FORAMINIFERA FORT LEE
FORBACH FORT MADISON
FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE FORTROSE
FORBES, ARCHIBALD FORT SCOTT
FORBES, DAVID FORT SMITH
FORBES, DUNCAN FORTUNA
FORBES, EDWARD FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS
FORBES, JAMES DAVID FORTUNATUS
FORBES, SIR JOHN FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS CLEMENTIANUS
FORBES (town) FORTUNE, ROBERT
FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO
FORBIN, CLAUDE DE FORT WAYNE
FORCELLINI, EGIDIO FORT WILLIAM (Ontario, Canada)
FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG FORT WILLIAM (Scotland)
FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHELM FORT WORTH
FORCHHEIM FORTY
FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW FORUM
FORD, JOHN FORUM APPII
FORD, RICHARD FORUM CLODII
FORD, THOMAS FORUM TRAIANI
FORDE, FRANCIS FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY
FORDHAM FOSCARI, FRANCESCO
FORDUN, JOHN OF FOSCOLO, UGO
FORECLOSURE FOSS, EDWARD
FOREIGN OFFICE FOSSANO
FORELAND, NORTH and SOUTH FOSSANUOVA
FORESHORE FOSSE WAY
FORESTALLING FOSSICK
FOREST LAWS FOSSOMBRONE
FORESTS AND FORESTRY FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO
FOREY, ELIE FREDERIC FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE
FORFAR FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS
FORFARSHIRE FOSTER, JOHN
FORFEITURE FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL
FORGERY FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET
FORGET-ME-NOT FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS
FORGING FOSTORIA
FORK FOTHERGILL, JOHN
FORKEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS FOTHERINGHAY
FORLI FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LEON
FORLIMPOPOLI FOUCHE, JOSEPH
FORLORN HOPE FOUCHER, SIMON
FORM FOUCQUET, JEAN
FORMALIN FOUGERES
FORMAN, ANDREW FOUILLEE, ALFRED JULES EMILE
FORMAN, SIMON FOULD, ACHILLE
FORMERET FOULIS, ANDREW and ROBERT
FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANCOIS
FORMIA FOUNDATION
FORMIC ACID FOUNDATIONS
FORMOSA (territory of Argentine) FOUNDING
FORMOSA (Taiwan) FOUNDLING HOSPITALS
FORMOSUS FOUNTAIN
FORMULA FOUNTAINS ABBEY
FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO FOUQUE, FERDINAND ANDRE
FORRES FOUQUE, FRIEDRICH KARL DE LA MOTTE
FORREST, EDWIN FOUQUET, NICOLAS
FORREST, SIR JOHN FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE QUENTIN
FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD FOURCHAMBAULT
FORSKAL, PETER FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS
FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG FOURIER, FRANCOIS CHARLES MARIE
FORST FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH
FORSTER, FRANCOIS FOURIER'S SERIES
FORSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH FOURMIES
FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM FOURMONT, ETIENNE
FORSTER, JOHN FOURNET, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE XAVIER
FORSTER, JOHN COOPER FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON
FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD FOURNIER L'HERITIER, CLAUDE
FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR FOURTOU, MARIE FRANCOIS OSCAR BARDY DE
FORTALEZA FOUSSA
FORT AUGUSTUS FOWEY
FORT DODGE FOWL
FORT EDWARD FOWLER, CHARLES
FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (lawyer) FOWLER, EDWARD
FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (statesman) FOWLER, JOHN
FORTEVIOT FOWLER, SIR JOHN
FORT GEORGE FOWLER, WILLIAM
FORTH FOX, CHARLES JAMES
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT FOX, EDWARD
FORTLAGE, KARL
FORAMINIFERA, in zoology, a subdivision of Protozoa, the name selected
for this enormous class being that given by A. D'Orbigny in 1826 to the
shells characteristic of the majority of the species. He regarded them
as minute Cephalopods, whose chambers communicated by pores (foramina).
Later on their true nature was discovered by F. Dujardin, working on
living forms, and he referred them to his Rhizopoda, characterized by
pseudopodia given off from the sarcode (protoplasm) as organs of
prehension and locomotion. W.B. Carpenter in 1862 differentiated the
group nearly in its present limits as "Reticularia"; and since then it
has been rendered more natural by the removal of a number of simple
forms (mostly freshwater) with branching but not reticulate pseudopods,
to Filosa, a distinct subclass, now united with Lobosa into the
restricted class of Rhizopoda.
[Illustration: FIG. 1A.--_Lieberkuhnia_, with reticulate pseudopodia.]
_Anatomy._--Protista Sarcodina, with simple protoplasmic bodies of
_granular surface_, emitting processes which branch and _anastomose
freely_, either from the whole surface or from one or more elongated
processes ("stylopods"); nucleus one or more (not yet demonstrated in
some little known simple forms), usually in genetic relation to granules
or strands of matter of similar composition, the "chromidia" scattered
through the protoplasm; body naked, or provided with a permanent
investment (shell or test), membranous, gelatinous, arenaceous (of
compacted or cemented granules), calcareous, or very rarely (in deep sea
forms) siliceous, sometimes freely perforated, but _never latticed_;
opening by one or more permanent apertures ("pylomes") or crevices
between compacted sand-granules, often very complex; reproduction by
fission (only in simplest naked forms), or by brood formation; in the
latter case one mode of brood formation (A) eventuates in amoebiform
embryos, the other (B) in flagellate zoospores which are exogamous
gametes, pairing but not with those of their own brood; the coupled cell
("zygote") when mature in the shelled species gives rise to a very small
primitive test-chamber or "microsphere." The adult microspheric animal
gives rise to the amoebiform brood which have a larger primitive test
("megalosphere"); and megalospheric forms appear to reproduce by the A
type a series of similar forms before a B brood of gametes is finally
borne, to pair and reproduce the microspheric type, which is
consequently rare.
[Illustration: FIG. 1B.--_Protomyxa aurantiaca_, Haeck. (After Haeckel.)
1, Adult, containing two diatom frustules, and three Tintinnid
ciliates, with a large Dinoflagellate just caught by the expanded
reticulate pseudopodia.
2, Adult encysted and segmented.
3, Flagellate zoospore just freed from cyst.
4, Zoospore which has passed into the amoeboid state.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Allogromiidea._
1, _Diplophrys archeri_, Barker.
a, Nucleus.
b, Contractile vacuoles.
c, The yellow oil-like body. Moor pools, Ireland.
2, _Allogromia oviformis_, Duj.
a, The numerous nuclei; near these the elongated bodies represent
ingested diatoms. Freshwater. Figs. 2, 3, 11, 12 belong to Rhizopoda
Filosa, and are included here to show the characteristic _filose_
pseudopodia in contrast with the reticulate spread of the others.
3, _Shepheardella taeniiformis_, Siddall (_Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci._,
1880).
Marine. The protoplasm is retracted at both ends into the tubular
case.
a. Nucleus.
5, _Shepheardella taeniiformis_; with pseudopodia fully expanded.
6-10, Varying appearance of the nucleus as it is carried along in the
streaming protoplasm within the tube.
11, _Amphitrema wrightianum_, Archer, showing membranous shell
encrusted with foreign particles. Moor pools, Ireland.
12, _Diaphorophodon mobile_, Archer.
a. Nucleus. Moor pools, Ireland.]
The shells require special study. In the lowest forms they are
membranous, sometimes encrusted with sand-grains, always very simple,
the only complication being the doubling of the pylome in _Diplophrys_
(fig. 2, 1), _Shepheardella_ (fig. 2, 3-5), _Amphitrema_ (fig. 2, 11),
_Diaphorophodon_ (fig. 2, 12). The marine shells are, as we have seen,
of cemented particles, or calcareous, glassy, and regularly perforated,
or again calcareous, but porcellanous and rarely perforate. These
characters have been used as a guide to classification; but some sandy
forms have so large a proportion of calcareous cement that they might
well be called encrusted calcareous genera, and are also not very
constant in respect of the character of perforation. The porcellanous
genera, however, form a compact group, the replacement of the shell by
silica in forms dwelling in the red clay of the ocean abysses, where
calcium carbonate is soluble, not really making any difficulty.
Moreover, the shells of this group show a deflected process or neck of
the embryonic chamber ("camptopyle") at least in the megalospheric
forms, whereas when such a neck exists in other groups it is straight.
The opening of the shell is called the pylome. This may be a mere hole
where the lateral walls of the body end, or there may be a diaphragmatic
ingrowth so as to narrow the entrance. It may be a simple rounded
opening, oblong or tri-multi-radiate, or branching (fig. 4, 1); or
replaced by a number of coarse pores ("ethmopyle") (fig. 3, 5a). Again,
it may lie at the end of a narrowed tube ("stylopyle"), which in
_Lagena_ (fig. 3, 9) may project outwards ("ectoselenial"), or inwards
("entoselenial"). In most groups the stylopyle is straight; but in the
majority of the porcellanous shells it is bent down on the side of the
shell, and constitutes the "flexopyle" of A. Kemna, which being a hybrid
term should be replaced by "camptopyle." The animal usually forms a
simple shell only after it has attained a certain size, and this
"embryonic chamber" cannot grow further. In _Spirillina_ and
_Ammodiscus_ there is no pylomic end-wall, and the shell continues to
grow as a spiral tube; in _Cornuspira_ (fig. 3, 1) there is a slight
constriction indicating the junction of a small embryonic chamber with a
camptopyle, but the rest of the shell is a simple flat spiral of several
turns. In the majority at least one chamber follows the first, with its
own pylome at the distal end. This second chamber may rest on the first,
so that the part on which it rests serves as a party-wall bounding the
front of the newer chamber as well as the back of the older; and this
state prevails for all added chambers in such cases. In the highest
vitreous shells, however, each chamber has its complete "proper wall";
while a "supplementary skeleton," a deposit of shelly matter, binds the
chambers together into a compact whole. In all cases the protoplasm from
the pylome may deposit additional matter on the outside of the shell, so
as to produce very characteristic sculpturing of the surface.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Various forms of Calcareous Foraminifera.
1, _Cornuspira_. 11, _Cristellaria_.
2, _Spiroloculina_. 12, _Globigerina_.
3, _Triloculina_. 13, _Polymorphina_.
4, _Biloculina_. 14, _Textularia_.
5, _Peneroplis_. 15, _Discorbina_.
6, _Orbiculina_ (cyclical). 16, _Polystomella_.
7, _Orbiculina_ (young). 17, _Planorbulina_.
8, _Orbiculina_ (spiral). 18, _Rotalia_.
9, _Lagena_. 19, _Nonionina_.
10, _Nodosaria_.]
Compound or "polythalamic" shells derive their general form largely from
the relations of successive chambers in size, shape and direction. This
is well shown in the porcellanous _Miliolidae_. If we call the straight
line uniting the two ends of a chamber the "polar axis," we find that
successive chambers have their pylomes at alternate poles; but they lie
on different meridians. In _Spiroloculina_ (fig. 3, 2) the divergence
between the meridians is 180 deg., and the chambers are strongly
incurved, so that the whole shell forms a flat spiral, of nearly
circular outline. In the majority, however, the chambers are crescentic
in section, their transverse prolongations being termed "alary"
outgrowths, so that successive chambers overlap; when under this
condition the angle of successive meridians is still 180 deg. we have
the form _Biloculina_ (fig. 3, 4), or with the alary extensions
completely enveloping, _Uniloculina_; when the angle is 120 deg. we have
_Triloculina_, or 144 deg., _Quinqueloculina_. Again in _Peneroplis_
(figs. 3, 5, and 4) the shell begins as a flattened shell which tends to
straighten out with further growth and additional chambers. In some
forms (_Spirolina_, fig. 22, 3) the chambers have a nearly circular
transverse section, and the adult shell is thus crozier-shaped. In
others (which may have the same sculpture, and are scarcely
distinguishable as species) the chambers are short and wide, drawn out
at right angles to the axis, but in the plane of the spiral, and the
growing shell becomes fan-shaped or "flabelliform" (figs. 3, 5, 4, 2).
This widening may go on till the outer chambers form the greater part of
a circle, as in _Orbiculina_ (fig. 3, 6-8) where, moreover, each large
chamber is subdivided by incomplete vertical bulkheads into a tier of
chamberlets; each chamberlet has a distinct pylomic pore opening to the
outside or to those of the next outer zone. In _Orbitolites_ (figs. 5,
6) we have a centre on a somewhat Milioline type; and after a few
chambers in spiral succession, complete circles of chambers are formed.
In the larger forms the new zones are of greater height, and horizontal
bulkheads divide the
chamberlets into vertical tiers, each with its own pylomic pore.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Modifications of _Peneroplis_. 1, _Dendritina_;
2, _Eu-Peneroplis_.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Shell of simple type of _Orbitolites_, showing
primordial chamber a, and circumambient chamber b, surrounded by
successive rings of chamberlets connected by circular galleries which
open at the margin by pores.]
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Animal of simple type of _Orbitolites_, showing
primordial segment a, and circumambient segment b, surrounded by annuli
of sub-segments connected by radial and circular stolon-processes.]
The Cheilostomellidae (fig. 3, 13) reproduce among perforate vitreous
genera what we have already seen in the _Miliolida_: _Orbitoides_ (fig.
10, 2) and _Cycloclypeus_, among the Nummulite group, with a very finely
perforate wall, recall the porcellanous _Orbiculina_ and _Orbitolites_.
In flat spiral forms (figs. 22, 1, 7; 3, 2, 16, 19, &c.) all the
chambers may be freely exposed; or the successive chambers be wider
transversely than their predecessors and overlap by "alary extensions,"
becoming "nautiloid"; in extreme cases only the last turn or whorl is
seen (fig. 11). When the spiral axis is conical the shell may be
"rotaloid," the larger lower chambers partially concealing the upper
smaller ones (fig. 3, 12, 15, 17, 18); or they may leave, as in
_Patellina_, a wide central conical cavity--which, in this genus, is
finally occupied by later formed "supplementary" chambers. When the
successive chambers are disposed around a longitudinal central axis they
may be said to "alternate" like the leaves of a plant. If the
arrangement is distichous we get such forms as _Polymorphina_,
_Textularia_ and _Frondicularia_ (fig. 3, 13, 14), if tristichous,
_Tritaxia_. Such an arrangement may coexist with a spiral twist of the
axis for at least part of its course, as in the crozier-shaped
_Spiroplecta_.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Section of _Rotalia beccarii_, showing the canal
system, a, b, c, in the substance of the intermediate skeleton; d,
tubulated chamber-wall.]
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Internal cast of _Polystomella craticulata_.
a, Retral processes, proceeding from the posterior margin of one of
the segments.
b, b^1, Smooth anterior margin of the same segment.
c, c^1, Stolons connecting successive segments and uniting themselves
with the diverging branches of the meridional canals.
d, d^1, d^2, Three turns of one of the spiral canals.
e, e^1, e^2, Three of the meridional canals.
f, f^1, f^2, Their diverging branches.]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Operculina_ laid open, to show its internal
structure.
a, Marginal cord seen in cross section at a'.
b, b, External walls of the chambers.
c, c, Cavities of the chambers.
c', c', Their alar prolongations.
d, d, Septa divided at d', d', and at d", so as to lay open the
interseptal canals, the general distribution of which is seen in the
septa e, e; the lines radiating from e, e point to the secondary
pores.
g, g, Non-tubular columns.]
Two phenomena interfere with the ready availability of the characters of
form for classificatory ends--dimorphism and multiformity.
_Dimorphism._--The majority of foraminiferal shells show two types, the
rarer with a much smaller central chamber than that of the more
frequent. The chambers are called microsphere and megalosphere, the
forms in which they occur microsphaeric and megalosphaeric forms,
respectively. We shall study below their relation to the reproductive
cycle.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--1, Piece of Nummulitic Limestone from the
Pyrenees, showing Nummulites laid open by fracture through the median
plane; 2, vertical section of _Nummulite_; 3, _Orbitoides_.]
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Vertical section of portion of _Nummulites_,
showing the investment of the earlier whorls by the alar prolongations
of the later.
a, Marginal cord.
b, Chamber of outer whorl.
c, c, Whorl invested by a.
d, One of the chambers of the fourth whorl from the margin.
e, e', Marginal portions of the enclosed whorls.
f, Investing portion of the outer whorl.
g, g, Spaces left between the investing portions of successive whorls.
h, h, Sections of the partitions dividing these.]
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Internal surface of wall of two chambers, a, a,
of _Nummulites_, showing the orifices of its minute tubuli.
b, b, The septa containing canals.
c, c, Extensions of these canals in the intermediate skeleton.
d, d, Larger pores.]
_Multiformity._--Many of the Polythalamia show different types of
chamber-succession at different ages. We have noted this phenomenon in
such crozier forms as _Peneroplis_, as well as in discoid forms; it is
very frequent. Thus the microspheric _Biloculina_ form the first few
chambers in quinqueloculine succession. The microspheric forms attain to
a greater size when adult than the megalospheric; and in _Orbitolites_
the microsphere has a straight outlet, orthostyle, instead of the
deflected camptostyle one, so general in porcellanous types; and the
spiral succession is continued for more turns before reaching the
fan-shaped and finally cyclic stage. _Globigerina_, whose chambers are
nearly spherical, is sometimes seen to be enclosed in a spherical test,
perforate, but without a pylome, and known as _Orbulina_; the chambered
Globigerina-shell is attached at first inside the wall of the
_Orbulina_, but ultimately disappears. The ultimate fate of the
_Orbulina_ shell is unknown; but it obviously marks a turning-point in
the life-cycle.
_Protoplasmic Body and Reproduction._--The protoplasm is not
differentiated into ecto- and endosarc, although it is often denser
in the central part within the shell, and clearer in the pseudopodial
ramifications and the layer (or stalk in the monothalamic forms) from
which it is given off. In pelagic forms like _Globigerina_ the
external layer is almost if not quite identical in structure with the
extracapsular protoplasm of Radiolaria (q.v.), being differentiated
into granular strands traversing a clear jelly, rich in large vacuoles
(alveoli), and uniting outside the jelly to form the basal layer of
the pseudopods; these again are radiolarian in character. Hence E.R.
Lankester justly enough compares the shell here to the central capsule
of the Radiolarian, though the comparison must not be pushed too far.
The cytoplasm contains granules of various kinds, and the internal
protoplasm is sometimes pigmented. The Chrysomonad Flagellate,
_Zooxanthella_, so abundant in its resting state--the so-called
"yellow cells"--in the extracapsular protoplasm of Radiolaria (q.v.)
also occurs in the outer protoplasm of many Foraminifera, not only
pelagic but also bottom-dwellers, such as _Orbitolites_.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Internal cast of two chambers, a, a, of
_Nummulites_, the radial canals between them passing into b, marginal
plexus.]
The nucleus is single in the Nuda and Allogromidia and in the
megalospheric forms of higher Foraminifera; but microspheric forms
when adult contain many simple similar nuclei. The nucleus in every
case gives off granules and irregular masses ("chromidia") of similar
reactions, which play an important part in reproduction. During the
maturation of the microsphere the nuclei disappear; and the cytoplasm
breaks up into a large number of zoospores, each of which is soon
provided with a single nucleus, whether entirely derived from the
parent-nucleus or from the coalescence of chromidia, or from both
these sources is still uncertain. These zoospores are amoeboid; they
soon secrete a shell and reveal themselves as megalospheres, the
original state of the megalospheric forms. In the adult megalosphere
the solitary nucleus disappears and is replaced by hosts of minute
vesicular nuclei, formed by the concentration of chromidia. Each
nucleus aggregates around it a proper zone of dense protoplasm; by two
successive mitotic divisions each mass becomes quadri-nucleate, and
splits up into four biflagellate, uninucleate zoospores. These are
pairing-cells or gametes, though they will not pair with members of
the same brood. In the zygote resulting from pairing two nuclei soon
fuse into one; but this again divides into two; an embryonic shell is
secreted, and this is the microspheric type, which is multinuclear
from the first. F. Schaudinn compares the nuclei of the adult
Foraminifera with the (vegetative) meganucleus of Infusora (q.v.) and
the chromidial mass with the micronucleus, whose chief function is
reproductive.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Vertical section of tubulated chamber-walls,
a, a, of _Nummulites_. b, b, Marginal cord; c, cavity of chamber; d,
d, non-tubulated columns.]
Since megalospheric forms are by far the most abundant, it seems
probable that under most conditions they also give rise to
megalospheric young like themselves; and that the production of
zoospores, pairing to pass into the microspheric form, is only
occasional, and possibly seasonal. This life-history we owe to the
researches of Schaudinn and J.J. Lister.
In several species (notably _Patellina_) plastogamy, the union of the
cytoplasmic bodies without nuclear fusion, has been noted, as a
prelude to the resolution of the conjoined protoplasm into uninucleate
amoebulae.
_Calcituba_, a porcellanous type, which after forming the embryonic
chamber with its deflected pylome grows into branching stems, may fall
apart into sections, or the protoplasm may escape and break up into
small amoebulae. Of the reproduction of the simplest forms we know
little. In _Mikrogromia_ the cell undergoes fission within the test,
and on its completion the daughter-cells may emerge as biflagellate
zoospores.
The sandy shells are a very interesting series. In _Astrorhiza_ the
sand grains are loosely agglutinated, without mineral cement; they
leave numerous pores for the exit of the protoplasm, and there are no
true pylomes. In other forms the union of the grains by a calcareous
or ferruginous cement necessitates the existence of distinct pylomes.
Many of the species reproduce the varieties of form found in
calcareous tests; some are finely perforated, others not. Many of the
larger ones have their walls thickened internally and traversed by
complex passages; this structure is called _labyrinthic_ (fig. 19, g,
h). The shell of _Endothyra_, a form only known to us by its abundance
in Carboniferous and Triassic strata, is largely composed of calcite
and is sometimes perforated.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Cycloclypeus_.]
It is noteworthy that though of similar habitat each species selects
its own size or sort of sand, some utilizing the siliceous spicules of
sponges. Despite the roughness of the materials, they are often so
laid as to yield a perfectly smooth inner wall; and sometimes the
outer wall may be as simple. As we can find no record of a deflected
stylopyle to the primitive chamber of the polythalamous Arenacea, it
is safe to conclude that they have no close alliance with the
Porcellanea.
_Classification._
I. NUDA.--Protoplasmic body without any pellicle or shell save in the
resting encysted condition, sometimes forming colonial aggregates by
coalescence of pseudopods (_Myxodictyum_), or even plasmodia
(_Protomyxa_). Brood cells at first uniflagellate or amoeboid from
birth. Fresh-water and marine genera _Protogenes_ (Haeckel), _Biomyxa_
(Leidy), _Myxodictyum_ (Haeckel), _Protomyxa_ (Haeckel) (fig. 1B).
This group of very simple forms includes many of Haeckel's Monera,
defined as "cytodes," masses of protoplasm without a nucleus. A
nucleus (or nuclei) has, however, been demonstrated by improved
methods of staining in so many that it is probable that this
distinction will fall to the ground.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.--_Heterostegina_.]
II. ALLOGROMIDIACEAE (figs. 1A, 2).--Protoplasmic body protected in
adult state by an imperforate test with one or two openings (pylomes)
for the exit of the stylopod; test simple, gelatinous, membranous,
sometimes incrusted with foreign bodies, never calcareous nor
arenaceous; reproduction by fission alone known. Fresh-water or marine
genera _Allogromia_ (Rhumbl.), _Myxotheca_ (Schaud.), _Lieberkuhnia_
(Cl. & L.) (fig. 1A), _Shepheardella_ (Siddall) (fig. 2, 3-10),
_Diplophrys_ (Barker), _Amphitrema_ (Arch.) (fig. 2, 11),
Diaphorophodon (Arch.) (fig. 2, 12), are possibly Filosa. This group
differs from the preceding in its simple test, but, like it, includes
many fresh-water species, which possess contractile vacuoles.
III. ASTRORHIZIDIACEAE.--Simple forms, rarely polythalamous (some
_Rhabdamminidae_), but often branching or radiate; test arenaceous,
loosely compacted and traversed by chinks for pseudopodia
(_Astrorhizidae_), or dense, and opening by one or more terminal
pylomes at ends of branches. Marine, 4 Fam. The test of some
_Astrorhizidae_ is so loose that it falls to pieces when taken out of
water. _Haliphysema_ is remarkable for its history in relation to the
"gastraea theory." _Pilulina_ has a neat globular shell of
sponge-spicules and fine sand. Genera, _Astrorhiza_ (Sandahl) (fig.
22), _Pilulina_ (Carptr.) (fig. 19), _Saccammina_ (Sars) (fig. 19),
_Rhabdammina_ (Sars), _Botellina_ (Carptr.), _Haliphysema_ (Bowerbank)
(fig. 22).
IV. LITUOLIDACEAE.--Shell arenaceous, usually fine-grained, definite
and often polythalamic, recalling in structure calcareous forms.
_Lituola_ (Lamk.) (fig. 19), _Endothyra_ (Phil.), _Ammodiscus_
(Reuss), _Loftusia_ (Brady), _Haplophragmium_ (Reuss) (fig. 22),
_Thurammina_ (Brady) (fig. 22).
V. MILIOLIDACEAE.--Shells porcellanous imperforate, almost invariably
with a camptostyle leading from the embryonic chamber; _Cornuspira_
(Schultze) (fig. 3); _Miliola_ (Lamk.), including as subgenera
_Spiroloculina_ (d'Orb.) (figs. 3 and 22); _Triloculina_ (d'Orb.)
(fig. 3); _Biloculina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 3); _Uniloculina_ (d'Orb.);
_Quinqueloculina_ (d'Orb.); _Peneroplis_ (Montfort) (figs. 22, 3; 3),
with form _Dendritina_ (fig. 4, 1); _Orbiculina_ (Lamk.) (fig. 3,
6-8); _Orbitolites_ (Lamk.) (figs. 5, 6); _Vertebralina_ (d'Orb.)
(fig. 22); _Squamulina_ (Sch.) (fig. 22); _Calcituba_ (Schaudinn).
[Illustration: Modified from F. Schaudinn, in Lang's Zoologie.
FIG. 17.--Life Cycle of _Polystomella crispa_.
A, Young megalospheric individual.
B, Adult decalcified.
C, Later stage, resolving itself into two flagellate gametes.
D, Conjugation.
E, Microspheric individual produced from zygote.
F, The same resolved itself into pseudopodiospores which are growing
into new megalospheric individuals.
1, Principal nucleus, and _2_, subsidiary nuclei of megalospheric
form.
3, Nuclei.
4, Nuclei in multiple division.
5, Chromidia derived from 4.]
VI. TEXTULARIADACEAE.--Shells perforate, vitreous or (in the larger
forms) arenaceous, in two or three alternating ranks (distichous or
tristichous). _Textularia_ (Defrance) (fig. 21).
VII. CHEILOSTOMELLACEAE.--Shells vitreous, thin, the chambers doubling
forwards and backwards as in _Miliolidae_. _Cheilostomella_ (Reuss).
VIII. LAGENIDACEAE.--Shells vitreous, often sculptured, mono-or
polythalamic, finely perforate; chambers flask-shaped, with a
protruding or an inturned stylopyle; _Lagena_ (Walker & Boys) (fig. 4,
9); _Nodosaria_ (Lamk.) (figs. 23, 4; 4, 10); _Polymorphina_ (d'Orb.)
(fig. 4, 13); _Cristellaria_ (Lamk.) (fig. 4, 11); _Frondicularia_
(Def.) (fig. 23, 3).
IX. GLOBIGERINIDACEAE.--Shells vitreous, coarsely perforated; chambers
few spheroidal rapidly increasing in size; arranged in a trochoid or
nautiloid spiral. _Globigerina_ (Lamk.) (23, 6; 4, 12); _Hastigerina_
(Wyville Thompson) (fig. 23, 5); _Orbulina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 23, 8).
X. ROTALIDACEAE.--Shells vitreous, finely perforate; walls thick,
often double, but without an intermediate party-layer traversed by
canals; form usually spiral or trochoid. _Discorbina_ (Parker & Jones)
(fig. 4, 15); _Planorbulina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 4, 17); _Rotalia_ (Lamk.)
(figs. 23, 1, 2; 7, 21); _Calcarina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 23, 10);
_Polytrema_ (Risso) (fig. 23, 9).
[Illustration: Fig. 18.--_Biloculina depressa_ d'Orb., transverse
sections showing dimorphism. (From Lister.)
a, Megalospheric shell X 50, showing uniform growth, biloculine
throughout. b, Microspheric shell X 90, showing multiform growth,
quinqueloculine at first, and then multiform.]
XI. NUMMULINIDACEAE.--As in Rotalidaceae, but with a thicker finely
perforated shell, often well developed, and a supplementary skeleton
traversed by branching canals as an additional party-wall between the
proper chamber-walls. _Nonionina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 4, 19); _Fusulina_
(Fischer) (fig. 20); _Polystomella_ (Lamk.) (figs. 4, 16; 8);
_Operculina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 9); _Heterostegina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 16);
_Cycloclypeus_ (Carptr.) (fig. 15); _Nummulites_ (Lamk.) (figs. 10,
11, 12, 13, 14).
"_Eozoon canadense_," described as a species of this order by J.W.
Dawson and Carpenter, has been pronounced by a series of enquirers,
most of whom started with a belief in its organic structure, to be
merely a complex mineral concretion in ophicalcite, a rock composed of
an admixture of silicates (mostly serpentine and pyroxene) and
calcite.
_Distribution in Vertical Space._--Owing to their lack of organs for
active locomotion the Foraminifera are all crawling or attached, with
the exception of a few genera (very rich in species, however) which
float near the surface of the ocean, constituting part of the pelagic
plankton (q.v.). Thus the majority are littoral or deep-sea, sometimes
attached to other bodies or even burrowing in the tests of other
Foraminifera; most of the fresh-water forms are sapropelic, inhabiting
the layer of organic debris at the surface of the bottom mud ditches of
pools, ponds and lakes. The deep-sea species below a certain depth
cannot possess a calcareous shell, for this would be dissolved; and it
is in these that we find limesalts sometimes replaced by silica.
[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Arenaceous Foraminifera.
a, Exterior of _Saccammina_.
b, The same laid open.
c, Portion of test more highly magnified.
d, _Pilulina_.
e, Portion of test more highly magnified.
f, Nautiloid _Lituola_, exterior.
g, Chambered interior.
h, Portion of labyrinthic chamber wall, showing component sand-grains.]
[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Section of _Fusulina_ Limestone.]
[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Microscopic Organisms in Chalk from Gravesend.
a, b, c, d, _Textularia globulosa_; e, e, e, e, _Rotalia aspera_; f,
_Textularia aculeata_; g, _Planularia hexas_; h, _Navicula_.]
The pelagic floating genera are also specially modified. Their shell is
either thin or extended many times by long slender tapering spines, and
the protoplasm outside has the same character as that of the Radiolaria
(q.v.), being differentiated into jelly containing enormous vacuoles and
traversed by reticulate strands of granular protoplasm. These coalesce
into a peripheral zone from which protrude the pseudopods, here rather
radiate than reticulate. Most genera and most species are cosmopolitan;
but local differences are often marked. Foraminifera abound in the shore
sands and the crevices of coral reefs. The membranous shelled forms
decay without leaving traces. The sandy or calcareous shells of dead
Foraminifera constitute a large proportion of littoral sand, both below
and above tide marks; and, as shown in the boring on Funafuti, enter
largely into the constituents of coral rock. They may accumulate in the
mud of the bottom to constitute Foraminiferal ooze. The source of these
shells in the latter case is double: (1) shells of bottom-dwellers
accumulate on the spot; (2) shells of dead plankton forms sink down in a
continuous shower, to form a layer at the bottom of the ocean, during
which process the spines are dissolved by the sea-water. Thus is formed
an ooze known as "Globigerina-ooze," being formed largely of that genus
and its ally _Hastigerina_; below 3000 fathoms even the tests themselves
are dissolved. Casts of their bodies in glauconite (a green ferrous
silicate, whose composition has not yet been accurately determined) are,
however, frequently left. Glauconitic casts of perforate shells, notably
_Globigerina_, have been found in Lower Cambrian (e.g. Hollybush
Sandstone), and the shells themselves in Siberian limestones of that
age. It is only when we pass into the Silurian Wenlock limestone that
sandy shells make their appearance. Above this horizon Foraminifera are
more abundant as constituents, partial or principal of calcareous rocks,
the genus _Endothyra_ being indeed almost confined to Carboniferous
beds. The genus _Fusulina_ (fig. 20) and _Saccammina_ (fig. 19) give
their names (from their respective abundance) to two limestones of the
Carboniferous series. Porcellanous shells become abundant only from the
Lias upwards. The glauconitic grains of the Greensand formations are
chiefly foraminiferal casts. Chalk is well known to consist largely of
foraminiferal shells, mostly vitreous, like the north Atlantic
globigerina ooze. In the Maestricht chalk more littoral conditions
prevailed, and we find such large-sized species as _Orbitoides_
(vitreous) and _Orbitolites_ (porcellanous; figs. 5, 6), &c. In the
Eocene Tertiaries the Calcaire Grossier of the Paris basin is mainly
composed of Miliolid forms. Nummulites occur in English beds and in the
Paris basin; but the great beds of these, forming reef-like masses of
limestone, occur farther south, extending from the Pyrenees through the
southern and eastern Alps to Egypt, Sinai, and on to north India. The
peculiar structure occurring in the Lower Laurentian limestone, as well
as other limestones of Archean age described as a Nummulitaceous genus,
"_Eozoon_," by Carpenter and Dawson, and abundantly illustrated in the
9th edition of his encyclopaedia, is now universally regarded as of
inorganic origin. "Looking at the almost universal diffusion of
existing Foraminifera and the continuous accumulation of their shells
over vast areas of the ocean-bottom, they are certainly doing more than
any other group of organisms to separate carbonate of lime from its
solution in sea-water, so as to restore to the solid crust of the earth
what is being continuously withdrawn from it by solution of the
calcareous materials of the land above sea-level." (E.R. Lankester,
"Protozoa," _Ency. Brit._ 9th ed.)
[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Imperforata.
1, _Spiroloculina planulata_, Lamarck, showing five "coils";
porcellanous.
2, Young ditto, with shell dissolved and protoplasm stained so as to
show the seven nuclei n.
3, _Spirolina_ (_Peneroplis_); a sculptured imperfectly coiled shell;
porcellanous.
4, _Vertebralina_, a simple shell consisting of chambers succeeding
one another in a straight line; porcellanous.
5, 6, _Thurammina papillata_, Brady, a sandy form. 5 is broken open so
as to show an inner chamber; recent. X 25.
7, _Haplophragmium canariensis_, a sandy form; recent.
8, Nucleated reproductive bodies (bud-spores) of _Haliphysema_.
9, _Squamulina laevis_, M. Schultze; X 40; a simple porcellanous
Miliolide.
10, Protoplasmic core removed after treatment with weak chromic acid
from the shell of _Haliphysema tumanovitzii_, Bow. n, Vesicular
nuclei, stained with haematoxylin. (After Lankester.)
11, _Haliphysema tumanovitzii_; X 25 diam.; living specimen, showing
the wine-glass-shaped shell built up of sand-grains and
sponge-spicules, and the abundant protoplasm p, issuing from the mouth
of the shell and spreading partly over its projecting constituents.
12, Shell of _Astrorhiza limicola_, Sand.; X 3/2; showing the
branching of the test on some of the rays usually broken away in
preserved specimens (original).
13, Section of the shell of _Marsipella_, showing thick walls built of
sand-grains.]
[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Perforata.
1, Spiral arrangement of simple chambers of a Reticularian shell, as
in small _Rotalia_.
2, Ditto, with double septal walls, and supplemental shell-substance
(shaded), as in large _Rotalia_.
3, Diagram to show the mode in which successively-formed chambers may
completely embrace their predecessors, as in _Frondicularia_.
4, Diagram of a simple straight series of non-embracing chambers, as
in _Nodosaria_.
5, _Hastigerina murrayi_, Wyv. Thomson, a, Bubbly (vacuolated)
protoplasm, enclosing b, the perforated _Globigerina_-like shell
(conf. central capsule of Radiolaria). From the peripheral protoplasm
project, not only fine pseudopodia, but hollow spines of calcareous
matter, which are set on the shell, and have an axis of active
protoplasm. Pelagic; drawn in the living state.
6, _Globigerina bulloides_, d'Orb., showing the punctiform
perforations of the shell and the main aperture.
7, Fragment of the shell of _Globigerina_, seen from within, and
highly magnified, a, Fine perforations in the inner shell substances;
b, outer (secondary) shell substance. Two coarser perforations are
seen in section, and one lying among the smaller.
8, _Orbulina universa_, d'Orb. Pelagic example, with adherent
radiating calcareous spines (hollow), and internally a small
_Globigerina_ shell. It is probably a developmental phase of
_Globigerina_, a, _Orbulina_ shell; b, _Globigerina_ shell.
9, _Polytrema miniaceum_, Lin.; X 12. Mediterranean. Example of a
branched adherent calcareous perforate Recticularian.
10, _Calcarina spengleri_, Gmel.; X 10. Tertiary, Sicily. Shell
dissected so as to show the spiral arrangement of the chambers, and
the copious secondary shell substance. a^2, a^3, a^4, Chambers of three
successive coils in section, showing the thin primary wall (finely
tubulate) of each; b, b, b, b, perforate surfaces of the primary wall
of four tiers of chambers, from which the secondary shell substance
has been cleared away; c', c', secondary or intermediate shell
substance in section, showing coarse canals; d, section of secondary
shell substance at right angles to c'; e, tubercles of secondary shell
substance on the surface; f, f, club-like processes of secondary shell
substance.]
_Historical._--The Foraminifera were discovered as we have seen by A.
d'Orbigny. C.E. Ehrenberg added a large number of species, but it was to
F. Dujardin in 1835 that we owe the recognition of their true zoological
position and the characters of the living animal. W.B. Carpenter and
W.C. Williamson in England contributed largely to the study of the
shell, the latter being the first to call attention to its multiform
character in the development of a single species, and to utilize the
method of thin sections, which has proved so fertile in results. W.K.
Parker and H.B. Brady, separately, and in collaboration, described an
enormous number of forms in a series of papers, as well as in the
monograph by the latter of the Foraminifera of the "Challenger"
expedition. Munier-Chalmas and Schlumberger brought out the fact of
dimorphism in the group, which was later elucidated and incorporated in
the full cytological study of the life-cycle of Foraminifera by J.J.
Lister and F. Schaudinn, independently, but with concurrent results.
LITERATURE.--The chief recent books are: F. Chapman, _The
Foraminifera_ (1902), and J.J. Lister, "The Foraminifera," in E.R.
Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_ (1903), in which full bibliographies
will be found. For a final resume of the long controversy on Eozoon,
see George P. Merrill in _Report of the U.S. National Museum_ (1906),
p. 635. Other classifications of the Foraminifera will be found by
G.H. Theodor Eimer and C. Fickert in _Zeitschr. fur wissenschaftliche
Zoologie_, lxv. (1899), p. 599, and L. Rhumbler in _Archiv fur
Protistenkunde_, iii. (1903-1904); the account of the reproduction is
based on the researches of J.J. Lister, summarized in the above-cited
work, and of F. Schaudinn, in _Arbeiten des kaiserlichen
Gesundheitsamts_, xix. (1903). We must also cite W.B. Carpenter, W.K.
Parker and T. Rymer Jones, _Introduction to the Study of the
Foraminifera_ (Ray Society) (1862); W.B. Carpenter, "Foraminifera," in
_Ency. Brit._, 9th ed.; W.C. Williamson, _On the Recent Foraminifera
of Great Britain_ (Ray Society), (1858); H.B. Brady, "The
Foraminifera," in _Challenger Reports_, ix. (1884); A. Kemna, in _Ann.
de la soc. royale zoologique et malacologique de Belgique_, xxxvii.
(1902), p. 60; xxxix. (1904), p. 7.
_Appendix._--The XENOPHYOPHORIDAE are a small group of bottom-dwelling
Sarcodina which show a certain resemblance to arenaceous Foraminifera,
though observations in the living state show that the character of the
pseudopodia is lacking. The multinucleate protoplasm is contained in
branching tubes, aggregated into masses of definite form, bounded by a
common wall of foreign bodies (sponge spicules, &c.) cemented into a
membrane. The cytoplasm contains granules of BaSO4 and pellets of
faecal matter. All that is known of reproduction is the resolution of
the pellets into uninucleate cells. (F.E. Schultze, _Wissenschaftliche
Ergebnisse der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition_, vol. xi., 1905, pt. i.)
(M. Ha.)
FORBACH, a town of Germany in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine,
on an affluent of the Rossel, and on the railway from Metz to
Saarbrucken, 5-1/2 m. S.W. of the latter. Pop. (1905) 8193. It has a
Protestant and a Roman Catholic (Gothic) church, a synagogue and a
Progymnasium. Its industries include the manufacture of tiles,
pasteboard wares and gardening implements, while there are coal mines in
the vicinity. After the battle on the neighbouring heights of Spicheren
(6th of August 1870), in which the French under General Frossard were
defeated by the Germans under General von Glumer, the town was occupied
by the German troops, and at the conclusion of the war annexed to
Germany. On the Schlossberg near the town are the ruins of the castle of
the counts of Forbach, a branch of the counts of Saarbrucken.
See Besler, _Geschichte des Schlosses, der Herrschaft und der Stadt
Forbach_ (1895).
FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE (1817-1875), Scottish divine, was born at
Edinburgh on the 6th of June 1817. He was the second son of John Henry
Forbes, Lord Medwyn, a judge of the court of session, and grandson of
Sir William Forbes of Pitsligo. He studied first at the Edinburgh
Academy, then for two years under the Rev. Thomas Dale, the poet, in
Kent, passed one session at Glasgow University in 1833, and, having
chosen the career of the Indian civil service, completed his studies
with distinction at Haileybury College. In 1836 he went to Madras and
secured early promotion, but in consequence of ill-health he was obliged
to return to England. He then entered Brasenose College, Oxford, where
in 1841 he obtained the Boden Sanskrit scholarship, and graduated in
1844. He was at Oxford during the early years of the movement known as
Puseyism, and was powerfully influenced by association with Newman,
Pusey and Keble. This led him to resign his Indian appointment. In 1844
he was ordained deacon and priest in the English Church, and held
curacies at Aston, Rowant and St Thomas's, Oxford; but being naturally
attracted to the Episcopal Church of his native land, then recovering
from long depression, he removed in 1846 to Stonehaven, the chief town
of Kincardineshire. The same year, however, he was appointed to the
vicarage of St Saviour's, Leeds, a church founded to preach and
illustrate Tractarian principles. In 1848 Forbes was called to succeed
Bishop Moir in the see of Brechin. He removed the episcopal residence to
Dundee, where he resided till his death, combining the pastoral charge
of the congregation with the duties of the see. When he came to Dundee
the churchmen were accustomed owing to their small numbers to worship in
a room over a bank. Through his energy several churches were built, and
among them the pro-cathedral of St Paul's. He was prosecuted in the
church courts for heresy, the accusation being founded on his primary
charge, delivered and published in 1857, in which he set forth his views
on the Eucharist. He made a powerful defence of the charge, and was
acquitted with "a censure and an admonition." Keble wrote in his
defence, and was present at his trial at Edinburgh. Forbes was a good
scholar, a scientific theologian and a devoted worker, and was much
beloved. He died at Dundee on the 8th of October 1875.
Principal works: _A Short Explanation of the Nicene Creed_ (1852); _An
Explanation of the Thirty-nine Articles_ (2 vols., 1867 and 1868);
_Commentary on the Seven Penitential Psalms_ (1847); _Commentary on
the Canticles_ (1853). See Mackey's _Bishop Forbes, a Memoir_.
FORBES, ARCHIBALD (1838-1900), British war correspondent, the son of a
Presbyterian minister in Morayshire, was born on the 17th of April 1838,
and was educated at Aberdeen University. Entering the Royal Dragoons as
a private, he gained, while in the service, considerable practical
experience of military life and affairs. Being invalided from his
regiment, he settled in London, and became a journalist. When the
Franco-German War broke out in 1870, Forbes was sent to the front as war
correspondent to the _Morning Advertiser_, and in this capacity he
gained valuable information as to the plans of the Parisians for
withstanding a siege. Transferring his services to the _Daily News_, his
brilliant feats in the transmission of intelligence drew world-wide
attention to his despatches. He was with the German army from the
beginning of the campaign, and he afterwards witnessed the rise and fall
of the Commune. Forbes afterwards proceeded to Spain, where he
chronicled the outbreak of the second Carlist War; but his work here was
interrupted by a visit to India, where he spent eight months upon a
mission of investigation into the Bengal famine of 1874. Then he
returned to Spain, and followed at various times the Carlist, the
Republican and the Alfonsist forces. As representative of the _Daily
News_, he accompanied the prince of Wales in his tour through India in
1875-1876. Forbes went through the Servian campaign of 1876, and was
present at all the important engagements. In the Russo-Turkish campaign
of 1877 he achieved striking journalistic successes at great personal
risk. Attached to the Russian army, he witnessed most of the principal
operations, and remained continuously in the field until attacked by
fever. His letters, together with those of his colleagues, MacGahan and
Millet, were republished by the _Daily News_. On recovering from his
fever, Forbes proceeded to Cyprus, in order to witness the British
occupation. The same year (1878) he went to India, and in the winter
accompanied the Khyber Pass force to Jalalabad. He was present at the
taking of Ali Musjid, and marched with several expeditions against the
hill tribes. Burma was Forbes's next field of adventure, and at
Mandalay, the capital, he had several interesting interviews with King
Thibaw. He left Burma hurriedly for South Africa, where, in consequence
of the disaster of Isandlwana, a British force was collecting for the
invasion of Zululand. He was present at the victory of Ulundi, and his
famous ride of 120 m. in fifteen hours, by which he was enabled to
convey the first news of the battle to England, remains one of the
finest achievements in journalistic enterprise. Forbes subsequently
delivered many lectures on his war experiences to large audiences. His
closing years were spent in literary work. He had some years before
published a military novel entitled _Drawn from Life_, and a volume on
his experiences of the war between France and Germany. These were now
followed by numerous publications, including _Glimpses through the
Cannon Smoke_ (1880); _Souvenirs of some Continents_ (1885); _William I.
of Germany: a Biography_ (1888); _Havelock_, in the "English Men of
Action" Series (1890); _Barracks, Bivouacs, and Battles_ (1891); _The
Afghan Wars_, 1839-80 (1892); _Czar and Sultan_ (1895); _Memories and
Studies of War and Peace_ (1895), in many respects autobiographic; and
_Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde_ (1896). He died on the 30th of March 1900.
FORBES, DAVID (1828-1876), British mineralogist, metallurgist and
chemist, brother of Edward Forbes (q.v.), was born on the 6th of
September 1828, at Douglas, Isle of Man, and received his early
education there and at Brentwood in Essex. When a boy of fourteen he had
already acquired a remarkable knowledge of chemistry. This subject he
studied at the university of Edinburgh, and he was still young when he
was appointed superintendent of the mining and metallurgical works at
Espedal in Norway. Subsequently he became a partner in the firm of Evans
& Askin, nickel-smelters, of Birmingham, and in that capacity during the
years 1857-1860 he visited Chile, Bolivia and Peru. Besides reports for
the Iron and Steel Institute, of which, during the last years of his
life, he was foreign secretary, he wrote upwards of 50 papers on
scientific subjects, among which are the following: "The Action of
Sulphurets on Metallic Silicates at High Temperatures," _Rep. Brit.
Assoc._, 1855, pt. ii. p. 62; "The Relations of the Silurian and
Metamorphic Rocks of the south of Norway," ib. p. 82; "The Causes
producing Foliation in Rocks," _Journ. Geol. Soc._ xi., 1855; "The
Chemical Composition of the Silurian and Cambrian Limestones," _Phil.
Mag._ xiii. pp. 365-373, 1857; "The Geology of Bolivia and Southern
Peru," _Journ. Geol. Soc._ xvii. pp. 7-62, 1861; "The Mineralogy of
Chile," _Phil. Mag._, 1865; "Researches in British Mineralogy," _Phil.
Mag._, 1867-1868. His observations on the geology of South America were
given in a masterly essay, and these and subsequent researches threw
much light on igneous and metamorphic phenomena and on the resulting
changes in rock-formations. He also contributed important articles on
chemical geology to the _Chemical News_ and _Geological Magazine_ (1867
and 1868). In England he was a pioneer in microscopic petrology. He was
elected F.R.S. in 1858. He died in London on the 5th of December 1876.
See Obituary by P.M. Duncan in _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol.
xxxiii., 1877, p. 41; and by J. Morris in _Geol. Mag._, 1877, p. 45.
FORBES, DUNCAN, OF CULLODEN (1685-1747), Scottish statesman, was born at
Bunchrew or at Culloden near Inverness on the 10th of November 1685.
After he had completed his studies at the universities of Edinburgh and
Leiden, he was admitted advocate at the Scottish bar in 1709. His own
talents and the influence of the Argyll family secured his rapid
advancement, which was still further helped by his loyalty to the
Hanoverian cause at the period of the rebellion in 1715. In 1722 Forbes
was returned member for Inverness, and in 1725 he succeeded Dundas of
Arniston as lord advocate. He inherited the patrimonial estates on the
death of his brother in 1734, and in 1737 he attained to the highest
legal honours in Scotland, being made lord president of the court of
session. As lord advocate, he had laboured to improve the legislation
and revenue of the country, to extend trade and encourage manufactures,
and no less to render the government popular and respected in Scotland.
In the proceedings which followed the memorable Porteous mob, for
example, when the government brought in a bill for disgracing the lord
provost of Edinburgh, for fining the corporation, and for abolishing
the town-guard and city-gate, Forbes both spoke and voted against the
measure as an unwarranted outrage on the national feeling. As lord
president also he carried out some useful legal reforms; and his term of
office was characterized by quick and impartial administration of the
law.
The rebellion of 1745 found him at his post, and it tried all his
patriotism. Some years before (1738) he had repeatedly and earnestly
urged upon the government the expediency of embodying Highland
regiments, putting them under the command of colonels whose loyalty
could be relied upon, but officering them with the native chieftains and
cadets of old families in the north. "If government," said he,
"pre-engages the Highlanders in the manner I propose, they will not only
serve well against the enemy abroad, but will be hostages for the good
behaviour of their relations at home; and I am persuaded that it will be
absolutely impossible to raise a rebellion in the Highlands." In 1739,
with Sir Robert Walpole's approval, the original (1730) six companies
(locally enlisted) of the Black Watch were formed into the famous
"Forty-second" regiment of the line. The credit given to the earl of
Chatham in some histories for this movement is an error; it rests really
with Forbes and his friend Lord Islay, afterwards 3rd duke of Argyll
(see the _Autobiography_ of the 8th duke of Argyll, vol. i. p. 8 sq.,
1906).
On the first rumour of the Jacobite rising Forbes hastened to Inverness,
and through his personal influence with the chiefs of Macdonald and
Macleod, those two powerful western clans were prevented from taking the
field for Charles Edward; the town itself also he kept loyal and well
protected at the commencement of the struggle, and many of the
neighbouring proprietors were won over by his persuasions. His
correspondence with Lord Lovat, published in the Culloden papers,
affords a fine illustration of his character, in which the firmness of
loyal principle and duty is found blended with neighbourly kindness and
consideration. But at this critical juncture of affairs, the apathy of
the government interfered considerably with the success of his
negotiations. Advances of arms and money arrived too late, and though
Forbes employed all his own means and what money he could borrow on his
personal security, his resources were quite inadequate to the emergency.
It is doubtful whether these advances were ever fully repaid. Part was
doled out to him, after repeated solicitations that his credit might be
maintained in the country; but it is evident he had fallen into disgrace
in consequence of his humane exertions to mitigate the impolitic
severities inflicted upon his countrymen after their disastrous defeat
at Culloden. The ingratitude of the government, and the many distressing
circumstances connected with the insurrection, sunk deep into the mind
of Forbes. He never fairly rallied from the depression thus caused, and
after a period of declining health he died on the 10th of December 1747.
Forbes was a patriot without ostentation or pretence, a true Scotsman
with no narrow prejudice, an accomplished and even erudite scholar
without pedantry, a man of genuine piety without asceticism or
intolerance. His country long felt his influence through her reviving
arts and institutions; and the example of such a character in that
coarse and venal age, and among a people distracted by faction,
political strife, and national antipathies, while it was invaluable to
his contemporaries in a man of high position, is entitled to the lasting
gratitude and veneration of his countrymen. In his intervals of leisure
he cultivated with some success the study of philosophy, theology and
biblical criticism. He is said to have been a diligent reader of the
Hebrew Bible. His published writings, some of them of importance,
include--_A Letter to a Bishop, concerning some Important Discoveries in
Philosophy and Theology_ (1732); _Some Thoughts concerning Religion,
natural and revealed, and the Manner of Understanding Revelation_
(1735); and _Reflections on Incredulity_ (2nd ed., 1750).
His correspondence was collected and published in 1815, and a memoir
of him (from the family papers) was written by Mr Hill Burton, and
published along with a _Life of Lord Lovat_, in 1847. His statue by
Roubillac stands in the Parliament House, Edinburgh.
FORBES, EDWARD (1815-1854), British naturalist, was born at Douglas, in
the Isle of Man, on the 12th of February 1815. While still a child, when
not engaged in reading, or in the writing of verses and drawing of
caricatures, he occupied himself with the collecting of insects, shells,
minerals, fossils, plants and other natural history objects. From his
fifth to his eleventh year, delicacy of health precluded his attendance
at any school, but in 1828 he became a day scholar at Athole House
Academy in Douglas. In June 1831 he left the Isle of Man for London,
where he studied drawing. In October, however, having given up all idea
of making painting his profession, he returned home; and in the
following month he matriculated as a student of medicine in the
university of Edinburgh. His vacation in 1832 he spent in diligent work
on the natural history of the Isle of Man. In 1833 he made a tour in
Norway, the botanical results of which were published in Loudon's
_Magazine of Natural History_ for 1835-1836. In the summer of 1834 he
devoted much time to dredging in the Irish Sea; and in the succeeding
year he travelled in France, Switzerland and Germany.
Born a naturalist, and having no relish for the practical duties of a
surgeon, Forbes in the spring of 1836 abandoned the idea of taking a
medical degree, resolving to devote himself to science and literature.
The winter of 1836-1837 found him at Paris, where he attended the
lectures at the Jardin des Plantes on natural history, comparative
anatomy, geology and mineralogy. Leaving Paris in April 1837, he went to
Algiers, and there obtained materials for a paper on land and freshwater
Mollusca, published in the _Annals of Natural History_, vol. ii. p. 250.
In the autumn of the same year he registered at Edinburgh as a student
of literature; and in 1838 appeared his first volume, _Malacologia
Monensis_, a synopsis of the species of Manx Mollusca. During the summer
of 1838 he visited Styria and Carniola, and made extensive botanical
collections. In the following autumn he read before the British
Association at Newcastle a paper on the distribution of terrestrial
Pulmonifera in Europe, and was commissioned to prepare a similar report
with reference to the British Isles. In 1841 was published his _History
of British Star-fishes_, embodying extensive observations and containing
120 illustrations, inclusive of humorous tail-pieces, all designed by
the author. On the 17th of April of the same year Forbes, accompanied by
his friend William Thompson, joined at Malta H.M. surveying ship
"Beacon," to which he had been appointed naturalist by her commander
Captain Graves. From that date until October 1842 he was employed in
investigating the botany, zoology and geology of the Mediterranean
region. The results of these researches were made known in his "Report
on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea, presented to the British
Association in 1843," and in _Travels in Lycia_, published in
conjunction with Lieut. (afterwards Admiral) T.A.B. Spratt in 1847. In
the former treatise he discussed the influence of climate and of the
nature and depth of the sea bottom upon marine life, and divided the
Aegean into eight biological zones; his conclusions with respect to
bathymetrical distribution, however, have naturally been modified to a
considerable extent by the more recent explorations of the deep seas.