynasty in China, a

number of their defeated adherents came over to Formosa, and under a

leader called in European accounts Coxinga, succeeded in expelling the

Dutch and taking possession of a good part of the island. In 1682 the

Chinese of Formosa recognized the emperor K'ang-hi, and the island then

began to form part of the Chinese empire. From the close of the 17th

century a long era of conflict ensued between the Chinese and the

aborigines. A more debased population than the peoples thus struggling

for supremacy could scarcely be conceived. The aborigines, _Sheng-fan_,

or "wild savages," deserved the appellation in some respects, for they

lived by the chase and had little knowledge even of husbandry; while the

Chinese themselves, uneducated labourers, acknowledged no right except

that of might. The former were not implacably cruel or vindictive. They

merely clung to their homesteads, and harboured a natural resentment

against the raiders who had dispossessed them. Their disposition was to

leave the Chinese in unmolested possession of the plain. But some of the

most valuable products of the island, as camphor and rattan, are to be

found in the upland forests, and the Chinese, whenever they ventured too

far in search of these products, fell into ambushes of hill-men who

neither gave nor sought quarter, and who regarded a Chinese skull as a

specially attractive article of household furniture. A violent rebellion

is mentioned in 1788, put down only after the loss, it is said, of

100,000 men by disease and sword, and the expenditure of 2,000,000 taels

of silver. Reconciliation never took place on any large scale, though it

is true that, in the course of time, some fitful displays of

administrative ability on the part of the Chinese, and the opening of

partial means of communication, led to the pacification of a section of

the _Sheng-fan_, who thenceforth became known as Pe-pa-hwan

(_Pepohoan_).

In the early part of the 19th century the island was chiefly known to

Europeans on account of the wrecks which took place on its coasts, and

the dangers that the crews had to run from the cannibal propensities of

the aborigines, and the almost equally cruel tendencies of the Chinese.

Among the most notable was the loss in 1842 of the British brig "Ann,"

with fifty-seven persons on board, of whom forty-three were executed at

Taichu. By the treaty of Tientsin (1860) Taichu was opened to European

commerce, but the place was found quite unsuitable for a port of trade,

and the harbour of Tamsui was selected instead. From 1859 both

Protestant and Presbyterian missions were established in the island. An

attack made on those at Feng-shan (Hozan) in 1868 led to the occupation

of Fort Zelandia and Anping by British forces; but this action was

disapproved by the home government, and the indemnity demanded from the

Chinese restored. In 1874 the island was invaded by the Japanese for the

purpose of obtaining satisfaction for the murder of a shipwrecked crew

who had been put to death by one of the semi-savage tribes on the

southern coast, the Chinese government being either unable or unwilling

to punish the culprits. A war was averted through the good offices of

the British minister, Sir T.F. Wade, and the Japanese retired on payment

of an indemnity of 500,000 taels. The political state of the island

during these years was very bad; in a report of 1872 there is recorded a

proverb among the official classes, "every three years an outbreak,

every five a rebellion"; but subsequent to 1877 some improvement was

manifested, and public works were pushed forward by the Chinese

authorities. In 1884, in the course of belligerent proceedings arising

out of the Tongking dispute, the forts at Kelung on the north were

bombarded by the French fleet, and the place was captured and held for

some months by French troops. An attack on the neighbouring town of

Tamsui failed, but a semi-blockade of the island was maintained by the

French fleet during the winter and spring of 1884-1885. The troops were

withdrawn on the conclusion of peace in June 1885.

In 1895 the island was ceded to Japan by the treaty of Shimonoseki at

the close of the Japanese war. The resident Chinese officials, however,

refused to recognize the cession, declared a republic, and prepared to

offer resistance. It is even said they offered to transfer the

sovereignty to Great Britain if that power would accept it. A formal

transfer to Japan was made in June of the same year in pursuance of the

treaty, the ceremony taking place on board ship outside Kelung, as the

Chinese commissioners did not venture to land. The Japanese were thus

left to take possession as best they could, and some four months elapsed

before they effected a landing on the south of the island. Takau was

bombarded and captured on the 15th of October, and the resistance

collapsed. Liu Yung-fu, the notorious Black Flag general, and the

back-bone of the resistance, sought refuge in flight. The general state

of the island when the Japanese assumed possession was that the plain of

Giran on the eastern coast and the hill-districts were inhabited by

semi-barbarous folk, the western plains by Chinese of a degraded type,

and that between the two there existed a traditional and continuous

feud, leading to mutual displays of merciless and murderous violence. By

many of these Chinese settlers the Japanese conquerors, when they came

to occupy the island, were regarded in precisely the same light as the

Chinese themselves had been regarded from time immemorial by the

aborigines. Insurrections occurred frequently, the insurgents receiving

secret aid from sympathizers in China, and the difficulties of the

Japanese being increased not only by their ignorance of the country,

which abounds in fastnesses where bandits can find almost inaccessible

refuge, but also by the unwillingness of experienced officials to

abandon their home posts for the purpose of taking service in the new

territory.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--C. Imbault-Huart, _L'Ile Formose, histoire et

description_ (Paris, 1893), 4^o; J.D. Clark, _Formosa_ (Shanghai,

1896); W.A. Pickering, _Pioneering in Formosa_ (London, 1898); George

Candidius, _A Short Account of the Island of Formosa in the Indies_

..., vol. i.; Churchill's _Collection of Voyages_ (1744); Robert

Swinhoe, _Notes on the Island of Formosa_, read before the British

Association (1863); W. Campbell, "Aboriginal Savages of Formosa,"

_Ocean Highways_ (April 1873); H.J. Klaproth, _Description de l'ile de

Formose, mem. rel. a l'Asie_ (1826); Mrs T.F. Hughes, _Notes of a Six

Years' Residence in Formosa_ (London, 1881); Y. Takekoshi, _Japanese

Rule in Formosa_ (transl. by G. Braithwaite) (London, 1907).

FORMOSUS, pope from 891 to 896, the successor of Stephen V. (or VI.). He

first appears in history when, as bishop of Porto, he was sent on an

embassy to the Bulgarians. Having afterwards sided with a faction

against John VIII., he was excommunicated, and compelled to take an oath

never to return to Rome or again to assume his priestly functions. From

this oath he was, however, absolved by Marinus, the successor of John

VIII., and restored to his dignities; and on the death of Stephen V. in

891 he was chosen pope. At that time the Holy See was engaged in a

struggle against the oppression of the princes of Spoleto, and a

powerful party in Rome was eager to obtain the intervention of Arnulf,

king of Germany, against these dangerous neighbours. Formosus himself

shared this view; but he was forced to yield to circumstances and to

consecrate as emperor Lambert, the young son of Guy of Spoleto. Guy had

already been consecrated by Stephen V., and died in 894. In the

following year Arnulf succeeded in seizing Rome, and Formosus crowned

him emperor. But, as he was advancing on Spoleto against Lambert, Arnulf

was seized with paralysis, and was forced to return to Germany.

Overwhelmed with chagrin, Formosus died on the 4th of April 896. The

discords in which he had been involved continued after his death. The

validity of his acts was contested on the pretext that, having been

originally bishop of Porto, he could not be a legitimate pope. The

fundamental factor in these dissensions was the rivalry between the

princes of Spoleto and the Carolingian house, represented by the king of

Germany. The body of Formosus was disinterred in 897 by Stephen VI., and

treated with contumely as that of a usurper of the papal throne; but

Theodore II. restored it to Christian burial, and at a council presided

over by John IX. the pontificate of Formosus was declared valid and all

his acts confirmed. (L. D.*)

FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of _forma_, shape, pattern, &c., especially

used of rules of judicial procedure), in general, a stereotyped form of

words to be used on stated occasions, for specific purposes, ceremonies,

&c. In the sciences, the word usually denotes a symbolical statement of

certain facts; for example, a chemical formula exhibits the composition

of a substance (see CHEMISTRY); a botanical formula gives the

differentia of a plant; a dentition formula indicates the arrangement

and number of the teeth of an animal.

FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO (1756-1799), Spanish satirist and scholar,

was born at Merida (Badajoz) on the 23rd of February 1756, studied at

the university of Salamanca, and was called to the bar at Madrid in

1783. During the next few years--under the pseudonyms of "Tome Cecial,"

"Pablo Segarra," "Don Antonio Varas," "Bartolo," "Pablo Ignocausto," "El

Bachiller Reganadientes," and "Silvio Liberio"--Forner was engaged in a

series of polemics with Garcia de la Huerta, Iriarte and other writers;

the violence of his attacks was so extreme that he was finally forbidden

to publish any controversial pamphlets, and was transferred to a legal

post at Seville. In 1796 he became crown prosecutor at Madrid, where he

died on the 17th of March 1799. Forner's brutality is almost unexampled,

and his satirical writings give a false impression of his powers. His

_Oracion apologetica por la Espana y su merito literario_ (1787) is an

excellent example of learned advocacy, far superior to similar efforts

made by Denina and Antonio Cavanilles; and his posthumous _Exequias de

la lengua castellana_ (printed in the _Biblioteca de autores espanoles_,

vol. lxiii.) testifies to his scholarship and taste.

FORRES (Gaelic, _far uis_, "near water"), a royal and police burgh of

Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 3971; (1901) 4317. It is situated on

the Findhorn, which sweeps past the town and is crossed by a suspension

bridge about a mile to the W., 11 m. W. of Elgin by the Highland

railway, and 6 m. by road from Findhorn, its port, due north. It is one

of the most ancient towns in the north of Scotland. King Donald

(892-900), son of Constantine, died in Forres, not without suspicion of

poisoning, and in it King Duff (961-967) was murdered. Macbeth is said

to have slain Duncan in the first structure that gave its name to

Castlehill, which was probably the building demolished in 1297 by the

adherents of Wallace. The next castle was a royal residence from 1189 to

1371 and was occupied occasionally by William the Lion, Alexander II.

and David II. It was burned down by the Wolf of Badenoch in 1390. The

ruins on the hill, however, are those of a later edifice and are

surmounted by a granite obelisk, 65 ft. high, raised to the memory of

Surgeon James Thomson, a native of Cromarty, who at the cost of his life

tended the Russian wounded on the field of the Alma. The public

buildings include the town hall, a fine and commodious house on the site

of the old tolbooth; the Falconer museum, containing among other

exhibits several valuable fossils, and named after Dr Hugh Falconer

(1808-1865), the distinguished palaeontologist and botanist, a native of

the town; the mechanics' institute; the agricultural and market hall;

Leanchoil hospital and Anderson's Institution for poor boys. The cross,

in Decorated Gothic, stands beside the town hall. Adjoining the town on

the south-east is the beautifully-wooded Cluny Hill, a favourite public

resort, carrying on its summit the tower, 70 ft. high, which was erected

in 1806 to the memory of Nelson, and on its southern slopes a well-known

hydropathic. An excellent golf-course extends from Kinloss to Findhorn.

The industries comprise the manufacture of chemicals and artificial

manures, granite polishing, flour and sawmills, boot- and shoe-making,

carriage-building and woollen manufactures. There is also considerable

trade in cattle.

Sueno's Stone, about 23 ft. high, probably the finest sculptured

monolith in Scotland, stands in a field to the east of the town. Its

origin and character have given rise to endless surmises. It is carved

with figures of soldiers, priests, slaughtered men and captives on one

side, and on the other with a cross and Runic ornamentation. One theory

is that it is a relic of the early Christian church, symbolizing the

battle of life and the triumph of good over evil. According to an older

tradition it was named after Sueno, son of Harold, king of Denmark, who

won a victory on the spot in 1008. A third conjecture is that it

commemorates the expulsion of the Danes from Moray in 1014. Skene's view

is that it chronicles the struggle in 900 between Sigurd, earl of

Orkney, and Maelbrigd, Maormor of Moray. Another storied stone is called

the Witches' Stone, because it marks the place near Forres where Macbeth

is said to have encountered the weird sisters.

Forres is one of the Inverness district group of parliamentary burghs,

the other members being Nairn, Fortrose and Inverness. The town is

amongst the healthiest in Scotland and has the lowest rainfall in the

county.

Within 2 m. of Forres, to the S.W., lie the beautiful woods of Altyre,

the seat of the Gordon-Cummings. Three miles farther south is Relugas

House, the favourite residence of Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, romantically

situated on a height near the confluence of the Divie and the Findhorn.

Not far away stand the ruins of the old castle of Dunphail. On the left

bank of the Findhorn, 3-1/2 m. W. of Forres, is situated Brodie Castle,

partly ancient and partly modern. The Brodies--the old name of their

estate was Brothie, from the Irish _broth_, a ditch, in allusion to the

trench that ran from the village of Dyke to the north of the house--were

a family of great consequence at the period of the Covenant. Alexander

Brodie (1617-1680), the fourteenth laird, was one of the commissioners

who went to the Hague to treat with Charles II., and afterwards became a

Scottish lord of session and an English judge. He and his son were

regarded as amongst the staunchest of the Presbyterians. Farther south

is the forest of Darnaway, famous for its oaks, in which stands the earl

of Moray's mansion of Darnaway Castle. It occupies the site of the

castle which was built by Thomas Randolph, the first earl. Attached to

it is the great hall, capable of accommodating 1000 men, with an open

roof of fine dark oak, the only remaining portion of the castle that was

erected by Archibald Douglas, earl of Moray, in 1450. Queen Mary held a

council in it in 1562. Earl Randolph's chair, not unlike the coronation

chair, has been preserved. Kinloss Abbey, now in ruins, stands some 2-1/2

m. to the N.E. of Forres. It was founded in 1150 by David I., and

remained in the hands of the Cistercians till its suppression at the

Reformation. Robert Reid, who ruled from 1526 to 1540, was its greatest

abbot. His hobby was gardening, and it is believed that many of the 123

varieties of pears and 146 varieties of apples for which the district is

famous were due to his skill and enterprise. Edward I. stayed in the

abbey for a short time in 1303 and Queen Mary spent two nights in it in

1562.

FORREST, EDWIN (1806-1872), American actor, was born at Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania, on the 9th of March 1806, of Scottish and German descent.

He made his first stage appearance on the 27th of November 1820, at the

Walnut Street theatre, in Home's _Douglas_. In 1826 he had a great

success in New York as Othello. He played at Drury Lane in the

_Gladiator_ in 1836, but his Macbeth in 1845 was hissed by the English

audience, and his affront to Macready in Edinburgh shortly

afterwards--when he stood up in a private box and hissed him,--was fatal

to his popularity in Great Britain. His jealousy of Macready resulted in

the Astor Place riot in 1849. In 1837 he had married Catherine, daughter

of John Sinclair, an English singer, and his divorce suit in 1852 was a

_cause celebre_ which hurt his reputation and soured his temper. His

last appearance was as Richelieu in Boston in 1871. He died on the 12th

of December 1872. He had amassed a large fortune, much of which he left

by will to found a home for aged actors.

See Lawrence Barrett's _Edwin Forrest_ (Boston, 1881).

FORREST, SIR JOHN (1847- ), West Australian statesman and explorer, son

of William Forrest, of Bunbury, West Australia, was born near Bunbury,

on the 22nd of August 1847, and educated at Perth, W.A. In 1865 he

became connected with the Government Survey Department at Perth, and in

1869 led an exploring expedition into the interior in search of D.

Leichardt, penetrating through bush and salt-marshes as far inland as

123 deg. E. In 1870 he again made an expedition from Perth to Adelaide,

along the southern shores. In 1874, with his brother Alexander Forrest

(born 1849), he explored eastwards from Champion Bay, following as far

as possible the 26th parallel, and striking the telegraph line between

Adelaide and Port Darwin; a distance of about 2000 m. was covered in

about five months with horses and without carriers, a particularly fine

achievement (see AUSTRALIA: _Exploration_). John Forrest also surveyed

in 1878 the north-western district between the rivers Ashburton and Lady

Grey, and in 1882 the Fitzroy district. In 1876 he was made deputy

surveyor-general, receiving the thanks of the colony for his services

and a grant of 5000 acres of land; for a few months at the end of 1878

he acted as commissioner of crown lands and surveyor-general, being

given the full appointment in 1883 and retaining it till 1890. When the

colony obtained in 1890 its constitution of self-government, Sir John

Forrest (who was made K.C.M.G. in 1891, and G.C.M.G. in 1901) became its

first premier, and he held that position till in 1901 he joined the

Commonwealth government, first as minister for defence, later as

minister for home affairs and postmaster-general, resigning the office

of federal treasurer in July 1907. His influence in West Australia was

one of an almost autocratic character, owing to the robust vigour of his

personality and his success in enforcing his views (see WESTERN

AUSTRALIA: _History_). In 1897 he was made a member of the Privy

Council. Sir John Forrest married in 1876 Margaret Hamersley. He

published _Explorations in Australia_ (1876) and _Notes on Western

Australia_ (1884-1887).

FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD (1821-1877), Confederate cavalry general in the

American Civil War, was born near Chapel Hill, Tennessee, on the 13th of

July 1821. Before his father's death in 1837 the family had removed to

Mississippi, and for some years thereafter it was supported principally

by Nathan, who was the eldest son. Thus he never received any formal

education (as witnessed by the uncouth phraseology and spelling of his

war despatches), but he managed to teach himself with very fair success,

and is said to have possessed considerable ability as a mathematician.

He was in turn a horse and cattle trader in Mississippi, and a slave

dealer and horse trader in Memphis, until 1859, when he took to cotton

planting in north-western Mississippi, where he acquired considerable

wealth. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he volunteered as a

private, raised a cavalry battalion, of which he was lieut.-colonel, and

in February 1862 took part in the defence of Fort Donelson, and

refusing, like Generals Floyd and Pillow, to capitulate with the rest of

the Confederate forces, made his way out, before the surrender, with all

the mounted troops there. He was promptly made a colonel and regimental

commander, and fought at Shiloh with distinction, receiving a severe

wound. Shortly after this he was promoted brigadier-general (July 1862).

At the head of a mounted brigade he took a brilliant part in General

Bragg's autumn campaign, and in the winter of 1862-1863 he was

continually active in raiding the hostile lines of communication. These

raids have been the theme of innumerable discussions, and on the whole

their value seems to have been overrated. At the same time, and apart

from the question of their utility, Forrest's raids were uniformly bold

and skilful, and are his chief title to fame in the history of the

cavalry arm. Indeed, next to Stuart and Sheridan, he was the finest

cavalry leader of the whole war. One of the most remarkable of his

actions was his capture, near Rome, Georgia, after five days of marching

and fighting, of an entire cavalry brigade under Colonel A.D. Streight

(April 1863). He was present at the battle of Chickamauga in September,

after which (largely on account of his criticism of General Bragg, the

army commander) he was transferred to the Mississippi. Forrest was made

a major-general in December 1863. In the winter of 1863-1864 he was as

active as ever, and in the spring of 1864 he raided as far north as

Paducah, Ky. On the 12th of April 1864 he assaulted and captured Fort

Pillow, in Tennessee on the Mississippi; U.S. negro troops formed a

large part of the garrison and according to survivors many were

massacred after the fort had surrendered. The "Massacre of Fort Pillow"

has been the subject of much controversy and there is much conflicting

testimony regarding it, but it seems probable that Forrest himself had

no part in it. On the 10th of June Forrest decisively defeated a

superior Federal force at Brice's Cross Roads, Miss., and throughout the

year, though the greatest efforts were made by the Federals to crush

him, he raided in Mississippi, Tennessee and Alabama with almost

unvarying success. He was once more with the main Confederate army of

the West in the last disastrous campaign of Nashville, and fought

stubborn rearguard actions to cover the retreat of the broken

Confederates. In February 1865 he was made a lieut.-general, but the

struggle was almost at an end and General James H. Wilson, one of the

ablest of the Union cavalry generals, rapidly forced back the few

Confederates, now under Forrest's command, and stormed Selma, Alabama,

on the 2nd of April. The surrender of General Forrest and his whole

command, under the agreement between General Richard Taylor and General

E.S. Canby, followed on the 9th of May. After the war he lived in

Memphis. He sold his cotton plantation in 1867, and for some years was

president of the Selma, Marion and Memphis Railroad. He died at Memphis,

Tennessee, on the 29th of October 1877.

The military character of General Forrest, apart from questions of his

technical skill, horsemastership and detail special to his arm of the

service, was admittedly that of a great leader. He never commanded a

large force of all arms. He was uneducated, and had neither experience

of nor training for the strategical handling of great armies. Yet his

personality and his natural soldierly gifts were such that General

Sherman considered him "the most remarkable man the Civil War produced

on either side." Joseph Johnston, the Confederate general whose

greatness lay above all in calm and critical judgment, said that

Forrest, had he had the advantage of a thorough military training,

"would have been the great central figure of the war."

See the biographies by J.A. Wyeth (1899) and J.H. Mathes (1902).

FORSKAL, PETER (1736-1763), Swedish traveller and naturalist, was born

in Kalmar in 1736. He studied at Gottingen, where he published a

dissertation entitled _Dubia de principiis philosophiae recentioris_

(1756). Thence he returned to his native country, which, however, he had

to leave after the publication of a pamphlet entitled _Pensees sur la

liberte civile_ (1759). By Linnaeus he was recommended to Frederick V.

of Denmark, who appointed him to accompany Carsten Niebuhr in an

expedition to Arabia and Egypt in 1761. He died of the plague at Jerim

in Arabia on the 11th of July 1763.

His friend and companion, Niebuhr, was entrusted with the care of

editing his MSS., and published in 1775 _Descriptiones animalium,

avium, amphibiorum, piscium, insectorum, vermium, quae in itin.

Orient. observavit Petrus Forskal_. In the same year appeared also his

account of the plants of Arabia Felix and of lower Egypt, under the

title of _Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica_.

FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG (1843-1901), Swedish historian and political

writer, the son of Adolf Forssell, a distinguished mathematician, was

born at Gefle, where his father was professor, on 14th January 1843. At

the age of sixteen he became a student in Upsala University, where he

distinguished himself, and where, in 1866, having taken the degree of

doctor, he was appointed reader in history. At the age of thirty,

however, Forssell, who had already shown remarkable business capacity,

was called to Stockholm, where he filled one important post after

another in the Swedish civil service. In 1875 he was appointed head of

the treasury, and in 1880 was transferred to the department of inland

revenue, of which he continued to be president until the time of his

death. In addition to the responsibilities which these offices devolved

upon him, Forssell was constantly called to serve on royal commissions,

and his political influence was immense. In spite of all these public

duties, which he carried through with the utmost diligence, Forssell

also found leisure for an abundant literary activity. Of his historical

writings the most important were: _The Administrative and Economical

History of Sweden after Gustavus I._ (1869-1875) and _Sweden in 1571_

(1872). He was also for several years, in company with the poet Wirsen,

editor of the _Swedish Literary Review_. He published two volumes of

_Studies and_ _Criticisms_ (1875, 1888). In the year 1881, at the death

of the historian Anders Fryxell, Forssell was elected to the vacant seat

on the Swedish Academy. The energy of Forssell was so great, and he

understood so little the economy of strength, that he unquestionably

overtaxed his vital force. His death, however, which occurred with great

suddenness on the 2nd of August 1901 while he was staying at San

Bernardino in Switzerland, was wholly unexpected. There was little of

the typical Swedish urbanity in Forssell's exterior manner, which was

somewhat dry and abrupt. Like many able men who have from early life

administered responsible public posts, there appeared a certain want of

sympathy in his demands upon others. His views were distinct, and held

with great firmness; for example, he was a free-trader, and his

consistent opposition to what he called "the new system" had a

considerable effect on Swedish policy. He was not exactly an attractive

man, but he was a capable, upright and efficient public servant. In 1867

he married Miss Zulamith Eneroth, a daughter of the well-known

pomologist of Upsala; she survived him, with two sons and two daughters.

(E. G.)

FORST (originally FORSTA or FORSTE), a town of Germany, in the Prussian

province of Brandenburg, on the Neisse, 44 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder.

Pop. (1905) 33,757. It has two Evangelical, a Roman Catholic and an Old

Lutheran church; there are two schools and two hospitals in the town.

The chief industry of Forst is the manufacture of cloth, but spinning,

dyeing and the making of artificial flowers are also carried on. Founded

in the 13th century, Forst passed in 1667 to the duke of Saxe-Merseburg,

becoming part of electoral Saxony in 1740. It was ceded to Prussia in

1815.

FORSTER, FRANCOIS (1790-1872), French engraver, was born at Locle in

Neufchatel, on the 22nd of August 1790. In 1805 he was apprenticed to an

engraver in Paris, and he also studied painting and engraving

simultaneously in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. His preference was

ultimately fixed on the latter art, and on his obtaining in 1814 the

first "grand prix de gravure," the king of Prussia, who was then with

the allies in Paris, bestowed on him a gold medal, and a pension of 1500

francs for two years. With the aid of this sum he pursued his studies in

Rome, where his attention was devoted chiefly to the works of Raphael.

In 1844 he succeeded Tardieu in the Academy. He died at Paris on the

27th of June 1872. Forster occupied the first position among the French

engravers of his time, and was equally successful in historical pieces

and in portraits. Among his works may be mentioned--The Three Graces,

and _La Vierge de la legende_, after Raphael; _La Vierge au bas-relief_,

after Leonardo da Vinci; Francis I. and Charles V., after Gros; St

Cecilia, after Paul Delaroche; Albert Durer and Henry IV., after Porbus;

Wellington, after Gerard; and Queen Victoria, after Winterhalter.

FORSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1791-1868), German historian and poet, was

the second son of Karl Christoph Forster (1751-1811), and consequently a

brother of the painter, Ernest Joachim Forster (1800-1885). Born at

Munchengosserstadt on the Saale on the 24th of September 1791, he

received his early education at Altenburg, and after a course of

theology at Jena, devoted some time to archaeology and the history of

art. At the outbreak of the War of Liberation in 1813, he joined the

army, quickly attaining the rank of captain; and by his war-songs added

to the national enthusiasm. On the conclusion of the war he was

appointed professor at the school of engineering and artillery in

Berlin, but on account of some democratic writings he was dismissed from

this office in 1817. He then became connected with various journals

until about 1829, when he received an appointment at the royal museum in

Berlin, with the title of court councillor (_Hofrat_). He was the

founder and secretary of the _Wissenschaftlicher Kunstverein_ in Berlin,

and died in Berlin on the 8th of November 1868. Forster's principal

works are: _Beitrage zur neueren Kriegsgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1816);

_Grundzuge der Geschichte des preussischen Staates_ (Berlin, 1818); _Der

Feldmarschall Blucher und seine Umgebungen_ (Leipzig, 1820); _Friedrich

der Grosse, Jugendjahre, Bildung und Geist_ (Berlin, 1822); _Albrecht

von Wallenstein_ (Potsdam, 1834); _Friedrich Wilhelm I., Konig von

Preussen_ (Potsdam, 1834-1835); _Die Hofe und Kabinette Europas im 18.

Jahrhundert_ (Potsdam, 1836-1839); _Leben und Taten Friedrichs des

Grossen_ (Meissen, 1840-1841); _Wallensteins Prozess_ (Leipzig, 1844);

and _Preussens Helden in Krieg und Frieden, neuere und neueste

preussische Geschichte_, 7 volumes (Berlin, 1849-1860). The three

concluding volumes of this work contain the history of the war of

liberation of 1813-14-15. He brought out an edition of Hegel's works,

adapted several of Shakespeare's plays for the theatre, wrote a number

of poems and an historical drama, _Gustav Adolf_ (Berlin, 1832).

Many of his lesser writings were collected and published as

_Kriegslieder, Romanzen, Erzahlungen und Legenden_ (Berlin, 1838). The

beginning of an autobiography of Forster, edited by H. Kletke, has

been published under the title, _Kunst und Leben_ (Berlin, 1873).

FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM (1754-1794), German traveller and author, was

born at Nassenhuben, a small village near Danzig, on the 27th of

November 1754. His father, Johann Reinhold Forster, a man of great

scientific attainments but an intractable temper, was at that time

pastor of the place; the family are said to have been of Scottish

extraction. In 1765 the elder Forster was commissioned by the empress

Catherine to inspect the Russian colonies in the province of Saratov,

which gave his son an opportunity of acquiring the Russian language and

the elements of a scientific education. After a few years the father

quarrelled with the Russian government, and went to England, where he

obtained a professorship of natural history and the modern languages at

the famous non-conformist academy at Warrington. His violent temper soon

compelled him to resign this appointment, and for two years he and his

son earned a precarious livelihood by translations in London--a

practical education, however, exceedingly useful to the younger Forster,

who became a thorough master of English, and acquired many of the ideas

which chiefly influenced his subsequent life. At length the turning

point in his career came in the shape of an invitation for him and his

father to accompany Captain Cook in his third voyage round the world.

Such an expedition was admirably calculated to call forth Forster's

peculiar powers. His account of Cook's voyage (_A Voyage round the

World_, London, 1777; in German, Berlin, 1778-1780), is almost the first

example of the glowing yet faithful description of natural phenomena

which has since made a knowledge of them the common property of the

educated world. The publication of this work was, however, impeded for

some time by differences with the admiralty, during which Forster

proceeded to the continent to obtain an appointment for his father as

professor at Cassel, and found to his surprise that it was conferred

upon himself. The elder Forster, however, was soon provided for

elsewhere, being appointed professor of natural history at Halle. At

Cassel Forster formed an intimate friendship with the great anatomist

Sommerring, and about the same time made the acquaintance of Jacobi, who

gave him a leaning towards mysticism from which he subsequently

emancipated himself. The want of books and scientific apparatus at

Cassel induced him to resort frequently to Gottingen, where he became

betrothed to Therese Heyne, the daughter of the illustrious philologist,

a clever and cultivated woman, but ill-suited to be Forster's wife. To

be able to marry he accepted (1784) a professorship at the university of

Wilna, which he did not find to his taste. The penury and barbarism of

Polish circumstances are graphically described in his and his wife's

letters of this period. After a few years' residence at Wilna he

resigned his appointment to participate in a scientific expedition

projected by the Russian government, and upon the relinquishment of this

undertaking became librarian to the elector of Mainz. He actively

promoted the incorporation of the left bank of the Rhine with France and

in 1793 went to Paris to carry on the negotiations. Meanwhile, however,

the Germans seized Mainz, and Forster--already disheartened by the turn

of events in France--was cut off from all return. Domestic sorrows were

added to his political troubles and he died suddenly at Paris on the

10th of January 1794.

Forster's masterpiece is his _Ansichten vom Niederrhein, von Brabant,

Flandern, Holland, England und Frankreich_ (1791-1794), one of the

ablest books of travel of the 18th century. His style is clear and

vivid; his method of describing what he sees extraordinarily plastic;

above all, he has the art of presenting objects to us from their most

interesting and attractive side. The same qualities are also more or

less conspicuous in his minor writings. By his translation (from the

English) of the _Sakuntala_ of Kalidasa (1791), he first awakened German

interest in Indian literature.

Forster's _Samtliche Werke_ appeared at Leipzig in 9 vols. in 1843.

The _Ansichten vom Rhein_, &c., has been frequently reprinted (best

edition by A. Leitzmann, Halle, 1893); Leitzmann has also published

(Stuttgart, 1894) a selection of Forster's _Kleine Schriften_, which

originally appeared in 6 vols. (1789-1797). His correspondence was

published by his wife (2 vols., Leipzig, 1829); his _Briefwechsel mit

Sommerring_ by H. Hettner (Brunswick, 1877). See J. Moleschott, _G.

Forster, der Naturforscher des Volks_ (1854; 3rd ed., 1874); K. Klein,

_G. Forster in Mainz_ (Gotha, 1863); A. Leitzmann, _G. Forster_

(Vorlesung) (Halle, 1893).

FORSTER, JOHN (1812-1876), English biographer and critic, was born on

the 2nd of April 1812 at Newcastle. His father, who was a Unitarian and

belonged to the junior branch of a good Northumberland family, was a

cattle-dealer. After being well grounded in classics and mathematics at

the grammar school of his native town, John Forster was sent in 1828 to

Cambridge, but after only a month's residence he removed to London,

where he attended classes at University College, and was entered at the

Inner Temple. He devoted himself, however, chiefly to literary pursuits.

He contributed to _The True Sun, The Morning Chronicle_ and to _The

Examiner_, for which he acted as literary and dramatic critic; and the

influence of his powerful individuality soon made itself felt. His

_Lives of the Statesmen of the Commonwealth_ (1836-1839) appeared partly

in Lardner's Cyclopaedia. He published the work separately in 1840 with

a _Treatise on the Popular Progress in English History_. Its merits

obtained immediate recognition, and Forster became a prominent figure in

that distinguished circle of literary men which included Bulwer,

Talfourd, Albany, Fonblanque, Landor, Carlyle and Dickens. Forster is

said to have been for some time engaged to Letitia Landon, but the

engagement was broken off, and Miss Landon married George Maclean. In

1843 he was called to the bar but he never became a practising lawyer.

For some years he edited the _Foreign Quarterly Review_; in 1846, on the

retirement of Charles Dickens, he took charge for some months of the

_Daily News_; and from 1847 to 1856 he edited the _Examiner_. From 1836

onwards he contributed to the _Edinburgh Quarterly_ and _Foreign

Quarterly_ Reviews a variety of articles, some of which were republished

in two volumes of _Biographical and Historical Essays_ (1858). In 1848

appeared his admirable _Life and Times of Oliver Goldsmith_ (revised in

1854). Continuing his researches into English history under the early

Stuarts, he published in 1860 the _Arrest of the Five Members by Charles

I.--A Chapter of English History rewritten_, and _The Debates on the

Grand Remonstrance, with an Introductory Essay on English Freedom_.

These were followed by his _Sir John Eliot: a Biography_ (1864),

elaborated from one of his earlier studies for the _Lives of Eminent

British Statesmen_. In 1868 appeared his _Life of Landor_, and, on the

death of his friend Alexander Dyce, Forster undertook the publication of

his third edition of Shakespeare. For several years he had been

collecting materials for a life of Swift, but he interrupted his studies

in this direction to write his standard _Life of Charles Dickens_. He

had long been intimate with the novelist, and it is by this work that

John Forster is now chiefly remembered. The first volume appeared in

1872, and the biography was completed in 1874. Towards the close of 1875

the first volume of his _Life of Swift_ was published; and he had made

some progress in the preparation of the second at the time of his death

on the 2nd of February 1876. In 1855 Forster had been appointed

secretary to the lunacy commission, and from 1861 to 1872 he held the

office of a commissioner in lunacy. His valuable collection of

manuscripts, including the original copies of Charles Dickens's novels,

together with his books and pictures, was bequeathed to South

Kensington Museum.

An admirable account of him by Henry Morley is prefixed to the

official handbook (1877) of the Dyce and Forster bequests.

FORSTER, JOHN COOPER (1823-1886), British surgeon, was born in 1823 in

Lambeth, London, where his father and grandfather before him had been

local medical practitioners. He entered Guy's hospital in 1841, was

appointed demonstrator of anatomy in 1850, assistant-surgeon, 1855, and

surgeon, 1870. He became a member of the College of Surgeons in 1844,

fellow in 1849 and president in 1884. He was a prompt and sometimes bold

operator. In 1858 he performed practically the first gastrostomy in

England for a case of cancer of the oesophagus. Among his best-known

papers were discussions of acupressure, syphilis, hydrophobia,

intestinal obstruction, modified obturator hernia, torsion, and colloid

cancer of the large intestine; and he published a book on _Surgical

Diseases of Children_ in 1860, founded on his experience as surgeon to

the hospital for children and women in Waterloo Road. He died suddenly

in London on the 2nd of March 1886.

FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD (1818-1886), British statesman, was born of Quaker

parents at Bradpole in Dorsetshire on the 11th of July 1818. He was

educated at the Friends' school at Tottenham, where his father's family

had long been settled, and on leaving school he was put into business. He

declined, however, on principle, to enter a brewery. Becoming in due time

a woollen manufacturer in a large way at Bradford, Yorkshire (from which

after his marriage he moved to Burley-in-Wharfedale), he soon made himself

known as a practical philanthropist. In 1846-1847 he accompanied his

father to Ireland as distributor of the Friends' relief fund for the

famine in Connemara, and the state of the country made a deep impression

on him. In 1849 he wrote a preface to a new edition of Clarkson's _Life of

William Penn_, defending the Quaker statesman against Macaulay's

criticisms. In 1850 he married Jane Martha, eldest daughter of the famous

Dr Arnold of Rugby. She was not a Quaker, and her husband was formally

excommunicated for marrying her, but the Friends who were commissioned to

announce the sentence "shook hands and stayed to luncheon." Forster

thereafter ranked himself as a member of the Church of England, for which,

indeed, he was in later life charged with having too great a partiality.

There were no children of the marriage, but when Mrs Forster's brother,

William Arnold, died in 1859, leaving four orphans, the Forsters adopted

them as their own.

One of these children was Mr H.O. Arnold-Forster (1855-1909), the

well-known Liberal-Unionist member of parliament, who eventually became

a member of Mr Balfour's cabinet; he was secretary to the admiralty

(1900-1903), and then secretary of state for war (1903-1905), and was

the author of numerous educational books published by Cassell & Co., of

which firm he was a director.

W.E. Forster gradually began to take an active part in public affairs by

speaking and lecturing. In 1858 he gave a lecture before the Leeds

Philosophical Institution on "How we Tax India." In 1859 he stood as

Liberal candidate for Leeds, but was beaten. But he was highly esteemed

in the West Riding, and in 1861 he was returned unopposed for Bradford.

In 1865 (unopposed) and in 1868 (at the head of the poll) he was again

returned. He took a prominent part in parliament in the debates on the

American Civil War, and in 1868 was made under-secretary for the

colonies in Earl Russell's ministry. It was then that he first became a

prominent advocate of imperial federation. In 1866 his attitude on

parliamentary reform attracted a good deal of attention. His speeches

were full of knowledge of the real condition of the people, and

contained something like an original programme of Radical legislation.

"We have other things to do," he said, "besides extending the franchise.

We want to make Ireland loyal and contented; we want to get rid of

pauperism in this country; we want to fight against a class which is

more to be dreaded than the holders of a L7 franchise--I mean the

dangerous class in our large towns. We want to see whether we cannot

make for the agricultural labourer some better hope than the workhouse

in his old age. We want to have Old England as well taught as New

England." In these words he heralded the education campaign which

occupied the country for so many years afterwards. Directly the Reform

Bill had passed, the necessity of "inducing our masters to learn their

letters" (in Robert Lowe's phrase) became pressing. Mr Forster and Mr

Cardwell, as private members in opposition, brought in Education Bills

in 1867 and 1868; and in 1868, when the Liberal party returned to

office, Mr Forster was appointed vice-president of the council, with the

duty of preparing a government measure for national education. The

Elementary Education Bill (see EDUCATION) was introduced on the 17th of

February 1870. The religious difficulty at once came to the front. The

Manchester Education Union and the Birmingham Education League had

already formulated in the provinces the two opposing theories, the

former standing for the preservation of denominational interests, the

latter advocating secular rate-aided education as the only means of

protecting Nonconformity against the Church. The Dissenters were by no

means satisfied with Forster's "conscience clause" as contained in the

bill, and they regarded him, the ex-Quaker, as a deserter from their own

side; while they resented the "25th clause," permitting school boards to

pay the fees of needy children at denominational schools out of the

rates, as an insidious attack upon themselves. By the 14th of March,

when the second reading came on, the controversy had assumed threatening

proportions; and Mr Dixon, the Liberal member for Birmingham and

chairman of the Education League, moved an amendment, the effect of

which was to prohibit all religious education in board schools. The

government made its rejection a question of confidence, and the

amendment was withdrawn; but the result was the insertion of the

Cowper-Temple clause as a compromise before the bill passed. Extremists

on both sides abused Forster, but the government had a difficult set of

circumstances to deal with, and he acted like a prudent statesman in

contenting himself with what he could get. An ideal bill was

impracticable; it is to Forster's enduring credit that the bill of 1870,

imperfect as it was, established at last some approach to a system of

national education in England without running absolutely counter to the

most cherished English ideas and without ignoring the principal agencies

already in existence.

Forster's next important work was in passing the Ballot Act of 1872, but

for several years afterwards his life was uneventful. In 1874 he was

again returned for Bradford, in spite of Dissenting attacks, and he took

his full share of the work of the Opposition Front Bench. In 1875, when

Mr Gladstone "retired," he was strongly supported for the leadership of

the Liberal party, but declined to be nominated against Lord Harrington.

In the same year he was elected F.R.S., and made lord rector of Aberdeen

University. In 1876, when the Eastern question was looming large, he

visited Servia and Turkey, and his subsequent speeches on the subject

were marked by studious moderation, distasteful to extremists on both

sides. On Mr Gladstone's return to office in 1880 he was made chief

secretary for Ireland, with Lord Cowper as lord-lieutenant. He carried

the Compensation for Disturbance Bill through the Commons, only to see

it thrown out in the Lords, and his task was made more difficult by the

agitation which arose in consequence. During the gloomy autumn and

winter of 1880-1881 Forster's energy and devotion in grappling with the

situation in Ireland (see IRELAND) were indefatigable, his labour was

enormous, and the personal risks he ran were many; but he enjoyed the

Irish character in spite of all obstacles, and inspired genuine

admiration in all his coadjutors. On the 24th of January 1881 he

introduced a new Coercion Bill in the House of Commons, to deal with the

growth of the Land League, and in the course of his speech declared it

to be "the most painful duty" he had ever had to perform, and one which

would have prevented his accepting his office if he had known that it

would fall upon him. The bill passed, among its provisions being one

enabling the Irish government to arrest without trial persons

"reasonably suspected" of crime and conspiracy. The Irish party used

every opportunity in and out of parliament for resenting this act, and

Forster was kept constantly on the move between Dublin and London,

conducting his campaign against crime and anarchy and defending it in

the House of Commons. His scrupulous conscientiousness and anxiety to

meet every reasonable claim availed him nothing with such antagonists,

and the strain was intense and continuous. He was nicknamed "Buckshot"

by the Nationalist press, on the supposition that he had ordered its use

by the police when firing on a crowd. On the 13th of October Mr Parnell

was arrested, and on the 20th the Land League was proclaimed. From that

time Forster's life was in constant danger, and he had to be escorted by

mounted police when he drove in Dublin. Early in March 1882 he visited

some of the worst districts in Ireland, and addressed the crowd at

Tullamore on the subject of outrages, denouncing the people for their

want of courage in not assisting the government, but adding, "whether

you do or not, it is the duty of the government to stop the outrages,

and stop them we will." Forster's pluck in speaking out like this was

fully appreciated in England, but it was not till after the revelations

connected with the Phoenix Park murders that the dangers he had

confronted were properly realized, and it became known that several

plans to murder him had only been frustrated by the merest accidents. On

the 2nd of May Mr Gladstone announced that the government intended to

release Mr Parnell and his fellow-prisoners in Kilmainham, and that both

Lord Cowper and Mr Forster had in consequence resigned; and the

following Saturday Forster's successor, Lord Frederick Cavendish, was,

with Mr Burke, murdered in Phoenix Park. It was characteristic of the

man that Forster at once offered to go back to Dublin temporarily as

chief secretary, but the offer was declined. His position naturally

attracted universal attention towards him, particularly during the

debates which ensued in parliament on the "Kilmainham Treaty." But Mr

Gladstone's influence with the Liberal party was paramount, in spite of

the damaging appearance of the compact made with Parnell, and Forster's

pointed criticisms only caused thoroughgoing partisans to accuse him of

a desire to avenge himself. It was not till the next session that he

delivered his fiercest attack on Parnell in the debate on the address,

denouncing him for his connexion with the Land League, and quoting

against him the violent speeches of his supporters and the articles of

his newspaper organs. It was on this occasion that Parnell, on Forster's

charging him, not with directly planning or perpetrating outrages or

murder, but with conniving at them, ejaculated "It's a lie"; and,

replying on the next day, the Irish leader, instead of disproving

Forster's charges, bitterly denounced his methods of administration.

Though, during the few remaining years of his life, Forster's political

record covered various interesting subjects, his connexion with these

stormy times in Ireland throws them all into shadow. He died on the 6th

of April 1886, on the eve of the introduction of the Home Rule Bill, to

which he was stoutly opposed. In the interval there had been other

questions on which he found himself at variance with Gladstonian

Liberalism, for instance, as regards the Sudan and the Transvaal, nor

was he inclined to stomach the claims of the Caucus or the Birmingham

programme. When the Redistribution Act divided Bradford into three

constituencies, Forster was returned for the central division, but he

never took his seat in the new parliament.

Forster, like John Bright, was an excellent representative of the

English middle-class in public life. Patriotic, energetic, independent,

incorruptible, shrewd, fair-minded, he was endowed not only with great

sympathy with progress, but also with a full faculty for resistance to

mere democraticism. He was tall (the Yorkshiremen called him "Long

Forster") and strongly though stiffly built, and, with his simple tastes

and straightforward manners and methods, was a typical North-country

figure. His oratory was rough and unpolished, but full of freshness and

force and genuine feeling. It was Forster who, when appealing to the

government at the time of Gordon's danger at Khartum, spoke of Mr

Gladstone as able "to persuade most people of most things, and himself

of almost anything," and though the phrase was much resented by Mr

Gladstone's _entourage_, the truth that underlay it may be taken as

representing the very converse of his own character. His personal

difficulties with some of his colleagues, both in regard to the

Education Act of 1870 and his Irish administration, must be properly

understood if a complete comprehension of his political career is to be

obtained. For an account of them we need only refer to the _Life of the

Right Hon. W.E. Forster_, by Sir T. Wemyss Reid. (H. Ch.)

FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR (1848- ), British Nonconformist divine, was born

at Aberdeen in 1848. He took first-class honours in classics at

Aberdeen, subsequently studied at Gottingen (under Ritschl) and at New

College, Hampstead, and entered the Congregational ministry. Having held

pastorates at Shipley, Hackney, Manchester, Leicester and Cambridge, he

became principal of Hackney Theological College, Hampstead, in 1901. In

1907 he delivered the Lyman Beecher lectures on preaching at Yale

University, published as _Positive Preaching and Modern Mind_. Among his

other publications may be mentioned _Religion in Recent Art_, and

articles in the _Contemporary Review_, _Hibbert Journal_, and _London

Quarterly_. He was chairman of the Congregational Union of England and

Wales in 1905.

FORTALEZA (usually called CEARA by foreigners), a city and port of

Brazil and the capital of the state of Ceara, on a crescent-shaped

indentation of the coast-line immediately W. of Cape Mucuripe or

Mocoripe, 7-1/2 m. from the mouth of the Ceara river, in lat. 3 deg. 42'

S., long. 38 deg. 30' W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality, including a

large rural district, 40,902. The city stands on an open sandy plain

overlooking the sea, and is regularly laid out, with broad, well-paved,

gas-lighted streets and numerous squares. Owing to the aridity of the

climate the vegetation is less luxuriant than in most Brazilian cities.

The temperature is usually high, but it is modified by the strong sea

winds. Fortaleza has suffered much from epidemics of yellow-fever,

small-pox and beri-beri, but the climate is considered to be healthy. A

small branch of the Ceara river, called the Pajehu, traverses the city

and divides it into two parts, that on its right bank being locally

known as Outeiro. Fortaleza is the see of a bishopric, created in 1854,

but it has no cathedral, one of its ten churches being used for that

purpose. Its public buildings include the government house, legislative

chambers, bishop's palace, an episcopal seminary, a lyceum (high

school), Misericordia hospital, and asylums for mendicants and the

insane. The custom-house stands nearer the seashore, 1-3/4 m. from the

railway station in the city, with which it is connected by rail. The

port is the principal outlet for the products of the state, but its

anchorage is an open roadstead, one of the most dangerous on the

northern coast of Brazil, and all ships are compelled to anchor well out

from shore and discharge into lighters. Port improvements designed by

the eminent engineer Sir John Hawkshaw have been under construction for

many years, but have made very slow progress. The Baturite railway,

built by the national government partly to give employment to starving

refugees in times of long-continued droughts, connects the city and its

port with fertile regions to the S.W., and extends to Senador Pompeu,

178 m. distant. The exports include sugar, coffee, rubber, cotton, rum,

rice, beans, fruits, hides and skins.

Fortaleza had its origin in a small village adjoining a fort established

at this point in early colonial times. In 1654 it took the name of Villa

do Forte da Assumpca, but it was generally spoken of as Fortaleza. In

1810 it became the capital of Ceara, and in 1823 it was raised to the

dignity of a city under the title of Fortaleza da Nova Braganca.

FORT AUGUSTUS, a village of Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 706.

It is delightfully situated at the south-western extremity of Loch Ness,

about 30 m. S.W. of Inverness, on the rivers Oich and Tarff and the

Caledonian Canal. A branch line connects with Spean Bridge on the West

Highland railway via Invergarry. The fort, then called Kilchumin, was

built in 1716 for the purpose of keeping the Highlanders in check, and

was enlarged in 1730 by General Wade. It was captured by the Jacobites

in 1745, but reoccupied after the battle of Culloden, when it received

its present name in honour of William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the

victorious general. The fort was used as a sanatorium until 1857, when

it was bought by the 12th Lord Lovat, whose son presented it in 1876 to

the English order of Benedictines. Within four years there rose upon its

site a pile of stately buildings under the title of St Benedict's Abbey

and school, a monastic and collegiate institution intended for the

higher education of the sons of the Roman Catholic nobility and gentry.

The series of buildings consists of the college, monastery, hospice and

scriptorium--the four forming a quadrangle connected by beautiful

cloisters. Amongst its benefactors were many Catholic Scots and English

peers and gentlemen whose arms are emblazoned on the windows of the

spacious refectory hall. The summit of the college tower is 110 ft.

high.

FORT DODGE, a city and the county-seat of Webster county, Iowa, U.S.A.,

on the Des Moines river, 85 m. (by rail) N. by W. from Des Moines. Pop.

(1890) 4871; (1900) 12,162; (1905, state census) 14,369, (2269 being

foreign-born); (1910) 15,543. It is served by the Illinois Central, the

Chicago Great Western, the Minneapolis & Saint Louis, and the Fort

Dodge, Des Moines & Southern railways, the last an electric interurban

line. Eureka Springs and Wild Cat Cave are of interest to visitors, and

attractive scenery is furnished by the river and its bordering bluffs.

The river is here spanned by the Chicago Great Western railway steel

bridge, or viaduct, one of the longest in the country. Fort Dodge is the

seat of Tobin College (420 students in 1907-1908), a commercial and

business school, with preparatory, normal and classical departments, and

courses in oratory and music; among its other institutions are St Paul's

school (Evangelical Lutheran), two Roman Catholic schools, Corpus

Christi Academy and the Sacred Heart school, Our Lady of Lourdes convent

and a Carnegie library. Oleson Park and Reynold's Park are the city's

principal parks. Immediately surrounding Fort Dodge is a rich farming

country. To the E. of the city lies a gypsum bed, extending over an area

of about 50 sq. m., and considered to be the most valuable in the United

States; to the S. coal abounds; there are also limestone quarries and

deposits of clay in the vicinity--the clay being, for the most part,

obtained by mining. Fort Dodge is a market for the products of the

surrounding country, and is a shipping centre of considerable

importance. It has various manufactures, including gypsum, plaster,

oatmeal, brick and tile, sewer pipe, pottery, foundry and machine-shop

products, and shoes. In 1905 the value of all the factory products was

$3,025,659, an increase of 200.8% over that for 1900. Fort Clark was

erected on the site in 1850 to protect settlers against the Indians; in

1851 the name was changed by order of the secretary of war to Fort Dodge

in honour of Colonel Henry Dodge (1782-1867), who was a

lieutenant-colonel of Missouri Volunteers in the War of 1812, served

with distinction as a colonel of Michigan Mounted Volunteers in the

Black Hawk War, resigned from the military service in March 1833, was

governor of Wisconsin Territory from 1836 to 1841 and from 1846 to 1848,

and was a delegate from Wisconsin Territory to Congress from 1841 to

1845, and a United States senator from Wisconsin in 1848-1857. The fort

was abandoned in 1853, and in 1854 a town was laid out. It was chartered

as a city in 1869. From the gypsum beds near Fort Dodge was taken in

1868 the block of gypsum from which was modelled the "Cardiff Giant," a

rudely-fashioned human figure, which was buried near Cardiff, Onondaga

county, New York, where it was "discovered" late in 1869. It was then

exhibited in various parts of the country as a "petrified man." The hoax

was finally exposed by Professor Othniel C. Marsh of Yale; and George

Hall of Binghamton, N.Y., confessed to the fraud, his object having been

to discredit belief in the "giants" of Genesis vi. 4. (See "The Cardiff

Giant: the True Story of a Remarkable Deception," by Andrew D. White, in

the _Century Magazine_, vol. xlii., 1902.)

FORT EDWARD, a village of Washington county, New York, U.S.A., in the

township of Fort Edward, on the Hudson river, 56 m. by rail N. of

Albany. Pop. of the village (1900) 3521, of whom 385 were foreign-born;

(1905) 3806; (1910) 3762; of the township, including the village

(1900), 5216; (1905), 5300; (1910), 5740. The village lies mostly at the

foot of a steep hill, is at the junction of the main line and the Glens

Falls branch of the Delaware & Hudson railway, and is also served by

electric line to Albany and Glens Falls; the barge canal connecting Lake

Champlain and the Hudson river enters the Hudson here. The river

furnishes good water-power, which is used in the manufacture of paper

and wood pulp, the leading industry. Shirts and pottery (flower pots,

jars and drain tile) are manufactured also. The village is the seat of

the Fort Edward Collegiate Institute, a non-sectarian school for girls,

which was founded in 1854 and until 1893 was coeducational. The village

owns and operates the waterworks. Indian war parties on their way to

Canada were accustomed to make a portage from this place, the head of

navigation for small boats on the Hudson, to Lake George or Lake

Champlain, and hence it was known as the Great Carrying Place. Governor

(afterwards Sir) Francis Nicholson in 1709, in his expedition against

Canada, built here a stockade which was named Fort Nicholson. Some years

afterwards John Henry Lydius (1693-1791) established a settlement and

protected it by a new fort, named Fort Lydius, but this was destroyed by

the French and Indians in 1745. In 1755, a third fort was built by

General Phineas Lyman (1716-1774), as preliminary to the expedition

against Crown Point under General William Johnson, and was named Fort

Lyman; in 1756 Johnson renamed it Fort Edward in honour of Edward, Duke

of York. In the War for Independence Fort Edward was the headquarters of

General Philip Schuyler while he and his troops were blocking the march

of General Burgoyne's army from Fort Ticonderoga. When a part of

Burgoyne's forces was distant only 3 or 4 m. from Fort Edward, on Fort

Edward Hill, on the 27th of July 1777, the leader of an Indian band

whose assistance the British had sought is supposed to have murdered

Jane McCrea (c. 1757-1777), a young-girl who had been visiting friends

in Fort Edward, and who was to be escorted on that day to the British

camp and there to be married to David Jones, a loyalist serving as a

lieutenant in Burgoyne's army; it is possible that she was shot

accidentally by Americans pursuing her Indian escorts, but her death did

much to rouse local sentiment against Burgoyne and his Indian allies,

and caused many volunteers to join the American army resisting

Burgoyne's invasion. A monument has been erected by the Jane McCrea

Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution near the spot where

she was killed, and she is buried in Union Cemetery in Fort Edward. Fort

Edward township was erected in 1818 from a part of the township of

Argyle. Fort Edward village was incorporated in 1852.

See R.O. Bascom, _The Fort Edward Book_ (Fort Edward, 1903).

FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1394-c. 1476), English lawyer, the second son of

Sir John Fortescue, of an ancient family in Devonshire, was born at

Norris, near South Brent, in Somersetshire. He was educated at Exeter

College, Oxford. During the reign of Henry VI. he was three times

appointed one of the governors of Lincoln's Inn. In 1441 he was made a

king's sergeant at law, and in the following year chief justice of the

king's bench. As a judge Fortescue is highly recommended for his wisdom,

gravity and uprightness; and he seems to have enjoyed great favour with

the king, who is said to have given him some substantial proofs of

esteem and regard. He held his office during the remainder of the reign

of Henry VI., to whom he steadily adhered; and having faithfully served

that unfortunate monarch in all his troubles, he was attainted of

treason in the first parliament of Edward IV. When Henry subsequently

fled into Scotland, he is supposed to have appointed Fortescue, who

appears to have accompanied him in his flight, chancellor of England. In

1463 Fortescue accompanied Queen Margaret and her court in their exile

on the Continent, and returned with them afterwards to England. During

their wanderings abroad the chancellor wrote for the instruction of the

young prince Edward his celebrated work _De laudibus legum Angliae_. On

the defeat of the Lancastrian party he made his submission to Edward

IV., from whom he received a general pardon dated Westminster, October

13, 1471. He died at an advanced age, but the exact date of his death

has not been ascertained.

Fortescue's masterly vindication of the laws of England, though

received with great favour by the learned of the profession to whom it

was communicated, did not appear in print until the reign of Henry

VIII., when it was published, but without a date. It was subsequently

many times reprinted. Another valuable and learned work by Fortescue,

written in English, was published in 1714, under the title of _The

Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy_. In the Cotton

library there is a manuscript of this work, in the title of which it

is said to have been addressed to Henry VI.; but many passages show

plainly that it was written in favour of Edward IV. A revised edition

of this work, with a very valuable historical and biographical

introduction, was published in 1885 by Charles Plummer, under the

title _The Governance of England_. All of Fortescue's minor writings

appear in _The Works of Sir John Fortescue, now first Collected and

Arranged_, published in 1869 for private circulation, by his

descendant, Lord Clermont.

AUTHORITIES.--Plummer's Introduction to _The Governance of England_;

_Life_ in Lord Clermont's edition; Gairdner's _Paston Letters_; Foss's

_Lives of the Judges_.

FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1531-1607), English statesman, was the eldest

son of Sir Adrian Fortescue (executed in 1539), and of his second wife,

Anne, daughter of Sir William Reade or Rede of Borstall in

Buckinghamshire. The exact date of his birth is unrecorded.[1] He was

restored in blood and to his estate at Shirburn in Oxfordshire in 1551.

Through his father's mother, Alice, daughter of Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, he

was a second cousin once removed from Queen Elizabeth. He acquired early

a considerable reputation as a scholar and was chosen to direct the

Princess Elizabeth's classical studies in Mary's reign. On the accession

of Elizabeth he was appointed keeper of the great wardrobe. He was

returned in 1572 to parliament for Wallingford, in 1586 for Buckingham

borough, in 1588 and 1597 for Buckingham county, and in 1601 for

Middlesex. In 1589 he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer and a

member of the privy council. In 1592 he was knighted, and in November

1601, in addition to his two great offices, he received that of

chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. By means of his lucrative

employments he amassed great wealth, with which he bought large estates

in Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, and kept up much state and a large

household. He took a prominent part in public business, was a member of

the court of the star chamber and an ecclesiastical commissioner, sat on

various important commissions, and as chancellor of the exchequer

explained the queen's financial needs and proposed subsidies in

parliament. On the death of Elizabeth he suggested that certain

restrictions should be imposed on James's powers, in order probably to

limit the appointment of Scotchmen to office,[2] but his advice was not

followed. He was deprived by James of the chancellorship of the

exchequer, but evidently did not forfeit his favour, as he retained his

two other offices and entertained James several times at Henden and

Salden. In 1604 Sir John, who stood for Buckinghamshire, was defeated by

Sir Francis Goodwin, whose election, however, was declared void by the

lord chancellor on the ground of a sentence of outlawry under which he

lay, and Fortescue was by a second election returned in his place. This

incident gave rise to a violent controversy, regarding the chancellor's

jurisdiction in deciding disputed elections to parliament, which was

repudiated by the Commons but maintained by the king. The matter after

much debate was ended by a compromise, which, while leaving the

principle unsettled, set aside the elections of both candidates and

provided for the issue of a new writ. Fortescue was then in February

1606 returned for Middlesex, which he represented till his death on the

23rd of December 1607. He was buried in Mursley church in

Buckinghamshire, where a monument was erected to his memory. His long

public career was highly honourable, and he served his sovereign and

country with unswerving fidelity and honesty. His learned attainments

too were considerable--Camden styles him "vir integer, Graece,

Latineque apprime eruditus,"[3] and his scholarship is also praised by

Lloyd, while his friendship with Sir Thomas Bodley procured gifts of

books and manuscripts to the latter's library. Fortescue married (1)

Cecily, daughter of Sir Edmund Ashfield of Ewelme, by whom, besides a

daughter, he had two sons, Sir Francis and Sir William; and (2) Alice,

daughter of Christopher Smyth of Annabels in Hertfordshire, by whom he

had one daughter. His descent in the male line became extinct with the

death of Sir John Fortescue, 3rd baronet, in 1717.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_; Lord

Clermont's _Hist. of the Family of the Fortescues_; _Hist. Notices of

the Parishes of Swyncombe and Ewelme_, by A. Napier, p. 390; D.

Lloyd's _State Worthies_ (1670), p. 556; _Add. MSS._ 12497 f. 143

("Sir John Fortescue's meanes of gaine by Sir R. Thikstin told me [Sir

Julius Caesar]"); _Hist. MSS. Comm., Marquis of Salisbury's MSS._;

Spedding's _Life of Bacon_; Architectural and Archaeological Soc. for

Bucks, _Records of Bucks_, vol. i. p. 86. (P. C. Y.)