[1] Coke, 4 _Inst._, 300.
[2] Manwood's _Treatise of the Forest Laws_ (4th edition, 1717).
[3] _Documents Illustrative of English History_, p. 338.
FORESTS AND FORESTRY. Although most people know what a forest (Lat.
_foris_, "out of doors") is, a definition of it which suits all cases is
by no means easy to give. Manwood, in his treatise of the _Lawes of the
Forest_ (1598), defines a forest as "a certain territory of woody
grounds, fruitful pastures, privileged for wild beasts and fowls of
forest, chase and warren, to rest and abide in, in the safe protection
of the king, for his princely delight and pleasure." This primitive
definition has, in modern times, when the economic aspect of forests
came more into the foreground, given place to others, so that forest
may, in a general way, now be described as "an area which is for the
most part set aside for the production of timber and other forest
produce, or which is expected to exercise certain climatic effects, or
to protect the locality against injurious influences."
As far as conclusions can now be drawn, it is probable that the greater
part of the dry land of the earth was, at some time, covered with
forest, which consisted of a variety of trees and shrubs grouped
according to climate, soil and configuration of the several localities.
When the old trees reached their limit of life, they disappeared, and
younger trees took their place. The conditions for an uninterrupted
regeneration of the forest were favourable, and the result was vigorous
production by the creative powers of soil and climate. Then came man,
and by degrees interfered, until in most countries of the earth the area
under forest has been considerably reduced. The first decided
interference was probably due to the establishment of domestic animals;
men burnt the forest to obtain pasture for their flocks. Subsequently
similar measures on an ever-increasing scale were employed to prepare
the land for agricultural purposes. More recently enormous areas of
forests were destroyed by reckless cutting and subsequent firing in the
extraction of timber for economic purposes.
It will readily be understood that the distribution and character of the
now remaining forests must differ enormously (see PLANTS:
_Distribution_). Large portions of the earth are still covered with
dense masses of tall trees, while others contain low scrub or grass
land, or are desert. As a general rule, natural forests consist of a
number of different species intermixed; but in some cases certain
species, called gregarious, have succeeded in obtaining the upper hand,
thus forming more or less pure forests of one species only. The number
of species differs very much. In many tropical forests hundreds of
species may be found on a comparatively small area, in other cases the
number is limited. Burma has several thousand species of trees and
shrubs, Sind has only ten species of trees. Central Europe has about
forty species, and the greater part of northern Russia, Sweden and
Norway contains forests consisting of about half a dozen species.
Elevation above the sea acts similarly to rising latitude, but the
effect is much more rapidly produced. Generally speaking, it may be said
that the Tropics and adjoining parts of the earth, wherever the climate
is not modified by considerable elevation, contain broad-leaved species,
palms, bamboos, &c. Here most of the best and hardest timbers are found,
such as teak, mahogany and ebony. The northern countries are rich in
conifers. Taking a section from Central Africa to North Europe, it will
be found that south and north of the equator there is a large belt of
dense hardwood forest; then comes the Sahara, then the coast of the
Mediterranean with forests of cork oak; then Italy with oak, olive,
chestnut, gradually giving place to ash, sycamore, beech, birch and
certain species of pine; in Switzerland and Germany silver fir and
spruce gain ground. Silver fir disappears in central Germany, and the
countries around the Baltic contain forests consisting chiefly of Scotch
pine, spruce and birch, to which, in Siberia, larch must be added, while
the lower parts of the ground are stocked with hornbeam, willow, alder
and poplar. In North America the distribution is as follows: Tropical
vegetation is found in south Florida, while in north Florida it changes
into a subtropical vegetation consisting of evergreen broad-leaved
species with pines on sandy soils. On going north in the Atlantic
region, the forest becomes temperate, containing deciduous broad-leaved
trees and pines, until Canada is reached, where larches, spruces and
firs occupy the ground. Around the great lakes on sandy soils the
broad-leaved forest gives way to pines. On proceeding west from the
Atlantic region the forest changes into a shrubby vegetation, and this
into the prairies. Farther west, towards the Pacific coast, extensive
forests are found consisting, according to latitude and elevation above
the sea, of pines, larches, fir, Thujas and Tsugas. In Japan a tropical
vegetation is found in the south, comprising palms, figs, ebony,
mangrove and others. This is followed on proceeding north by subtropical
forests containing evergreen oaks, _Podocarpus_, tree-ferns, and, at
higher elevations, _Cryptomeria_ and _Chamaecyparis_. Then follow
deciduous broad-leaved forests, and finally firs, spruces and larches.
In India the character of the forests is governed chiefly by rainfall
and elevation. Where the former is heavy evergreen forests of
Guttiferae, Dipterocarpeae, Leguminosae, Euphorbias, figs, palms, ferns,
bamboos and india-rubber trees are found. Under a less copious rainfall
deciduous forests appear, containing teak and sal (_Shorea robusta_) and
a great variety of other valuable trees. Under a still smaller rainfall
the vegetation becomes sparse, containing acacias, _Dalbergia sissoo_
and Tamarix. Where the rainfall is very light or _nil_, desert appears.
In the Himalayas, subtropical to arctic conditions are found, the
forests containing, according to elevation, pines, firs, deodars, oaks,
chestnuts, magnolias, laurels, rhododendrons and bamboos. Australia,
again, has its own particular flora of eucalypts, of which some two
hundred species have been distinguished, as well as wattles. Some of the
eucalypts attain an enormous height.
_Utility of Forests._--In the economy of man and of nature forests are
of direct and indirect value, the former chiefly through the produce
which they yield, and the latter through the influence which they
exercise upon climate, the regulation of moisture, the stability of the
soil, the healthiness and beauty of a country and allied subjects. The
_indirect_ utility will be dealt with first. A piece of land bare of
vegetation is, throughout the year, exposed to the full effect of sun
and air currents, and the climatic conditions which are produced by
these agencies. If, on the other hand, a piece of land is covered with a
growth of plants, and especially with a dense crop of forest vegetation,
it enjoys the benefit of certain agencies which modify the effect of sun
and wind on the soil and the adjoining layers of air. These modifying
agencies are as follows: (1) The crowns of the trees intercept the rays
of the sun and the falling rain; they obstruct the movement of air
currents, and reduce radiation at night. (2) The leaves, flowers and
fruits, augmented by certain plants which grow in the shade of the
trees, form a layer of mould, or humus, which protects the soil against
rapid changes of temperature, and greatly influences the movement of
water in it. (3) The roots of the trees penetrate into the soil in all
directions, and bind it together. The effects of these agencies have
been observed from ancient times, and widely differing views have been
taken of them. Of late years, however, more careful observations have
been made at so-called parallel stations, that is to say, one station in
the middle of a forest, and another outside at some distance from its
edge, but otherwise exposed to the same general conditions. In this way,
the following results have been obtained: (1) Forests reduce the
temperature of the air and soil to a moderate extent, and render the
climate more equable. (2) They increase the relative humidity of the
air, and reduce evaporation. (3) They tend to increase the precipitation
of moisture. As regards the actual rainfall, their effect in low lands
is _nil_ or very small; in hilly countries it is probably greater, but
definite results have not yet been obtained owing to the difficulty of
separating the effect of forests from that of other factors. (4) They
help to regulate the water supply, produce a more sustained feeding of
springs, tend to reduce violent floods, and render the flow of water in
rivers more continuous. (5) They assist in preventing denudation,
erosion, landslips, avalanches, the silting up of rivers and low lands
and the formation of sand dunes. (6) They reduce the velocity of
air-currents, protect adjoining fields against cold or dry winds, and
afford shelter to cattle, game and useful birds. (7) They may, under
certain conditions, improve the healthiness of a country, and help in
its defence. (8) They increase the beauty of a country, and produce a
healthy aesthetic influence upon the people.
The _direct_ utility of forests is chiefly due to their produce, the
capital which they represent, and the work which they provide. The
principal produce of forests consists of timber and firewood. Both are
necessaries for the daily life of the people. Apart from a limited
number of broad-leaved species, the conifers have become the most
important timber trees in the economy of man. They are found in greatest
quantities in the countries around the Baltic and in North America. In
modern times iron and other materials have, to a considerable extent,
replaced timber, while coal, lignite, and peat compete with firewood;
nevertheless wood is still indispensable, and likely to remain so. This
is borne out by the statistics of the most civilized nations. Whereas
the population of Great Britain and Ireland, during the period
1880-1900, increased by about 20%, the imports of timber, during the
same period, increased by 45%; in other words, every head of population
in 1900 used more timber than twenty years earlier. Germany produced in
1880 about as much timber as she required; in 1899 she imported
4,600,000 tons, valued at L14,000,000, and her imports are rapidly
increasing, although the yield capacity of her own forests is much
higher now than it was formerly. Wood is now used for many purposes
which formerly were not thought of. The manufacture of the wood pulp
annually imported into Britain consumes at least 2,000,000 tons of
timber. A fabric closely resembling silk is now made of spruce wood. The
variety of other, or minor, produce yielded by forests is very great,
and much of it is essential for the well-being of the people and for
various industries. The yield of fodder is of the utmost importance in
countries subject to periodic droughts; in many places field crops could
not be grown successfully without the leaf-mould and brushwood taken
from the forests. As regards industries, attention need only be drawn to
such articles as commercial fibre, tanning materials, dye-stuffs, lac,
turpentine, resin, rubber, gutta-percha, &c. Great Britain and Ireland
alone import every year such materials to the value of L12,000,000, half
of this being represented by rubber.
The _capital_ employed in forests consists chiefly of the value of the
soil and growing stock of timber. The latter is, ordinarily, of much
greater value than the former wherever a sustained annual yield of
timber is expected from a forest. In the case of a Scotch pine forest,
for instance, the value of the growing stock is, under the
above-mentioned condition, from three to five times that of the soil.
The rate of interest yielded by capital invested in forests differs, of
course, considerably according to circumstances, but on the whole it
may, under proper management, be placed equal to that yielded by
agricultural land; it is lower than the agricultural rate on the better
classes of land, but higher on the inferior classes. Hence the latter
are specially indicated for the forest industry, and the former for the
production of agricultural crops. Forests require _labour_ in a great
variety of ways, such as (1) general administration, formation, tending
and harvesting; (2) transport of produce; and (3) industries which
depend on forests for their prime material. The labour indicated under
the first head differs considerably according to circumstances, but its
amount is smaller than that required if the land is used for
agriculture. Hence forests provide additional labour only if they are
established on surplus lands. Owing to the bulky nature of forest
produce its transport forms a business of considerable magnitude, the
amount of labour being perhaps equal to half that employed under the
first head. The greatest amount of labour is, however, required in the
working up of the raw material yielded by forests. In this respect
attention may be drawn to the chair industry in and around High Wycombe
in Buckinghamshire, where more than 20,000 workmen are employed in
converting the beech, grown on the adjoining chalk hills, into chairs
and tools of many patterns. Complete statistics for Great Britain are
not available under this head, but it may be mentioned that in Germany
the people employed in the forests amount to 2.3% of the total
population; those employed on transport of forest produce 1.1%;
labourers employed on the various wood industries, 8.6%; or a total of
12%. An important feature of the work connected with forests and their
produce is that a great part of it can be made to fit in with the
requirements of agriculture; that is to say, it can be done at seasons
when field crops do not require attention. Thus the rural labourers or
small farmers can earn some money at times when they have nothing else
to do, and when they would probably sit idle if no forest work were
obtainable.
Whether, or how far, the utility of forests is brought out in a
particular country depends on its special conditions, such as (1) the
position of a country, its communications, and the control which it
exercises over other countries, such as colonies; (2) the quantity and
quality of substitutes for forest produce available in the country; (3)
the value of land and labour, and the returns which land yields if used
for other purposes; (4) the density of population; (5) the amount of
capital available for investment; (6) the climate and configuration,
especially the geographical position, whether inland or on the border
of the sea, &c. No general rule can be laid down, showing whether
forests are required in a country, or, if so, to what extent; that
question must be answered according to the special circumstances of each
case.