The Journey Home--Christmas, 1879--Aden--Suez--Cairo--Excursion to
the Pyramids and the Mokattam Mountains--Petrified Tree stems--The
Suez Canal--Landing on Sicily by night--Naples--Rome--The Members of
the Expedition separate--Lisbon--England--Paris--Copenhagen--Festive
Entry into Stockholm--_Fetes_ there--Conclusion
PORTRAITS
Engraved on Steel by G.J. Stodart, of London.
Adolf Erik Nordenskioeld To face Title page
Louis Palander ,, Page 68
LITHOGRAPHED MAPS
9. Herbertstern's Map of Russia, 1550 (photo-lithographic facsimile)
10. Map of the North Coast of the Old World from Norway to Behring's
Straits, with the track of the _Vega_, constructed from old and
recent sources, and from observations made during the Voyage of
the _Vega_, by N. Selander, Captain in the General Staff
LIST OF WOOD-CUTS IN VOL II
_The Wood-cuts, when not otherwise stated below, were engraved at
Herr Wilhelm Meyer's Xylographic Institute, in Stockholm_
1. Chukches
2. The Encampment Pitlekaj abandoned by its Inhabitants on the
18th February, 1879
3. Notti and Wife Aitanga
4. Map of the Region round the _Vega's_ Winter Quarters
5. The Sleeping Chamber in a Chukch Tent
6. Chukch Lamps
7. Section of a Chukch Lamp
8. Chukch Shaman Drum
9. The Coast between Padljonna and Enjurmi
10. Bracelet of Copper
11. The North End of Idlidlja Island
12. The Common Aurora Arc at the _Vega's_ Winter Quarters
13. Aurora at the _Vega's_ Winter Quarters, 3rd March, 1879, at 9 PM
14. Double Aurora-Arcs seen 20th March, 1879, at 9 30 PM
15. Elliptic Aurora, seen 21st March, 1879, at 2 15 AM
16. Elliptic Aurora seen 21st March, 1879, at 3 AM
17. Song Birds in the Rigging of the Vega, June, 1879
18. Spoon-billed Sand piper from Chukch Land
(_Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus_, L.)
19. Marmots from Chukch Land
20. _Stegocephalus Kessleri_ Stuxb
21. _Sabinea septemcarinata_, Sabine
22. _Acanthostephia Malmgreni_, Goes
23. _Ophioglypha nodosa_, Luetken
24. Noah Elisej
25. Beetles from Pitlekaj
26. Phosphorescent Crustacea from Mussel Bay
27. Reitinacka
28. Dog Fish from the Chukch Peninsula (_Dallia delicatissima_, Smith)
29. Crab from the Sea North of Behring's Straits
(Chionoecetes _opilio_, Kroeyer)
30. Tree from Pitlekaj (_Salix Arctica_, Pallas)
31. Typical Chukch Faces
32. ,, ,,
33. Plan of a Chukch Grave
34. Tent Frame at Pitlekaj
35. Chukch Oar
36. Dog Shoe
37. Chukch Face Tattooing
38. Chukch Children
39. Snow Shoes
40. An Aino Man skating after a Reindeer
41. Hunting Cup and Snow scraper
42. Chukch Weapons and Hunting Implements
43. Chukch Bow and Quiver
44. Chukch Arrows
45. Stone Hammers and Anvil for Crushing Bones
46. Chukch Implements
47. Fire Drill
48. Ice Mattocks
49. Human Figures
50. Musical Instruments
51. Drawings made by the Chukches--
52. Chukch Buckles and Hooks of Ivory
53. Chukch Bone Carvings
54. Chukch Doll
55. Chukch Bone Carvings--
56. Chukch Bone Carvings of Birds
57. Map of the World, said to be of the Tenth Century
58. Map of the World showing Asia to be continuous with Africa
59. Map of the World after Fra Mauro, from the middle of the
Fifteenth Century
60. Map of Asia from an Atlas published by the Russian Academy of
Sciences in 1737
61. Peter Feodorovitsch Anjou
62. Ferdinand von Wrangel
63. Seal from the Behring Sea, _Histriophoca fasciata_, Zimm
64. _Draba Alpina_, L., from St. Lawrence Bay
65. Hunting Implements at Port Clarence
66. Eskimo Family at Port Clarence
67. Eskimo from Port Clarence
68. Eskimo from Port Clarence
69. Eskimo Fishing Implements, &c.
70. Eskimo Bone Carvings &c.
71. Eskimo Grave
72. Animal Figure from an Eskimo Grave
73. Ethnographical Objects from Port Clarence
74. Shell from Behring's Straits, _Fusus deformis_, Reeve
75. Diagram showing the temperature and depth of the water at
Behring's Straits between Port Clarence and Senjavin Sound, by
G. Bove
76. Konyam Bay
77. Tattooing Patterns from St. Lawrence Island
78. Tattooed Woman from St. Lawrence Island
79. The Colony on Behring Island
80. The Colony on Copper Island
81. Natives of Behring Island
82. Skeleton of Rhytina, shown at the _Vega_ Exhibition
at the Royal Palace, Stockholm
83. Original Drawings of the Rhytina
84. Reconstructed Form of the Sea-Cow
85. Sea Bears, Male, Female, and Young
86. "Seal Rookery" on St. Paul's Island, one of the Pribylov Islands
87. Slaughter of Sea-Bears
88. Sea-Bears on their way to "the Rookeries"
89. Alga from the shore of Behring Island,
_Thalassiophyllum Clathrus_, Post. and Rupr.
90. Fusugama
91. The steamer _A.E. Nordenskioeld_ stranded on the East Coast of Yezo
92. Kawamura Sumiyashi, Japanese Minister of Marine
93. The First Medal which was struck as a Memorial
of the Voyage of the _Vega_
94. The First Medal which was struck as a Memorial
of the Voyage of the _Vega_
95. Stone Lantern and Stone Monument in a Japanese Temple Court
96. Japanese House in Tokio
97. Japanese Lady at her Toilet
98. A Jinrikisha
99. Japanese Bedroom
100. Tobacco-Smokers, Japanese Drawing
101. Ito-Keske, a Japanese Editor of Thunberg's Writings
102. Monument to Thunberg and Kaempfer at Nagasaki
103. Japanese Kago
104. Japanese Wrestlers
105. Japanese Bridge, after a Japanese drawing
106. Japanese Mountain Landscape, drawn by Prof. P.D. Holm
107. Inn at Kusatsu, drawn by R. Haglund
108. Bath at Kusatsu, Japanese drawing, drawn by O. Soerling
109. Japanese Landscape, drawn by Prof. P.D. Holm
110. Burden-bearers on a Japanese Road, Japanese drawing,
drawn by O. Soerling
111. Japanese Shop, drawn by V. Andren
112. Japanese Court Dress, drawn by ditto
113. Noble in Antique Dress, drawn by ditto
114. Buddhist Priest, drawn by ditto
115. A Samurai, drawn by ditto
116. Gate across the Road to a Shinto Temple, drawn by Prof. P.D. Holm
117. Buddhist Temple at Kobe, drawn by ditto
118. Rio-San's Seal
119. Burying-Place at Kioto, drawn by Prof. P.D. Holm
120. Entrance to Nagasaki, drawn by R. Haglund
121. Fossil Plants from Mogi--1, 2, Beech Leaves
(_Fagus ferruginea_, Ait., var. _pliocena_, Nath.),
drawn by M. Westergren
122. Fossil Plant from Mogi--3, Maple Leaf
(_Acer Mono_, Max., var. _pliocena_, Nath.)
123. Fossil Plant from Mogi--Leaf of _Zelkova Keakii_,
Sieb., var. _pliocena_, Nath., drawn by M. Westergren
124. Gem Diggings at Ratnapoora, drawn by R. Haglund
125. Statues in a Temple in Ceylon, drawn by ditto
126. A Country Place in Ceylon, drawn by V. Andren
127. Highland View from the Interior of Ceylon, drawn by R. Haglund
128. The Scientific Men of the _Vega_
129. The Officers of the _Vega_
130. The Crew of the _Vega_, drawn by R. Widing
131. The Entrance of the _Vega_ into Stockholm on the 24th April, 1880,
drawn by R. Haglund
132. The _Vega_ moored off the Royal Palace, Stockholm, drawn by ditto
ERRATA [ Transcriber's note: these have been applied to the text ]
Page 22, under wood-cut, _for_ "_a._ Of wood _b._ Of stone,"
_read_ "_a._ Wooden cup to place under the lamp
_b._ Lamp of burned clay."
Page 41, line 6 from foot, _for_ "beginning of May"
_read_ "middle of June."
Page 41, under wood-cut, _for_ "May," _read_ "June."
Page 44, line 19 _for_ "mountain," _read_ "Arctic."
Page 54, last line _for_ "contracteta" _read_ "contracta."
Page 63, last line _for_ "Natural size," _read_ "Half the natural size."
Page 98, lines 9 and 12 from foot, _for_ "moccassin" _read_ "moccasin."
Page 100, line 2 from foot, _for_ "moccassin" _read_ "moccasin."
Page 227, line 11 from foot, _for_ "American," _read_ "Asiatic."
THE VOYAGE OF THE VEGA ROUND ASIA AND EUROPE, VOL II
CHAPTER XI.
Hope of release at the new year--Bove's excursion to the
open water--Mild weather and renewed severe cold--Mercury
frozen--Popular lectures--Brusewitz's excursion to Najtskaj
--Another despatch of letters home--The natives' accounts
of the state of the ice on the coast of Chukch Land--
The Chukches carry on traffic between Arctic America and
Siberia--Excursions in the neighbourhood of winter quarters
--The weather during spring--The melting of the snow--
The aurora--The arrival of the migratory birds--The animal
world of Chukch Land--Noah Elisej's relief expedition--
A remarkable fish--The country clear of snow--Release--
The North-East Passage achieved.
The new year came in with a faint hope of release. For since the
north and north-west winds that had prevailed almost constantly
towards the close of December had given place to winds from the east
and south, considerable "clearings" were again formed out at sea,
and the Chukches again began to say that the ice would drift away,
so that the vessel would be able to continue her voyage; a
prediction which they always ended with a declaration, expressed
both by words and gestures, that they would then bitterly lament,
which they would also have had sufficient reason to do, considering
the very friendly way in which they were treated by all on board the
_Vega_, both officers and men.
On New Year's Day, in order to see the state of the ice farther out
to sea, Lieut Bove, accompanied by the hunter Johnsen, again made an
excursion to the open water. Of this he gave the following
account:--
"I left the vessel on the forenoon of 1st January and
reached the open water after four hours' steady walking.
The deep loose snow made walking very fatiguing, and three
rows of _torosses_ also contributed to this, mainly in
consequence of the often snow-covered cracks, which
crossed the ice-sheet in their neighbourhood. One of the
_torosses_ was ten metres high. The size of the blocks of
ice, which were here heaped on each other, showed how
powerful the forces were which had caused the formation of
the _torosses_. These ice ramparts now afford a much
needed protection to the _Vegas_ winter haven. About
halfway between the open water and the vessel the way was
crossed by cracks running from east to west, and clearly
indicating that the opening in the ice would have extended
to the distance of a kilometre from the vessel, if the
violent storm in December had lasted twelve hours longer.
The _Vega_ would thereby have been in great danger. The
edge of the ice towards the open water was evenly cut, as
with an immense knife, and was so strong that one could
walk along it as on a rock. Even from the top of a
five-metre-high ice-rampart no boundary of the open water
could be seen to the north-east or north. Partly from
this, partly from the extension of the water-sky in this
direction, I draw the conclusion that the breadth of the
open water was at least thirty-five kilometres. The
"clearing" was bounded on the east by an ice-rampart
running north, which at a distance of nine or ten
kilometres appeared to bend to the east. Possibly farther
to the east beyond this ice-rampart there was another open
water basin. The depth at the edge of the ice was
twenty-one metres, the temperature of the water 2 deg.
C. The water ran at a considerable speed right out from
the coast (_i.e._ from S.S.E.) As it ran here nearly in a
straight line, the current may have been a tidal one. The
open water swarmed with seals, according to Johnsen both
bearded and rough. Neither Polar bears, walrusses, nor
birds were seen."
Lieut. Bove's report confirmed me in my supposition that the open
water, as towards the end of January 1873 at Mussel Bay, might
possibly extend as far as our anchorage and open for us the way to
Behring's Straits, in which case we could not refrain from
continuing our voyage, however unpleasant and dangerous it might be
at this season of the year. The Chukches also declared repeatedly
that the open water in January would continue for a considerable
time, and in expectation of this got their simple fishing implements
ready. But both they and we were disappointed in our expectation.
The _Vega's_ ice-fetters remained undisturbed, and the blue border
at the horizon grew less and again disappeared. This caused so great
a want of food, and above all of train oil, among the natives, that
all the inhabitants of Pitlekaj, the village nearest to us, were
compelled to remove to the eastward, notwithstanding that in order
to mitigate the scarcity a considerable quantity of food was served
out daily at the vessel.
It appeals, however, as if an actual experience from the preceding
year had been the ground of the Chukches' weather prediction. For on
the 6th February a south-east wind began to blow, and the severe
cold at once ceased. The temperature rose for a few hours to and
even above the freezing-point. A water-sky was again formed along
the horizon of the ice from north-east to north, and from the
heights at the coast there was seen an extensive opening in the
ice-fields, which a little east of Irgunnuk nearly reached the
shore. Some kilometres farther east even the shore itself was free
of ice, and from the hills our sailors thought they saw a heavy sea
in the blue water border which bounded the circle of vision. If this
was not an illusion, caused by the unequal heating and oscillatory
motion of the lower stratum of the atmosphere, the open water may
have been of great extent. Perhaps the statement of the natives was
correct, that it extended as far as Behring's Straits. But we could
not now place complete reliance on their statements, since we had
rewarded with extra treating some predictions, relating to ice and
weather, that were favourable to us. Even between the vessel's
anchorage and the land various cracks had been formed, through which
the sea water had forced its way under the snow, and in which some
of us got cold feet or leg baths during our walks to and from the
land.
[Illustration: THE ENCAMPMENT PITLEKAJ ABANDONED BY ITS INHABITANTS
ON THE 18TH FEBRUARY, 1879. (After a drawing by O. Nordquist.) ]
The Chukches at Irgunnuk were now successful in killing a Polar bear
and seventy seals, of which some were ostentatiously set up in rows,
along with frozen slices of blubber, along the outer walls of the
tents, and others were laid down in the blubber cellars, which were
soon filled to overflowing. At Yinretlen, the encampment nearer us,
the hunters on the other hand had obtained only eight seals.
Gladness and want of care for the morrow at all events prevailed
here also, and our skin-clad friends availed themselves of the
opportunity to exhibit a self-satisfied disdain of the simple
provisions from the _Vega_ which the day before they had begged for
with gestures so pitiful, and on which they must, in a day or two,
again depend. The children, who had fallen off during recent weeks,
if not in comparison with European children, at least with well-fed
Chukch ones, began speedily to regain their former condition, and
likewise the older people. Begging ceased for some days, but the
vessel's deck still formed a favourite rendezvous for crowds of men,
women, and children. Many passed here the greater part of the day,
cheerful and gay in a temperature of -40 deg. C, gossiped, helped
a little, but always only a little, at the work on board and so on.
The mild weather, the prospect of our getting free, and of an
abundant fishing for the Chukches, however, soon ceased. The
temperature again sank below the freezing-point, that is _of
mercury_, and the sea froze so far out from the shore that the
Chukches could no longer carry on any fishing. Instead we saw them
one morning come marching, like prisoners on an Egyptian or Assyrian
monument, in goose-march over the ice toward the vessel, each with a
burden on his shoulder, of whose true nature, while they were at a
distance, we endeavoured in vain to form a guess. It was pieces of
ice, not particularly large, which they, self-satisfied, cheerful
and happy at their new bit, handed over to the cook to get from him
in return some of the _kauka_ (food) they some days before had
despised.
The first time the temperature of the air sank under the
freezing-point of mercury, was in January. It now became necessary
to use instead of the mercury the spirit thermometers, which in
expectation of the severe cold had been long ago hung up in the
thermometer case. When mercury freezes in a common thermometer, it
contracts so much that the column of mercury suddenly sinks in the
tube; or if it is short, goes wholly into the ball. The position of
the column is therefore no measure of the actual degree of cold when
the freezing takes place. The reading of -89 deg., or even of -150 deg.,
which at a time when it was not yet known that mercury could
at a low temperature assume the solid form, was made on a mercurial
thermometer in the north of Sweden,[258] and which at the time
occasioned various discussions and doubts as to the trustworthiness
of the observer, was certainly quite correct, and may be repeated at
any time by cooling mercury under its freezing-point in a
thermometer of sufficient length divided into degrees under 0 deg..
The freezing of mercury[259] takes place from below upwards,
the frozen metal as being heavier sinking down in that portion which
is still fluid. If when it is half frozen the fluid be poured away
from the frozen portion, we obtain groups of crystals, composed of
small octohedrons, grouped together by the edges of the cube. None
of our mercurial thermometers suffered any damage, nor was there any
alteration of the position of the freezing-point in them from the
mercury having frozen in them and again become fluid.
During the severe cold the ice naturally became thicker and thicker,
and by the continual northerly winds still higher _torosses_ were
heaped up round the vessel, and larger and larger snow masses were
collected between it and the land, and on the heights along the
coast. All hopes or fears of an early release were again given up,
and a perceptible dullness began to make itself felt after the
bustle and festrvities of the Christmas holidays. Instead there was
now arranged a series of popular lectures which were held in the
lower deck, and treated of the history of the North-East Passage,
the first circumnavigations of the globe, the Austrian-Hungarian
Expedition, the changes of the earth's surface, the origin of man,
the importance of the leaf to the plants, &c. It became both for the
officers and scientific men and the crew a little interruption to
the monotony of the Arctic winter life, and the lecturer could
always be certain of finding his little auditory all present and
highly interested. Some slight attempts at musical evening
entertainments were also made, but these failed for want of musical
instruments and musical gifts among the _Vega_ men. We had among us
no suitable director of theatrical representations after the
English-Arctic pattern, and even if we had had, I fear that the
director would have found it very difficult to gather together the
dramatic talents requisite for his entertainment.
On the 17th February Lieutenant Brusewitz made an excursion to
Najtskaj, of which he gives the following account:--
"I and Notti left the vessel in the afternoon, and after
two hours came to Rirajtinop, Notti's home, where we
passed the night, together with his three younger brothers
and an invalid sister, who all lived in the same
tent-chamber. Immediately after our arrival one of the
brothers began to get the dog-harness and sleigh ready for
the following day's journey, while the rest of us went
into the interior of the tent, where the invalid sister
lay with her clothes off, but wrapt in reindeer skins. She
took charge of two train-oil lumps over which hung two
cooking vessels, one formerly a preserve tin, and the
other a bucket of tinned iron. One of the brothers came in
with a tray, on which was placed a piece of seal blubber,
together with frozen vegetables, principally willow
leaves. The blubber was cut into small square pieces about
the size of the thumb, after which one of the brothers
gave the sister a large portion both of the blubber and
vegetables. The food was thus served out to the others.
Every piece of blubber was carefully imbedded in vegetable
before it was eaten. When the vegetables were finished
there was still some blubber, which was given to the dogs
that lay in the outer tent. After this the boiled
spare-rib of a seal were partaken of, and finally a sort
of soup, probably made from seal's blood. The sister had a
first and special helping of these dishes. I also got an
offer of every dish, and it did not appear to cause any
offence that I did not accept the offer. After the close
of the meal the cooking vessels were set down, the "pesks"
taken off, and some reindeer skins taken down from the
roof and spread out. The older brothers lighted their
pipes, and the younger lay down to sleep. I was shown to
one of the side places in the tent, evidently Notti's own.
One of the lamps was extinguished, after which all slept.
During the night the girl complained several times, when
one of the brothers always rose and attended to her. At
six in the morning I wakened the party and reminded them
of our journey. All rose immediately. Dressing proceeded
slowly, because much attention was given to the foot
covering. No food was produced, but all appeared quite
pleased when I gave them of my stock, which consisted of
bread and some preserved beef-steaks. Immediately after
breakfast four dogs were harnessed to the sleigh, with
which Notti and I continued our journey to Najtskaj, I
riding and he running alongside the sleigh. At Irgunnuk, a
Chukch village about an English mile east of Rirajtinop, a
short stay was made in order to try to borrow some dogs,
but without success. We continued our journey along the
shore, and at 10 o'clock A.M. arrived at Najtskaj, which
is from fifteen to eighteen kilometres E.S.E. from
Irgunnuk. Here we were received by most of our former
neighbours, the inhabitants of Pitlekaj. Of the thirteen
tents of the village the five westernmost were occupied by
the former population of Pitlekaj, while the eight lying
more to the eastward were inhabited by other Chukches. The
Pitlekaj people had not pitched their common large tents,
but such as were of inconsiderable size or small ones
fastened close together. In all the tents here, as at
Rirajtinop and Irgunnuk, there was much blubber laid up,
we saw pieces of seal and whole seals piled up before the
tents, and on the way to Najtskaj we met several sledges
loaded with seals, on their way to Pidlin. At Najtskaj I
went out hunting accompanied by a Chukch. We started eight
hares, but did not succeed in getting within range of
them. A red fox was seen at a great distance but neither
ptarmigan nor traces of them could be discovered. At two
in the afternoon I returned to Irgunnuk and there got
another sleigh drawn by ten dogs, with which I soon
reached the vessel."
[Illustration: NOTTI AND HIS WIFE AITANGA. (After photographs by L.
Palander.) ]
On the 20th February three large Chukch sledges laden with goods and
drawn by sixteen to twenty dogs stopped at the _Vega_. They said
they came from the eastward, and were on their way to the market in
the neighbourhood of Nischni Kolymsk. I again by way of experiment
sent with them home-letters, for which, as they declined to take
money, I gave them as postage three bottles of rum and abundant
entertainment for men and dogs. In consideration of this payment
they bound themselves faithfully to execute their commission and
promised to return in May. And they kept then word. For on the 8th
and 9th May a large number of sledges heavily laden with reindeer
skins and drawn by many dogs, passed along the coast from west to
east. Of course all rested at the _Vega_, the only house of
entertainment on the coast of the Asiatic Polar Sea, considering it
as a matter of indisputable right, that they should in return for a
little talk and gossip obtain food and "ram." Very eagerly they now
informed us that a letter would come with another dog train that
might be expected in a few hours. This was for us a very great piece
of news, the importance of which none can understand who has never
hungered for months for news from home, from the home-land and the
home-world. Eager to know if we had actually to expect _a post_ from
Europe, we asked them how large the packet was "Very large" was the
answer, and the "ram" was of course measured accordingly. But when
at last the letter came it was found to be only an exceedingly short
note from some of the Russian officials at Kolyma, informing me that
our letters had reached him on the 4th April/23rd March and had been
immediately sent by express to Yakutsk. Thence they were sent on by
post, reaching Irkutsk on the 20th/14th May, and Sweden on the 2nd
August.
During autumn and midwinter the sunshine was not of course strong
and continuous enough to be painful to the eyes, but in February the
light from the snow-clouds and the snow-drifts began to be
troublesome enough. On the 22nd February accordingly snow-spectacles
were distributed to all the men, an indispensable precaution, as I
have before stated, in Arctic journeys. Many of the Chukches were
also attacked with snow-blindness somewhat later in the season, and
were very desirous of obtaining from us blue-coloured spectacles.
Johnsen even stated that one of the hares he shot was evidently
snow-blind.
On the evening of the 22th February there burst upon us a storm with
drifting snow and a cold of -36 deg.. To be out in such weather is
not good even for a Chukch dog. Of this we had confirmation the next
day, when a Chukch who had lost his way came on board, carrying a
dog, frozen stiff, by the backbone, like a dead hare. He had with
his dog gone astray on the ice and lain out, without eating
anything, in a snow-drift for the night. The master himself had
suffered nothing, he was only hungry, the dog on the other hand
scarcely showed any sign of life. Both were naturally treated on
board the _Vega_ with great commiseration and kindness. They were
taken to the 'tweendecks, where neither Chukches nor Chukch dogs
were otherwise admitted, for the man an abundant meal was served of
what we believed he would relish best, and he was then allowed,
probably for the first time in his life, to sleep if not under a
sooty, at least under a wooden roof. The dog was for hours carefully
subjected to massage, with the result that he came to life again,
which struck us, and, as it appeared, not least the Chukch himself,
as something wonderful.
In the beginning of March there passed us a large number of sledges
laden with reindeer skins, and drawn by eight to ten dogs each.
Every sledge had a driver, and as usual the women took no part in
the journey. These trains were on a commercial journey from Irkaipij
to Paek at Behring's Straits. We found among the foremen many of our
acquaintances from the preceding autumn, and I need not say that
this gave occasion to a special entertainment, for the people,
bread, a little spirits, soup, some sugar, and tobacco, for the
dogs, pemmican. Conversation during such visits became very lively,
and went on with little hindrance, since two of us were now somewhat
at home in the Chukch language. For if I except two men, Menka and
Noah Elisej, who could talk exceedingly defective Russian, there was
not one of the reindeer or dog-foremen travelling past who could
speak any European language, and notwithstanding this they all carry
on an active commerce with the Russians. But the Chukch is proud
enough to require that his own language shall prevail in all
international commerce in the north-east of Asia, and his neighbours
find their advantage in this.
During the course of the winter, Lieutenant Nordquist collected from
the Chukch foremen coming from a distance who travelled past,
information regarding the state of the ice between Chaun Bay and
Behring's Straits at different seasons of the year. Considering the
immense importance of the question, even in a purely practical point
of view, I shall quote verbatim the statements which he thus
collected.
_Statements regarding the state of the ice on the coast between
Cape Yakan and Behring's Straits by Chukches living there._
"1. A Chukch from Yekanenmitschikan, near Cape Yakan, said that it
is usual for open water to be there the whole summer.
"2. A Chukch from Kinmankau, which lies a little to the west of Cape
Yakan, said the same.
"3. A Chukch from Yakan stated that the sea there becomes free of
ice in the end of May or beginning of June. On the other hand it is
never open in winter.
"4. Tatan from Yakan stated that the sea there is open from the end
of May or beginning of June to the latter part of September or
beginning of October, when the ice begins to drift towards the land.
"5. Rikkion from Vankarema said that the sea there is covered with
ice in winter, but open in summer.
"6. A reindeer Chukch, Rotschitlen, who lives about twelve English
miles from the _Vega's_ winter quarters, said that Kolyutschin Bay,
by the Chukches called Pidlin, is clear of ice the whole summer.
"7. Urtridlin from Kolyutschin said that neither at that island nor
in Kolyutschin Bay is there any ice in summer.
"8. Ranau, from Yinretlen, also said that Kolyutschin Bay is always
open in summer.
"9. Ettiu, from the village Nettej, between Irgunnuk and Behring's
Straits, stated that the sea at Nettej is open in summer,
independently of the wind, in winter only when the wind is
southerly.
"10. Vankatte, from Nettej, stated that the sea there becomes open
during the month "Tautinyadlin," that is, the latter part of May and
the beginning of June, and is again covered with ice during the
month "Kutscshkau," or October and November.
"11. Kepljeplja, from the village Irgunnuk, lying five English miles
east of the _Vega's_ winter quarters at Pitlekaj, said that the sea
off these villages is open all summer, except when northerly winds
prevail. On the other hand, he said that farther westward, as at
Irkaipij, ice could nearly always be seen from the land.
"12. Kapatljin, from Kingetschkun, a village between Irgunnuk and
Behring's Straits, stated on the 11th January that there was then open
water at that village. He said further, that Behring's Straits in winter
are filled with ice when the wind is southerly, but open when the wind
is northerly. The same day a Chukch from Nettej-Kengitschkau, also
between Irgunnuk and Behring's Straits, stated that ice then lay off
that village. He confirmed Kapatljin's statement regarding Behring's
Straits.
"13. Kvano, from Uedlje, near Behring's Straits, said that there the
sea is always open from May to the end of September."
On the 13th March we came to know that spirits, too, form an article
of commerce here. For, without having obtained any liquor from the
_Vega_, the Chukches at Yinretlen had the means of indulging in a
general fuddle, and that even their friendly disposition gives way
under the effects of the intoxication we had a manifest proof, when
the day after they came on board with blue and yellow eyes, not a
little seedy and ashamed. In autumn a tall and stout Chukch
giantess, who then paid us a visit, informed us that her husband had
been murdered in a drunken quarrel.
Sledges of considerable size, drawn by reindeer, began after the
middle of March to pass the _Vega_ in pretty large numbers. They
were laden with reindeer skins and goods bought at the Russian
market-places, and intended for barter at Behring's Straits.
The reindeer Chukches are better clothed, and appear to be in better
circumstances and more independent than the coast Chukches, or, as
they ought to be called in correspondence with the former name, the
dog Chukches. As every one owns a reindeer herd, all must follow the
nomad mode of living, but at the same time they carry on traffic
between the savages in the northernmost parts of America and the
Russian fur-dealers in Siberia, and many pass their whole lives in
commercial journeys. The principal market is held annually during
the mouth of March, on an island in the river Little Anjui, 250
versts from Nischni Kolymsk. The barter goes on in accordance with a
normal price-list, mutually agreed upon by the Russian merchants and
the oldest of the Chukches. The market is inaugurated on the part of
the Russians by a mass performed by the priest,[260] who always
accompanies the Russian crown commissioner, and in the Chukches'
camp with buffoonery by one of the Chukch Shamans. At such a market
there is said to be considerable confusion, to judge by the spirited
description which Wrangel gives of it (_Reise_, i. p. 269).
We ought, however, to remember that this description refers to the
customs that prevailed sixty years ago. Now, perhaps, there is a
great change there. In the commercial relations in north-eastern
Asia in the beginning of this century, we have probably a faithful
picture of the commerce of the Beormas in former days in
north-eastern Europe. Even the goods were probably of the same sort
at both places, perhaps, also, the stand-points of the culture of
the two races.
Besides the traders, a large number of Chukches from Kolyutschin
Island and other villages to the west, travelled past us with empty
sledges, to which were harnessed only a few dogs. They returned in
the course of a few days with their sledges fully laden with fish
which they said they had caught in a lagoon situated to the
eastward. They also sometimes sold a delicious variety of the
Coregonus taken in a lake in the interior some distance from the
coast.
Further on in winter a number of excursions were undertaken in
different directions, partly to find out these fishing places,
partly to get an idea of the mode of life of the reindeer Chukches.
I, however, never ventured to give permission for any long absence
from the vessel, because I was quite convinced that the sea round
the _Vega_ after a few days' constant southerly storm might become
open under circumstances which would not permit us to remain in the
open road where we lay moored, my comrades' desire to penetrate far
into the Chukch peninsula could not on that account be satisfied.
But short as these excursions were, they give us, however, much
information regarding our winter life, and our contact with the
little-known tribe, on the coast of whose homeland the _Vega_ had
been beset, and on that account, perhaps, there may be reasons for
making extracts from some of the reports given in to me with
reference to these journeys.
_Palander's and Kjellman's excursion to a reindeer Chukch camp
south-west of Pitlekaj_, is sketched by the former thus:--
"On the 17th March, 1879, accompanied by Dr. Kjellman, I
went out with a sledge and five men, among them a native
as guide, to the reindeer Chukch camp in the neighbourhood
of Taffelberg (Table Mountain), with a view to obtain
fresh reindeer flesh. The expedition was fitted out with
two days' provisions, tent, mattrasses, and _pesks_. The
reindeer Chukches were met with eleven English miles from
the vessel. On an eminence here were found two tents, of
which one at the time was uninhabited. The other was
occupied by the Chukch, Rotschitlen, his young wife, and
another young pair, the latter, if I understood them
right, being on a visit, and properly having their home at
Irgunnuk.
[Illustration: MAP OF THE REGION ROUND THE "VEGA'S" WINTER QUARTERS.
Mainly after G. Bove 1. Rotschitlen's tent 2. Yettugin's tent. ]
"Round the tent, which was considerably smaller than those
we daily saw at the coast, lay a number of sledges piled
up on one another. These sledges differed from the common
dog-sledges in being considerably larger and wider in the
gauge. The runners were clumsy and axed from large wood.
"Our proposal to purchase reindeer was immediately
declined, although we offered in exchange bread, tobacco,
rum, and even guns. As a reason for this refusal they
stated that the reindeer at this season of the year are
too lean to be slaughtered. We saw about fifty reindeer
pasturing on an eminence at a distance of several thousand
feet from us.
"In the afternoon Kjellman and I were invited into the
tent, where we passed an hour in their sleeping chamber.
On our entrance the lamp, which was filled with seal oil,
was lighted, a sort of moss (sphagnum) was used as a wick.
Our hostess endeavoured to make our stay in the tent as
agreeable as possible, she rolled together reindeer skins
for pillows and made ready for us a place where, stretched
at full length, we might enjoy much needed repose. In the
outer tent the other women prepared supper, which
consisted of boiled seal's-flesh. We received a friendly
invitation to share their meal, but as we had no taste for
seal's-flesh, we declined their offer under the pretext
that we had just had dinner. They took their meal lying
with the body in the inner tent, but with the head under
the reindeer-skin curtain in the outer, where the food
was. After the meal was partaken of, their heads were
drawn within the curtain, our host divested himself of all
his clothes, the trousers excepted, which were allowed to
remain. Our hostess let her _pesk_ fall down from her
shoulders, so that the whole upper part of the body thus
became bare. The reindeer-skin boots were taken off, and
turned outside in, they were carefully dried and hung up
in the roof over the lamp to dry during the night. We
treated the women to some sugar, which, in consequence of
their want of acquaintance with it, they at first examined
with a certain caution, finding afterwards that it tasted
exceeding well. After the meal our host appeared to become
sleepy, we accordingly said good-night, and went to our
own tent, where it was quite otherwise than warm, the
temperature during the night being about -11 deg. C.
"After for the most part a sleepless night, we rose at
half-past six next morning. When we came out of the tent
we saw all the reindeer advancing in a compact troop. At
the head was an old reindeer with large horns, that went
forward to his master, who had in the meantime gone to
meet the herd, and bade him good-morning by gently rubbing
his nose against his master's hands. While this was going
on the other reindeer stood drawn up in well-ordered
ranks, like the crew in divisions on board a man-of-war.
The owner then went forward and saluted every reindeer,
they were allowed to stroke his hands with their noses. He
on his part took every reindeer by the horn and examined
it in the most careful way. After the inspection was ended
at a sign given by the master the whole herd wheeled round
and returned in closed ranks, with the old reindeer in
front, to the previous day's pasture.
"The whole scene made a very favourable impression on us,
it was not the grim hard savage showing in a coarse and
barbarous way his superiority over the animals, but the
good master treating his inferiors kindly, and having a
friendly word for each of them. Here good relations
prevailed between man and the animals. Rotschitlen himself
was a stately young man, with an intelligent appearance
and a supple handsome figure. His dress, of exceedingly
good cut and of uncommonly fine reindeer skin, sat close
to his well-grown frame, and gave us an opportunity of
seeing his graceful and noble bearing, which was most
observable when he was in motion.
"On our repeating our proposal to purchase reindeer we
again met with a refusal, on which we struck our tent and
commenced our return journey. We came on board on the 18th
March at 3 o'clock P.M., after a march of four hours and
three-quarters.
"The way to the reindeer camp rose and fell gently. The
snow was hard and even, so that we could go forward
rapidly. On the way out four foxes and some ravens were
seen. At one place we found a large number of lemming
passages excavated through the snow in an oblique
direction towards the ground. Most of them were scratched
up by foxes. The descent to an untouched lemming nest was
cylindrical, and four and a half centimetres in diameter.
During both days we had snow, and a thick and foggy
atmosphere, so that we could see only a short distance
before us, we did not however go astray, thanks to the
good eyes and strongly developed sense of locality of our
guide, the native."
_Brusewitz's and Nordquist's Excursion to Nutschoitjin_
Of this Nordquist gives the following account:--
"On the 20th March, at 9 o'clock A.M. Lieut Brusewitz,
boatswain Lustig, the Norwegian hunters Johnsen and
Sievertsen, the Chukch Notti, and I, left the _Vega_. Our
equipment, which consisted of provisions for eight days,
cooking apparatus, canvas tent, india-rubber mattrasses,
reindeer-skin _pesks_, &c., we drew after us on a sledge.
At 2.45 P.M. we came to Nutschoitjin (Coregonus Lake).
During our journey we passed a river which flows between
Nutschoitjin and the mountain Hotschkeanranga, about ten
English miles south of this lake and falls into the great
lagoon south of Prtlekaj. Farther into the interior this
river, according to Notti's statement, flows through
several lakes: he also informed us that in summer it
abounds very much in salmon (_lienne_). Some sandy hills
formed the watershed between it and Nutschoitjin. The only
animal we saw during our outward journey was a fox. On the
other hand we found traces of hares, ptarmigan, and a
couple of lemmings. After we had found a suitable
camping-place, we began to build a snow-house, which,
however, we could not get ready till next day.
"On the 21st Brusewitz and I went out to view our nearest
surroundings. On a hill north of the lake, where
Potentilla, Carex, and Poa stuck up through the
snow-covering, we saw a large number of traces of the fox,
the hare, and the ptarmigan. We employed the 22nd in
cutting some holes in the ice, which was about one and a
half metres thick, and in setting a net. For I wished to
ascertain what species of Coregonus it is which, according
to Notti's statement, occurs in abundance in this lake. At
the place where the net was set there was something more
than a metre of water under the ice The bottom consisted
of mud. When we cut a hole in the middle of the lake in
order to get deeper water we found that the ice, one and a
half metres thick there, reached to the bottom.
"Next morning we got in the net eleven Coregoni, of which
the largest were about thirty-five centimetres long.
Although the weather was grey and we could not see very
far, we went the same day to the hill Hotschkeanranga;
partly to determine its height, and partly from its
summit, which is visible for a great distance, to get a
view of the appearance of the surrounding country. After
crossing the river which flows between Nutschoitjin and
Hotchkeanranga, we began to ascend the long slope on whose
summit Hotchkanrakenljeut (Hotchkeanranga's head) rises
with steep sides above the surrounding country. Over the
slope were scattered loose blocks of stone of an eruptive
rock. The crest of "the head" was also closely covered
with loose stones. On the north of wind side these stones
were covered with a hard beaten crust of snow nearly two
feet thick, on the south side most of them were bare.
According to Brusewitz the southern slopes are still
steeper than the northern. South of the hill he saw a
large valley--probably a lake--through which flows the
river which we crossed.
"As on the outward journey I went with Notti, he advised
me to offer a little food and brandy to the Spirit of the
Lake, _itjaken kamak_, in order to get good net fishing.
On my inquiring what appearance he had, Notti replied
"_uinga lilapen_," "I have never seen him." Besides this
spirit there are in his view others also in streams, in
the earth, and in some mountains. The Chukches also
sacrifice to the sun and moon. On the other hand they do
not appear, as some other races, to pay any sort of
worship to their departed friends. When I gave him a
biscuit and bade him offer it, he made with the heel a
little depression in the snow on Nutschoitjin, crumbled a
little bit of the biscuit in pieces, and threw the crumbs
into the hollow. The rest of the biscuit he gave back,
declaring that _kamak_ did not require more, and that we
should now have more fish in the net than the first time.
Notti said also that the Chukches are wont to sacrifice
something for every catch. Thus have probably arisen all
the collections of bear and seal skulls and reindeer
horns, which we often saw on the Chukch coast, especially
on eminences.
"After we had read off the aneroid, we speedily made our
way to the snow-house, because during the interval a
violent storm of drifting snow had arisen, so that we
could not see more than half a score of paces before us.
On the slope below "the head" we had already on our way
thither seen traces of two wild reindeer. Notti said that
there are a few of them on the hill the whole winter. The
greater number, however, draw farther southward, and
approach the coast only during summer. Johnson had wounded
an owl (_Strix nyctea_), which however made its escape. On
the 24th snow fell and drifted during the whole day, so
that we could not go out to shoot. On the 25th we came on
board again.
"According to the aneroid observations made during the
journey, the highest summit we visited had a height of 197
metres."
_Lieutenant Bove's Account of an Excursion to Najtskaj and Tjapka._
"On the 19th April, at 4 o'clock A.M. the hunter Johnsen
and I started on a short excursion eastward along the
coast, with a view to pay a visit to the much frequented
fishing station Najtskaj, where our old friends from
Pitlekaj had settled. We had a little sledge which we
ourselves drew, and which was laden with provisions for
three days and some meteorological and hydrographical
instruments.
"At 6 o'clock A.M. we reached Rirajtinop, where we found
Notti, a serviceable, talented, and agreeable youth. The
village Rirajtinop, which formerly consisted of a great
many tents, now had only one tent, Notti's, and it was
poor enough. It gave the inhabitants only a slight
protection against wind and cold. Among household articles
in the tent I noticed a face-mask of wood, less shapeless
than those which according to Whymper's drawings are found
among the natives along the river Youcon, in the territory
of Alaska, and according to Dr. Simpson among the
West-Eskimo. I learned afterwards that this mask came from
Paek, Behring's Straits, whither it was probably carried
from the opposite American shore.
[Illustration: THE SLEEPING CHAMBER IN A CHUKCH TENT.
(After a drawing by the seaman Hansson.) ]
"The village Irgunnuk lies from three to four hundred
metres from Rirajtinop, and consists of five tents, one of
which two days before had been removed from Yinretlen. The
tents are as usual placed on earthy eminences, and have if
possible the entrance a couple of paces from some steep
escarpment, manifestly in order that the door opening may
not be too much obstructed with snow. I reckon the
population of Irgunnuk at forty persons.
"Off this village the ice is broken up even close to the
land into _torosses_, five to six metres high, which form
a chain which closely follows the shore for a distance of
five to six hundred metres to the eastward. The coast from
Irgunnuk to Najtskaj runs in a straight line, is low, and
only now and then interrupted by small earthy eminences,
which all bear traces of old dwellings. Each of these
heights has its special name: first Uelkantinop, then
Tiumgatti, and lastly Tiungo, two miles west of Najtskaj.
In the neighbourhood of Uelkantinop we were overtaken by a
reindeer-Chukch, who accompanied us to Najtskaj in order
there to purchase fish and seal-blubber. At noon we
reached Najtskaj, where our arrival had been announced by
a native, who, with his dog-team, had driven past us on
the way. Accordingly on our entrance we were surrounded by
the youth of the village, who deafened us with then
unceasing cries for bread (_kauka_), tobacco, _ram_, &c.
After some moments the begging urchins were joined both by
women and full-grown men. We entered a tent, which
belonged to a friend or perhaps relation of Notti. There
we were very well received. In the same tent the
reindeer-Chukch also lodged who had given us his company
on the way. He went into the sleeping chamber, threw
himself down there, took part in the family's evening
meal, all almost without uttering a word to the hostess,
and the next morning he started without having saluted the
host. Hospitality is here of a peculiar kind. It may
perhaps be expressed thus _To-day I eat and sleep in your
tent, to-morrow you eat and sleep in mine_; and
accordingly, as far as I saw, all, both rich and poor,
both those who travelled with large sledges, and those who
walked on foot, were received in the same way. All are
sure to find a corner in the tent-chamber.
[Illustration: CHUKCH LAMPS.
_a._ Wooden cup to place under the lamp.
_b._ Lamp of burned clay. One-fifth of the natural size. ]
"The tent-chamber, or _yaranga_, as this part of the tent
is called by the natives, takes up fully a third-part of
the whole tent, and is at the same time work-room,
dining-room, and sleeping chamber. Its form is that of a
parallelepiped; and a moderately large sleeping chamber
has a height of 1.80 metre, a length of 3.50, and a
breadth of 2.20 metres. The walls are formed of reindeer
skin with the hair inwards, which are supported by a
framework of posts and cross-bars. The floor consists of a
layer of grass undermost, on which a walrus skin is
spread. The grass and the skin do not form a very soft
bed, yet one on which even a tried European wanderer may
find rest. The interior of the sleeping-chamber is lighted
and warmed by lamps, whose number varies according to the
size of the room. A moderately large chamber has three
lamps, the largest right opposite the entrance, the two
others on the cross walls. The lamps are often made of a
sort of stone, which is called by the natives _ukulschi_.
They have the form of a large ladle. The fuel consists of
train-oil, and moss is used for the wick. These lamps
besides require constant attention, because half-an-hour's
neglect is sufficient to make them smoke or go out. The
flame is at one corner of the lamp, whose moss wick is
trimmed with a piece of wood of the shape shown in the
drawing. The lamp rests on a foot, and it in its turn in a
basin. In this way every drop of oil that may be possibly
spilled is collected. If there is anything that this
people ought to save, it is certainly oil, for this
signifies to them both light and heat. In the roof of the
bedchamber some bars are fixed over the lamps on which
clothes and shoes are hung to dry. The lamps are kept
alight the whole day, during night they are commonly
extinguished, as otherwise they would require continual
attention. Some clothes and fishing implements, two or
three reindeer skins to rest upon--these are the whole
furniture of a Chukch tent.
[Illustration: SECTION OF A CHUKCH LAMP. (After a drawing by G. Bove.)
_a._ The oil.
_b._ The wick.
_c._ The foot.
_d._ The basin under it.
_e._ Stick for trimming the wick. ]
"Every tent is besides provided with some drums (_yarar_).
These are made of a wooden ring, about seventy centimetres
in diameter, on which is stretched a skin of seal or
walrus gut. The drum is beaten with a light stick of
whalebone. The sound thus produced is melancholy, and is
so in a yet higher degree when it is accompanied by the
natives' monotonous, commonly rhythmical songs, which
appear to me to have a strong resemblance to those we hear
in Japan and China. A still greater resemblance I thought
I observed in the dances of these peoples. Notti is a
splendid _yarar_-player. After some pressing he played
several of their songs with a feeling for which I had not
given him credit. The auditors were numerous, and by their
smiles and merry eyes one could see that they were
transported by the sounds which Notti knew how to call
from the drum. Notti was also listened to in deep silence,
with an admiration like that with which in a large room we
listen to a distinguished pianist. I saw in the tent no
other musical instrument than that just mentioned.
[Illustration: CHUKCH SHAMAN DRUM. One eighth the natural size. ]
"The day we arrived at Najtskaj we employed in viewing the
neighbourhood of the village. We accordingly ascended a
hill about thirty metres high to the south of the village
in order to get a clear idea of the region. From the
summit of the hill we had a view of the two lagoons west
and east of Najtskaj. The western appeared, with the
exception of some earthy heights, to embrace the whole
stretch of coast between Najtskaj, the hill at Yinretlen,
and the mountains which are visible in the south from the
Observatory. The lagoon east of Najtskaj is separated from
the sea by a high rampart of sand, and extends about
thirty kilometres into the interior, to the foot of the
chain of hills which runs along there. To the eastward the
lagoon extends along the coast to the neighbourhood of
Serdze Kamen. This cape was clearly seen and, according to
an estimate which I do not think was far from the truth,
was situated at a distance of from twenty-five to twenty-six
kilometres from Najtskaj. It sinks terracewise towards the
sea, and its sides are covered with stone pillars, like
those we saw in the neighbourhood of Cape Great Baranoff.
Serdze Kamen to the south is connected with mountain heights
which are the higher the farther they are from the sea.
Some of these have a conical form, others are table-shaped,
reminding us of the Ambas of Abyssinia. Ten or twelve miles
into the interior they appear to reach a height of
six hundred to nine hundred metres.
"The fishing in the eastern lagoon takes place mainly in
the neighbourhood of Najtskaj, at a distance of about five
kilometres from the village. Hooks are exclusively used,
and no nets or other fishing implements. In a few minutes
I saw twenty cod (_urokadlin_) caught, and about as many
small fish, called by the natives _nukionukio_. For the
fishing the natives make a hole in the ice, a decimetre in
diameter. Round the hole they build, as a protection
against wind and drifting snow, a snow wall eighty
centimetres high, forming a circle with an inner diameter
of a metre and a half. The fish-hooks are of iron and are
not barbed. The line is about five metres long, and is
fixed to a rod nearly a metre in length. At the end of the
angling line hangs a weight of bone, and beside it the
hook. It is generally the women who fish, yet there are
generally two or three men about to open the holes, build
the walls, and keep the fishing-places clear. All the
holes with their shelter-walls lie in an arc, about a
kilometre in length, whose convex side is turned to the
east. The ice in the lagoon was 1.7 metre thick, the water
3.2 metres deep, and the thickness of snow on the ice 0.3
metre.
[Illustration: THE COAST BETWEEN PADLJONNA AND ENJURMI.
To the west Idlidlja Island, in the background the village Tjapka,
to the right the great lagoon. (After a drawing by O. Nordquist.) ]
"The day after our arrival at Najtskaj we visited the
village Tjapka, which lies at a distance of six
kilometres. This village contains thirteen tents, some of
which are more roomy and better built than any Chukch tent
I have previously seen. We lodged in a tent which belonged
to Erere, a friendly man with a face that was always
cheerful. His sleeping-chamber was so large that it could
hold more than one family. We found the inmates there
completely naked, Erere's wife, Kedlanga, not excepted.
Kedlanga was well formed, her bosom full, her stomach
somewhat projecting, the thighs poor, the legs slender,
the feet small. The men appeared to have a greater
disposition to stoutness than the women. Some of the
children had disproportionately large stomachs. Both men
and women wore copper rings on the legs, the wrists, and
the upper arms. On festivals they decorate themselves with
iron rings, with which some reminiscence appears to be
connected, to judge by the fact that they will not part
with them.
"Erere's family was very numerous, according to the
prevailing state of matters here. He had five children,
whose names, according to their age, were, Hatanga,
Etughi, Vedlat, Uai, and Umonga. In all the tents which I
visited I have inquired the number of children. Only two
or three wives had more than three; the average may be
estimated at two.
[Illustration: BRACELET OF COPPER. Half the natural size. ]
"The children are from their tenderest years set apart for
each other, thus Etughi, Erere's second son, who was
little more than eight, was set apart for Keipteka, a girl
of six or seven. Etughi and Keipteka slept under the same
roof, though apart. "When they grow bigger," said Erere to
me, "then sleeping-places will be put alongside each
other". At what age this takes place I have not
ascertained, but I suppose that it is very early, as is
common with all Oriental races.
"Right opposite Tjapka lies a small island, by the natives
called Idlidlja, which is about 800 metres in
circumference. Its shores rise perpendicularly on all
sides except that which is opposite Tjapka, in which
direction it sinks with a steep slope. On the north end of
it we found three or four whales' bones and some pieces of
driftwood, but nothing to indicate that there had been any
Onkilon dwellings there. The island swarmed with hares,
which the inhabitants of Tjapka hunt with the bow. For
this hunting they are accustomed to build circular walls
of snow, pierced with loopholes, through which they shoot
the unsuspecting animals.
"Regarding life in the tent I have still the following
notes. The most troublesome work is given to the older
women. They rise early to light and attend to the lamps,
yoke the dogs, and go fishing. The young women, on the
other hand, sleep far into the day. The housewives return
at noon, then work is then finished, if we do not consider
as work the constant motion of the tongue in talk and
gossip. The younger people have it assigned to them to sew
clothes, arrange the fishing-lines and nets, prepare
skins, &c. Sewing-thread is made from the back sinews of
the reindeer, which they procure by barter from the
reindeer-Chukches, giving for them fish and seal-blubber.
[Illustration: THE NORTH END OF IDLIDLJA ISLAND. (After a drawing by
O. Nordquist.) ]
"One cannot, without having seen it, form any idea of the
large quantity of food they can consume. One evening I saw
eight persons, including one child, eat about 30 lbs. of
food. The bill of fare was: 1, raw fish; 2, soup; 3,
boiled fish; 4, seal-blubber; 5, seal-flesh. The raw fish
commonly consists of frozen cod. The soup is made partly
of vegetables, partly of seal-blood; I saw both kinds.
Vegetable soup was prepared by boiling equal quantities of
water and vegetables, till the mixture formed a thick pap.
The blood soup is cooked by boiling the blood together
with water, fish, and fat. They are very fond of this
soup. The seal-blubber they eat by stuffing into the mouth
the piece which has been served to them, and then cutting
a suitable mouthful with the knife, which they bring close
to the lips. In the same way they do with the flesh.
"With the exception of the old women's gossip the greatest
quietness prevails in the sleeping-chamber. It is not
uncommon for men to visit each other. Thus the first night
we spent at Najtskaj the tent where we lodged was full of
people, but without the least disturbance arising. If one
had anything to say he talked in quite a low tone, as if
he were shy. He was listened to attentively, without any
interruption. First when he had finished another began.
"Affection between spouses and parents and children is
particularly strong. I have seen fathers kiss and caress
their children before they went to rest, and what I found
most remarkable was that the children never abused this
tender treatment. Whatever one gave them, it was their
first thought to divide it with their parents. In this
respect and in many others they were far in advance of a
large number of European children."
_Lieutenant Bove's Report on an Excursion along with Dr. Almquist to
the Interior of the Chukch Peninsula, from the 13th to the 17th
June, 1879._
"We started from the vessel on the morning of the 13th June
with a view to penetrate as far as possible into the
interior of the Chukch peninsula. For the journey we had
hired, for a liberal payment, two sledges drawn by dogs
from Rotschitlen, a Chukch at Irgunnuk. The dogs and
sledges surpassed our expectation. In fourteen hours we
traversed a distance of nearly forty minutes, including
bends, which corresponds to a speed of three, perhaps four,
English miles an hour, if we deduct the rests which were
caused by the objects of the journey--scientific
researches. This speed strikes me as not inconsiderable,
if we consider the weight which the dogs must draw, and
the badness and unevenness of the way. For the ground was
undulating, like a sea agitated by a storm. But pleased as
we were with our sledges and dogs, we were as dissatisfied
with Rotschitlen, a faint-hearted youth, without activity
or experience. With another driver we might have been able
in a few days to penetrate as far as the bottom of
Kolyutschin Bay, which differs greatly in its form, from
that which Russian, English, and German maps give to it.
It is not improbable that it is almost connected by lakes,
lagoons, and rivers with St. Lawrence Bay or Metschigme
Bay, whose inner parts are not yet investigated.
"After we left the lagoons at Pitlekaj and Yinretlen, the
coast began gradually to rise by escarpments, each about
five metres in height. The plains between the escarpments
are full of lagoons or marshes. Such a terrain continued
until, about five hours' way from the vessel, we came to a
height of twenty-seven metres. From this point the
terrace-formations cease, and the terrain then consists of
a large number of ranges of heights, intersected by
rivulets, which during the snow-melting season must be very
much flooded. Seven or eight hours' way from the vessel we
met with such a rivulet, which farther to the S.S.E. unites
with another which runs between two rocky escarpments
twenty metres high. On one of these we pitched our tent, in
order to draw and examine some hills which were already
divested of the winter dress they had worn for nine long
months. On the top of one of the hills we found marks of
two recently-struck tents, which probably belonged to a
reindeer Chukch, who had now settled halfway between
Pitlekaj and Table Mount upon a chain of heights which
appears to separate the Irgunnuk lagoon from the rocky
eastern shore of Kolyutschin Bay. At our resting place we
found a large number of reindeer horns and a heap of broken
bones.
"After resuming our journey we came in a short time to the
foot of Table Mount, whose height I reckoned at 180 meters.
It slopes gently to the west and south (about 10 deg.),
but more steeply to the east and north (about 15 deg.).
The animal world there showed great activity. In less than
an hour we saw more than a dozen foxes that ran up and down
the hills and circled round us, as if they ran with a line.
Fortunately for them they kept at a respectful distance from
our doctor's sure gun.
"On the other side of Table Mount the ground sinks
regularly towards Kolyutschin Bay. Here for a while we
sought in vain for Yettugin's tent, in which we intended to
pass the night, and which had been fixed upon as the
starting-point of future excursions, till at last reindeer
traces and afterwards the sight of some of these friendly
animals brought us to the right way, so that about 9
o'clock P.M. we got sight of the longed-for dwelling in the
middle of a snow-desert. At the word _yaranga_ (tent) the
dogs pointed their ears, uttered a bark of joy, and ran at
full speed towards the goal. We arrived at 10.30 P.M. In
the tent we were hospitably received by its mistress, who
immediately made the necessary preparations for our
obtaining food and rest. Yettugin himself was not at home,
but he soon returned with a sledge drawn by reindeer. These
animals had scarcely been unharnessed when they ran back to
the herd, which according to Yettugin's statement was six
kilometres east of the tent.
"I have never seen a family so afflicted with ailments as
Yettugin's. The sexagenarian father united in himself
almost all the bodily ailments which could fall to the lot
of a mortal. He was blind, leprous (?), and had no use of
the left hand, the right side of the face, and probably of
the legs. His body was nearly everywhere covered with the
scars of old sores from four to five centimetres in
diameter. As Dr. Almquist and I were compelled to pass the
night in the same confined sleeping-chamber with him, it
was therefore not to be wondered at that we drew ourselves
as much as possible into our corner. The sleeping-chamber
or inner tent of a reindeer-Chukch is besides much more
habitable than that of a coast-Chukch, the air, if not
exactly pure, may at least be breathed, and the thick layer
of reindeer skins which covers the tent floor may well
compare in softness with our beds on board. Yettugin, his
wife Tengaech, and his brother Keuto, slept out of doors in
order to give us more room and not to disturb us when
rising. Keuto had inherited no small portion of his
father's calamity. He was deaf, half idiotic, and on his
body there were already traces of such spots as on the old
man's. Keuto was however an obliging youth, who during our
stay in the tent did all that he could to be of use to us,
and constantly wandered about to get buds and plants for
us. He was a skilful archer; I saw him at a distance of
twenty or twenty-five paces kill a small bird with a blunt
arrow, and when I placed myself as a target he hit me right
in the middle of the breast at a distance of perhaps thirty
metres.
"The 14th was employed by me in astronomical and geodetical
observations, and by Dr. Almquist in excursions in the
neighbourhood of Yettugin's tent in order to investigate
the fauna and flora of the neighbourhood. About 10 o'clock
P.M. he returned, quite exhausted after eight hours'
walking in deep water-drenched snow under a perceptible
solar heat. The results of the excursion were in all
respects exceedingly good, not only in consequence of a
number of _finds_ in natural history, but also through the
discovery that the shore of Kolyutschin Bay runs
three-quarters of a mile south-west of Yettugin's tent,
which was situated in 66 deg. 42' 4" North Lat, and 186 deg.
24' 0" Long, east from Greenwich. Dr. Almquist had
walked four or five miles along the eastern shore of the
bay, which at most places is perpendicular with a height of
fifteen metres. In consequence of this discovery we
determined to continue our hydrographical observations as
far as the bottom of the bay, which, according to
Yettugin's account, was two days' march from the tent.
But we could not carry out our plan in consequence of our
guide's laziness, for he declared that on no conditions
would he accompany us farther. Neither entreaties nor
threats availed to disturb this his resolution. I
endeavoured myself to drive the sledges, but the dogs would
not move out of the spot, though, following Rotschitlen's
system, I thrashed them very soundly.
"The place where Yettugin's tent was pitched offered us a
view of an extensive snow-plain, which was enclosed on all
sides by high hills. In the north and north-east Table
Mount and the Tenen hill keep off the north winds, and to
the south the encampment is protected by a long and high
mountain chain from the winds coming from that quarter. I
calculated the height of some of the mountains at from 1200
to 1500 metres, and their azure-blue colour furrowed by
dark lines appeals to me to indicate the presence of ice on
the slopes. One of the summits of this mountain chain was
easily recognisable. It was a truncated cone, perhaps 1500
metres high. Kolyutschin Bay lies between these mountains
and Yettugin's tent. Its western shore also appears to rise
perpendicularly from the sea, and it is higher than the
eastern. The bay, which appears to be much larger than it
is represented on the maps, was covered with level ice,
only here and there a piece of ice covered with snow was
seen sticking up.
"As we were forced to desist from visiting the interior of
Kolyutschin Bay, we determined to go to the ground where
Yettugin's reindeer pastured. We therefore left the tent on
the evening of the 15th and travelled E.N.E. The warmth,
which had now commenced, began to make travelling over snow
fields difficult, the dogs sank to the stomach, and not
unfrequently we had to alight in order to help the poor
animals to climb the hills we were obliged to ascend.
Scarcely however had they come to the reindeer tracks
before even the most exhausted of them rushed along at the
top of their speed, which might be pleasant enough uphill,
but when they were coming down it was very dangerous,
because the slope nearly always ends with a steep
escarpment. We came once, without observing it, to the edge
of such a precipice, and if we had not succeeded in time in
slackening our speed a nice confused mass of men, dogs,
and sledges would have tumbled over it. In order to excite
their draught animals the Chukches avail themselves of
their dogs' inclination to run after the reindeer, and
during their journeys they endeavour to spur them on yet
more by now and then imitating the reindeer's cry. After
two or three hours travelling we fell in with the first
reindeer, and then by degrees with more and more, until
finally about 11 o'clock P.M. we came to a numerous herd,
tended by Yettugin. I applied to him, asking him to barter
a reindeer in good condition for a gun which I had brought
along with me. After various evasions Yettugin at length
promised to give us next day the reindeer for the gun. He
would not however himself, or with his own knife, kill the
reindeer, on which account I requested Dr. Almquist to give
it the _coup de grace_.
"In consequence of the soft state of the snow we were
obliged to defer the commencement of our return journey to
the evening of the 16th. We now travelled over the chain of
hills which unites Table Mount with Tenen, and descended
their northern steep slope towards an extensive plain,
studded for the most part with bogs and marshes. The 17th
came in with mist and considerable warmth. The mist limited
the circle of vision to a distance of some few metres, and
the high temperature in a short time destroyed the crust
which had been formed in the course of the preceding night
on the surface of the snow, and melted the layers of snow
which still covered the northern slopes of these two hills.
The southern slopes on the other hand were almost quite
bare, and the valleys began to be filled with water. Four
or five days as warm as these and I believe there scarcely
would be any snow remaining round Kolyutschin Bay. The
illusions caused by the white fog illuminated by the
sunlight were very astonishing. Every small spot of ground
appeared as an extensive snow-free field, every tuft of
grass as a bush, and a fox in our immediate neighbourhood
was for a moment taken for a gigantic bear. Besides, during
such a fog the action of the sunlight on the eyes was
exceedingly painful even in the case of those who carried
preservers. During the return Rotschitlen lost his way in
consequence of the numerous different tracks. Fortunately I
had observed how we travelled, and could with the help of
the compass pilot our two small craft to a good haven. On
the 17th of June at 1.30 P.M. we were again in good
condition on board the _Vega_."
In the society on board the prospects of an alteration in the
constant north winds, the perpetual snow-storms and the unceasing
cold, and the hope of a speedy release from the fetters of the ice,
were naturally constantly recurring topics of conversation. During
this time many lively word-battles were fought between the weather
prophets in the gunroom, and many bets made in jest between the
optimists and pessimists. The former won a great victory, when at
noon on the 8th February the temperature lose to + 0.1 deg. C.,
but with the exception of this success fortune always went against
them. The north wind, the drifting snow and the cold, would never
cease. A blue water-sky indeed was often visible at the horizon to
the north and north-east, but the "clearing" first reached our
vessel a couple of hours before we left our winter haven for ever,
and up to the 15th June the thickness of the ice was almost
undiminished (1-1/2 metre) The sun rose higher and higher, but
without forming any crust upon the snow, although upon the black
hull of the _Vega_, perhaps with the help of the heat in the
interior, it had by the 14th March melted so much snow that small
icicles were formed at the gunwale. It was one of the many deceptive
prognostications of spring which were hailed with delight. However,
immediately after severe cold recommenced and continued during the
whole of the month of April, during which the temperature of the an
never rose above -4.6 deg., the mean temperature being -18.9 deg..
May began with a temperature of -20.1 deg.. On the 3rd the
thermometer showed -26.8 deg., and in the "flower-month" we had
only for a few hours mild weather with an air temperature +1.8 deg..
Even the beginning of June was very cold, on the 3rd we
had -14.3 deg., with a mean temperature for the twenty-four hours
of -9.4 deg.. Still on the 13th the thermometer at midnight showed
-8.0 deg., but the same day at noon with a gentle southerly wind a
sudden change took place, and after that date it was only
exceptionally that the thermometer in the open air sank below the
freezing-point. The melting and evaporation of snow now began, and
went on so rapidly that the land in the end of the month was almost
free of snow.
Under what circumstances this took place is shown by the following
abstract of the observations of temperature at Pitlekaj from the
13th June to the 18th July, 1879:--
Max Min Mean Max Min Mean
deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg.
June 13 +3.6 -8.0 -1.95 July 1 +0.8 -0.6 +0.07
14 +2.6 +0.2 +1.47 2 +1.1 -1.0 +0.40
15 +3.1 +1.7 +2.28 3 +5.0 +1.0 +2.28
16 +1.6 -0.6 +0.90 4 +3.8 +1.4 +2.68
17 +3.0 +0.2 +1.22 5 +5.2 +2.0 +3.60
18 +2.4 -0.6 +1.23 6 +8.6 +1.0 +2.28
19 +3.6 +1.4 +2.43 7 +5.0 +1.4 +2.68
20 +3.5 +1.7 +2.50 8 +8.6 +0.6 +4.82
21 +2.6 +1.5 +2.07 9 +1.8 +0.4 +0.97
22 +3.0 +1.5 +2.28 10 +1.4 +0.5 +0.90
23 +4.1 +1.8 +3.00 11 +1.4 +0.6 +1.00
24 +6.8 +0.9 +3.18 12 +9.0 +0.5 +4.73
25 +4.4 +0.4 +2.30 13 +6.5 +3.7 +5.03
26 +3.8 +0.6 +1.77 14 +5.4 +1.8 +3.68
27 +1.4 +0.7 +1.02 15 +1.6 +0.6 +1.13
28 +2.1 +0.2 +0.92 16 +3.0 +0.6 +1.52
29 +0.9 -1.0 +0.12 17 +11.5 +8.8 +7.80
30 +1.0 -1.8 -0.27 18 +9.2 +6.2 +7.52
The figures in the maximum column, it will be seen, are by no means
very high. That the enormous covering of snow, which the north winds
had heaped on the beach, could disappear so rapidly notwithstanding
this low temperature probably depends on this, that a large portion
of the heat which the solar rays bring with them acts directly in
melting the snow without sun-warmed air being used as an
intermediate agent or heat-carrier, partly also on the circumstance
that the winds prevailing in spring come from the sea to the
southward, and before they reach the north coast pass over
considerable mountain heights in the interior of the country. They
have therefore the nature of _foehn_ winds, that is to say, the whole
mass of air, which the wind carries with it, is heated, and its
relative humidity is slight, because a large portion of the water
which it originally contained has been condensed in passing over the
mountain heights. Accordingly when the dry _foehn_ winds prevail, a
considerable evaporation of the snow takes place. The slight content
of watery vapour in the atmosphere diminishes its power of absorbing
the solar heat, and instead increases that portion of it which is
found remaining when the sun's rays penetrate to the snowdrifts, and
there conduce, not to raise the temperature, but to convert the snow
into water. [261]
The aurora is, as is well-known, a phenomenon at the same time
cosmic and terrestrial, which on the one hand is confined within the
atmosphere of our globe and stands in close connection with
terrestrial magnetism, and on the other side is dependent on certain
changes in the envelope of the sun, the nature of which is as yet
little known, and which are indicated by the formation of spots on
the sun; the distinguished Dutch physicist, VON BAUMHAUER, has even
placed the occurrence of the aurora in connection with cosmic
substances which fall in the form of dust from the interstellar
spaces to the surface of the earth. Thus splendid natural phenomenon
besides plays, though unjustifiably, a great _role_ in imaginative
sketches of winter life in the high north, and it is in the popular
idea so connected with the ice and snow of the Polar lands, that
most of the readers of sketches of Arctic travel would certainly
consider it an indefensible omission if the author did not give an
account of the aurora as seen from his winter station. The
scientific man indeed knows that this neglect has, in most cases,
been occasioned by the great infrequency of the strongly luminous
aurora just in the Franklin archipelago on the north coast of
America, where most of the Arctic winterings of this century have
taken place, but scarcely any journey of exploration has at all
events been undertaken to the uninhabited regions of the high north,
which has not in its working plan included the collection of new
contributions towards dealing up the true nature of the aurora and
its position in the heavens. But the scientific results have seldom
corresponded to the expectations which had been entertained. Of
purely Arctic expeditions, so far as I know, only two, the
Austrian-Hungarian to Franz Josef Land (1872-74) and the Swedish to
Mussel Bay (1872-73), have returned with full and instructive lists
of auroras[262] Ross, PARRY, KANE, McCLINTOCK, HAYES, NARES, and
others, have on the other hand only had opportunities of registering
single auroras; the phenomenon in the case of their winterings has
not formed any distinctive trait of the Polar winter night. It was
the less to be expected that the _Vega_ expedition would form an
exception in this respect, as its voyage happened during one of the
years of which we knew beforehand that it would be a minimum aurora
year. It was just this circumstance, however, which permitted me to
study, in a region admirably suited for the purpose, a portion of
this natural phenomenon under uncommonly favourable circumstances.
For the luminous arcs, which even in Scandinavia generally form
starting-points for the radiant auroras, have here exhibited
themselves undreamed by the more splendid forms of the aurora I have
thus, undisturbed by subsidiary phenomena, been able to devote
myself to the collection of contributions towards the ascertaining
of the position of these luminous arcs, and I believe that I have in
this way come to some very remarkable conclusions, which have been
developed in detail in a separate paper printed in _The Scientific
Work of the Vega Expedition_ (Part I. p. 400). Here space permits me
only to make the following statement.
The appearance of the aurora at Behring's Straits in 1878-79 is shown in
the accompanying woodcuts. We never saw here the magnificent bands or
draperies of rays which we are so accustomed to in Scandinavia, but only
halo-like luminous arcs, which hour after hour, day after day, were
unaltered in position. When the sky was not clouded over and the faint
light of the aurora was not dimmed by the rays of the sun or the full
moon, these arcs commonly began to show themselves between eight and
nine o'clock P.M., and were then seen without interruption during
midwinter till six, and farther on in the year to three o'clock in
the morning. It follows from this that the aurora even during a minimum
year is a permanent natural phenomenon. The nearly unalterable position
of the arcs has further rendered possible a number of measurements of
its height, extent, and position from which I believe I may draw the
following inferences that our globe even during a minimum aurora year is
adorned with an almost constant, single, double, or multiple luminous
crown, whose inner edge is situated at a height of about 200 kilometres
or 0.03 radius of the earth above its surface, whose centre, "the
aurora-pole," lies somewhat under the earth's surface, a little north of
the magnetic-pole, and which, with a diameter of 2,000 kilometres or 0.3
radius of the earth, extends in a plane perpendicular to the radius of
the earth, which touches the centre of the circle.
[Illustration: THE COMMON AURORA ARC AT THE "VEGA'S" WINTER
QUARTERS. ]
[Illustration: AURORA AT THE "VEGA'S" WINTERER QUARTERS, 3RD MARCH
1879, AT 9 P.M. ]
[Illustration: DOUBLE AURORA ARCS SEEN 20TH MARCH 1879,
AT 9.30 P.M. ]
[Illustration: ELLIPTIC AURORA SEEN 21ST MARCH, 1879, AT 2.15 A.M. ]
[Illustration: ELLIPTIC AURORA SEEN 21ST MARCH, 1879, AT 3 A.M. ]
I have named this luminous crown _the aurora glory_ on account of
its form and its resemblance to the crown of rays round the head of
a saint. It stands in the same relation to the ray and drapery
auroras of Scandinavia as the trade and monsoon winds in the south
to the irregular winds and storms of the north. The light of the
crown itself is never distributed into rays, but resembles the light
which passes through obscured glass. When the aurora is stronger,
the extent of the light-crown is altered double or multiple arcs are
seen, generally lying in about the same plane and with a common
centre, and rays are cast between the different arcs. Arcs are
seldom seen which lie irregularly to or cross each other.
The area in which the common arc is visible is bounded by two circles
drawn upon the earth's surface, with the aurora-pole for a centre and
radii of 8 deg. and 28 deg. measured on the circumference of the globe. It
touches only to a limited extent countries inhabited by races of
European origin (the northernmost part of Scandinavia, Iceland, Danish
Greenland), and even in the middle of this area there is a belt passing
over middle Greenland, South Spitzbergen, and Franz Josef Land, where
_the common arc_ forms only a faint, very widely extended, luminous veil
in the zenith, which perhaps is only perceptible by the winter darkness
being there considerably diminished. This belt divides the regions where
these luminous arcs are seen principally to the south from those in
which they mainly appear on the northern horizon. In the area next the
aurora-pole only the smaller, in middle Scandinavia only the larger,
more irregularly formed luminous crowns are seen. But in the latter
region, as in southern British America, aurora storms and ray and
drapery auroras are instead common, and these appear to be nearer the
surface of the earth than the arc aurora. Most of the Polar expeditions
have wintered so near the aurora-pole that _the common aurora arc_ there
lay under or quite near the horizon, and as the ray aurora appears to
occur seldom within this circle, the reason is easily explained why the
winter night was so seldom illuminated by the aurora at the winter
quarters of these expeditions, and why the description of this
phenomenon plays so small a part in their sketches of travel.
[Illustration: SONG BIRDS IN THE RIGGING OF THE "VEGA." May 1879. ]
Long before the ground became bare and mild weather commenced,
migratory birds began to arrive, first the snow-bunting on the 23rd
April, then large flocks of geese, eiders, long-tailed ducks,
gulls, and several kinds of waders and song-birds. First among the
latter was the little elegant _Sylvia Ewersmanni_, which in the
middle of June settled in great flocks on the only dark spot which
was yet to be seen in the quarter--the black deck of the _Vega_.
All were evidently much exhausted, and the first the poor things did
was to look out convenient sleeping places, of which there is
abundance in the rigging of a vessel when small birds are concerned.
I need scarcely add that our new guests, the forerunners of spring,
were disturbed on board as little as possible.
We now began industriously to collect material for a knowledge of
the avi- and mammal-fauna of the region. The collections, when this
is being written, are not yet worked out, and I can therefore only
make the following statement on this point:
From the acquaintance I had made during my own preceding journeys and
the study of others', with the bird-world of the high north, I had got
the erroneous idea that about the same species of birds are to be met
with everywhere in the Polar lands of Europe, Asia, and America.
Experience gained during the expedition of the _Vega_ shows that this is
by no means the case, but that the north-eastern promontory of Asia, the
Chukch peninsula, forms in this respect a complete exception. Birds
occur here in much fewer numbers, but with a very much greater variety
of types than on Novaya Zemlya, Spitzbergen, and Greenland, in
consequence of which the bird-world on the Chukch peninsula has in its
entirety a character differing wholly from that of the Atlantic Polar
lands. We indeed meet here with types closely allied to the glaucous
gull (_Larus glaucus_, Bruenn), the ivory gull (_L. eburneus_, Gmel.),
the kittiwake (_L. tridactylus_, L.), the long-tailed duck (_Harelda
glacialis_, L.), the king duck (_Somateria spectabilis_, L.),[263] the
phalarope (_Phalaropus fulicarius_, Bonap.), the purple sandpiper
(_Tringa maritima_, Bruenn.), &c., of Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya, but
along with these are found here many peculiar species, for instance the
American eider (_Somateria V-nigrum_, Gray), a swanlike goose, wholly
white with black wing points (_Anser hyperboreus_, Pall.), a
greyish-brown goose with bushy yellowish-white feather-covering on the
head (_Anser pictus_, Pall), a species of Fuligula, elegantly coloured
on the head in velvet-black, white, and green, (_Fuligula Stelleri_,
Pall), the beautifully marked, scarce _Larus Rossii_, Richards, of
which Dr. Almquist on the 1st July, 1879, shot a specimen from the
vessel, a little brown sandpiper with a spoonlike widened bill-point
(_Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus_, L.) and various song-birds not found in
Sweden, &c. Besides, a number of the Scandinavian types living here
also, according to Lieutenant Nordquist, are distinguished by less
considerable differences in colour-marking and size. The singular
spoon-billed sandpiper was at one time in spring so common that it was
twice served at the gunroom table, for which after our return home we
had to endure severe reproaches from animal collectors. This bird is
found only in some few museums. It was first described by LINNAEUS in
_Museum Adolphi Friderici, Tomi secundi predromus_, Holmiae 1764, and
then by C.P. THUNBERG in the _Transactions_ of the Swedish Academy of
Sciences for 1816 (p. 194), where it is stated that the homeland of this
bird is tropical America. It has since been caught a few times in
south-eastern Asia. Probably, like _Sylvia Ewersmanni_, it passes the
winter in the Philippine group of islands, but in summer visits the high
north. Like several other birds which appeared in spring with the first
bare spots it disappeared in July. Perhaps it retired to the interior to
breed in the bush, or, which is more probable, went farther north to the
islands or continents not yet discovered by Europeans, which in all
probability connect Wrangel Land with the Franklin Archipelago.
[Illustration: SPOON BILLED SANDPIPER FROM CHURCH LAND.
_Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus_, L. At the side the bird's bill seen from
above, of the natural size. ]
The higher animal forms which, along with the Polar traveller, dare
to brave the cold and darkness of the Arctic night, exert on him a
peculiar attraction. Regarding these, Lieutenant Nordquist has given
me the following notes:--
"The mammal most common in winter on the north coast of the
Chukch peninsula is the _hare_. It differs from the fell
hare (_Lepus borealis_, Lillj.) by its larger size, and by
the bones of its nose not tapering so rapidly. It is
generally met with in flocks of five or six on the hills in
the neighbourhood of the tents, which are covered only with
a thin layer of snow, notwithstanding the large number of
hungry dogs which wander about there.
"The _Arctic foxes_ (_Vulpes lagopus_, L.) are very
numerous. The common _fox_ (_Vulpes vulgaris_, Gray)
appears also to be common. A red fox, which Lieutenant
Brusewitz shot from the vessel in October, differed
considerably from the common fox, and approached the Arctic
fox. The food of the fox appears in winter to consist of
hares, ptarmigan, and lemmings. I have twice seen holes in
the snow about a metre deep and at the mouth not more than
thirty centimetres wide, which the Chukches said were
excavated by foxes searching for lemmings.
"Of the _lemming_ I have seen three varieties, viz. _Myodes
obensis, M. torquatus_, and _Arvicola obscurus_. There is
found here, also, according to the statements of the
Chukches, a little mouse, in all probability a Sorex.
_Myodes torquatus_ were got the first time on the 12th
January, _Myodes obensis_ on the 13th February. Both
species were afterwards frequently brought on board by
Chukches, and during the winter lemmings were seen not
unfrequently running on the snow. _Myodes obensis_ appeared
to be more numerous than the other species. It is singular
that all the nine specimen of _Myodes torquatus_ I obtained
during the winter were males. Differing from both these
species, _Arvicola obscurus_ does not appear to show itself
above the snow during winter. Of the latter I got eight
specimens from the village Tjapka, lying between Yinretlen
and Behring's Straits. I afterwards got another from the
village Irgunnuk, situated five English miles east of
Yinretlen.
[Illustration: MARMOTS FROM CHUKCH LAND. ]
"The more uncommon land mammals wintering in these regions
are the _wolf_ and the _wild reindeer_. Footprints of the
latter were seen on the 23nd March, in the mountain region,
fifteen to twenty miles south of Yinretlen. According to
the Chukches' account some few reindeer remain on the hills
along the coast, while the greater number migrate
southwards towards winter. Besides these, two other mammals
live here during winter, though they are only seen during
summer and autumn, because they hibernate the rest of the
time. These are the _land bear_ and the _marmot_ (_Arctomys
sp._). We saw no land bear, but on the 8th October
Lieutenant Hovgaard and I found traces of this animal two
or three English miles from the coast. The Chukches say
that the land bear is not uncommon in summer. The marmot
occurs in large numbers. It was brought on board for the
first time by a Chukch, and the following day I myself saw
it sitting on the top of a little hill, where it had its
dwelling.
"Besides the animals enumerated above the natives talked of
another, which is called by them _nennet_, and is said to
live by the banks of rivers. According to their description
it appears to be the common _otter_. As at most places
where the lemming is common the _weasel_ (_Mustela
vulgaris_, Briss.) is also found here. I got from the
Chukches two skins of this animal. Whether the beaver
occurs in the part of Chukch Land which we visited I cannot
say with certainty. It is probable, because the Chukches
informed me that there was found here a weasel which has
the point of the tail black.
"Only two sea mammals have been seen in this region in the
course of the winter, viz. the _rough_ or _bristled seal_
and the _Polar bear_. On two occasions traces of the latter
have been observed in the neighbourhood of land. They
appear, however, for the most part to keep by openings in
the ice farther out to sea, where during our stay two of
them were killed by Chukches from the neighbouring
villages. The rough seal is probably the only species that
occurs near the coast during winter. It is caught in great
numbers, and forms, along with fish and various vegetable
substances, the main food of the Chukches.
"Of land birds there winter in the region only three
species, viz. an _owl_ (_Strix nyctea_, L.), a _raven_
(_Corvus sp._), and a _ptarmigan_ (_Lagopus subalpina_,
Nilss.); the last-named is the most common. On the 14th
December, during a sledge journey into the country I saw,
about ten or twelve English miles from the coast, two large
coveys of ptarmigan, one of which probably numbered over
fifty. Nearer the coast, on the other hand, there were
found, especially during spring, for the most part only
single birds. The raven is common at the Chukch villages,
and builds its nest in the neighbouring cliffs. The first
egg was got on the 31st May. The mountain owl was seen for
the first time on the 11th March, but, according to the
statements of the Chukches, it is to be met with during the
whole winter. In April and May we also saw some mountain
owls, on the 21st May I saw two.
"At open places in the sea there are found here in winter,
the Chukches say, two swimming birds, the _loom_ (_Uria
Bruennichii_, Sabine) and the _Black guillemot_ (_Uria
grylle_, L.) Of the former we obtained two specimens for
the first time on the 1st May, of the latter on the 19th of
the same month. Possibly there winter in open places of the
sea besides these birds a species of Mergulus, one of which
came to the winter quarters of the _Vega_ on the 3rd
November, and a Fuligula, a specimen of which was sold to
us on the 9th March by a Chukch, who said he had killed it
at a clearing off the coast."
After the arrival of the migratory birds hunting excursions began to
form a welcome interruption in our monotonous winter life, and the
produce of the hunting a no less agreeable change from the preserved
provisions. The Chukches besides offered us daily a large number of
different kinds of birds, especially when they observed that we paid
a higher price for many rare kinds of birds, though small and of
little use for food, than for a big, fat goose. The Chukches killed
small birds either by throwing stones, or by shooting them with bow
and arrows, in connection with which it may be observed that most of
them were very poor archers. They also caught them with whalebone
snares set on bare spots on the beach, generally between two
vertebrae of the whale. For pebbles are very scarce, but the bones
of the whale are found, as has been already stated, at most places
in large numbers on the strand-banks where the tents are pitched. In
June we began to get eggs of the gull, eider, long-tailed duck,
goose, and loom, in sufficient number for table use. The supply,
however, was by no means so abundant as during the hatching season
on Greenland, Spitzbergen, or Novaya Zemlya.
A little way from the vessel there were formed, in the end of May,
two "leads," a few fathoms in breadth. On the 31st May I sent some
men to dredge at these places. They returned with an abundant yield,
but unfortunately the openings closed again the next day, and when I
and Lieutenant Bove visited the place there was a large,
newly-formed _toross_ thrown up along the edge of the former
channel. Another "lead" was formed some days after, but closed again
through a new disturbance of the position of the ice, a high
ice-rampart, formed of loose blocks, heaped one over another,
indicating the position of the former opening. Even the strongest
vessel would have been crushed in such a channel by the forcing
together of the ice. Of a different sort from both these occasional
leads was an extensive opening, which showed itself a kilometre or
two north of the vessel. It is probable that with few interruptions,
which, however, might have been difficult to pass, it extended as
far as Behring's Straits, where, according to the statements of the
Chukches, several whalers had already made their appearance. Round
the vessel itself, however, the ice still lay fast and unbroken. Nor
did the Chukches appear to expect that it would break up very soon,
to judge by the number of vehicles drawn by dogs or reindeer which
still passed us, both to the east and west. One of these travellers
must here be specially mentioned, as his journey has been talked
about as an expedition sent to our relief.
[Illustration: STEGOCEPHALUS KESSLERI (STUXB). Natural size. ]
[Illustration: SABINEA SEPTEMCARINATA (SABINE). Natural size.
EVERTEBRATES FROM THE SEA AT THE "VEGA'S" WINTER QUARTERS. ]
[Illustration: ACANTHOSTEPHIA MALMGRENI, (GOES). Magnified twice. ]
[Illustration: OPHIOGLYPHA NODOSA, (LUeTKEN). Magnified twice
EVERTEBRATES FROM THE SEA AT THE "VEGA'S" WINTER QUARTERS. ]
It was the 19th June. A large number of Chukches travelling past us
as usual came on board, partly to receive the tribute of hospitality
to which they considered themselves entitled, partly to satisfy an
easily understood curiosity and gossip a little about the most
important occurrences of the preceding day. One of them, a
middle-aged man, whom we had not seen before, with a friendly and
self-satisfied bearing, whose face was a mere collection of
wrinkles, and over whose _pesk_ was drawn an old velvet shirt,
presented himself with a certain pretentiousness as the chief NOAH
ELISEJ. Since the mistake with the stately Chepurin, and since even
Menka's supposed slave declared himself to be at least as good as
Menka, we had begun to be rather indifferent to the rank of chief
among the Chukches. Noah Elisej however, notwithstanding he thus
brought forward his pretensions, was received like a common man, at
which he appeared to be a little offended. But our behaviour soon
changed, when Notti, or some other of our daily guests, who had
become quite familiar with our fancies, tastes weaknesses, informed
us that Noah Elisej had with him a large, a very large letter. Old
Noah thus carried a mail, perhaps a European mail. At once he became
in our eyes a man of importance. After being stormed for a time with
questions, he took from a bag which hung from his neck the ordinary
pieces of board fastened together, which here serve as a postbag.
They were found however to contain only a letter of a couple of
lines from a Russian official at Nischm Kolymsk, without any news
from Europe, but informing us that chief Noah Elisej was sent to us
to assist us, if necessary. Noah first patted his stomach to
indicate that he was hungry and wanted food, and hawked and pointed
with his finger at his throat to let us know that a _ram_ would
taste well. He then told us something which we did not then exactly
understand, but which we now have reason to interpret as a statement
that Noah was the leader of an expedition sent by the Siberian
authorities to our relief, and that he was therefore willing in
return for suitable compensation to give us some reindeer I availed
myself of the offer, and purchased three animals for sugar, tea, and
a little tobacco. Noah besides was a friendly and easy-going man,
who, Christian though he was, travelled about with two wives and a
large number of children, who all of course would see the vessel and
get their treat of tobacco, clay pipes, sugar, _ram_, &c.
[Illustration: NOAH ELISEJ. (After a photograph by L. Palander.) ]
So much flood water had now begun to collect on the ice, especially
near the land, that it was exceedingly difficult to walk from the
vessel to the shore and back. Many a proposed land excursion was
broken off by somebody, immediately after leaving the vessel,
sinking into some deep hole in the ice and thus getting a cold bath.
Excursions on land however began to be exceedingly interesting to
the botanists and zoologists, and therefore to avoid the
inconveniences mentioned I caused a tent to be pitched by the side
of the large lagoon between Pitlekaj and Yinretlen, and a light boat
to be carried thither. The bottom of the lagoon was still filled
with ice, above which however the water stood so high that the boat
floated in it. The naturalists settled by turns in the tent, and
from it made excursions in different directions, as I hope with the
result that the neighbourhood of Pitlekaj is now the best known
tract on the north of Asia, which after all is not saying much. The
first plant in flower (_Cochlearia fenestrata_, R. Br.) was seen on
the 23rd June.[264] A week after the ground began to grow green and
flowers of different kinds to show themselves in greater and greater
numbers.[265] Some flies were seen on a sunshiny day in May (the 27th)
in motion on the surface of the snow, but it was not until the end
of June that insects began to show themselves in any large numbers,
among them many Harpalids, two large species of Carabus, and a large
Curculionid. The insects occurring here however are not very
numerous either in respect of species or individuals, which is not
strange when we consider that the earth at a limited depth from the
surface is constantly frozen. As even the shallow layer, which thaws
in summer, is hard frozen in winter, all the insects which occur
here must in one or other phase of their development endure being
frozen solid for some time. But it may be remarked with reason with
reference to this, that if life in an organism may so to speak be
suspended for months by freezing stiff without being destroyed, what
is there to prevent this suspension being extended over years,
decades, or centuries?
The common idea, that all animal life ceases, when the interior
animal heat sinks under the freezing-point of water, is besides not
quite correct. This is proved by the abundant evertebrate life which
is found at the bottom of the Polar Sea, even where the water all
the year round has a temperature of -2 deg. to -2.7 deg. C, and
by the remarkable observation made during the wintering at Mussel
Bay in 1872-73, that small Crustacea can live by millions in
water-drenched snow at a temperature of from -2 deg. to -10.2 deg. C.
On this point I say in my account of the expedition of 1872-73:--[266]
[Illustration: BEETLES FROM PITLEKAJ.
_a._ _Carabus truncaticollis_ ESCHSCHOLTZ.
(One and a half the natural size.)
_b._ _Alophus sp._ (One find two-thirds the natural size.) ]
"If during winter one walks along the beach on the snow
which at ebb is dry, but at flood tide is more or less
drenched through by sea-water, there rises at every step
one takes, an exceedingly intense, beautiful, bluish-white
flash of light, which in the spectroscope gives a
one-coloured labrador-blue spectrum. This beautiful flash
of light arises from the snow, before completely dark, when
it is touched. The flash lasts only a few moments after the
snow is left untouched, and is so intense, that it appears
as if a sea of fire would open at every step a man takes.
It produces indeed a peculiar impression on a dark and
stormy winter day (the temperature of the air was sometimes
in the neighbourhood of the freezing-point of mercury) to
walk along in this mixture of snow and flame, which at
every step one takes splashes about in all directions,
shining with a light so intense that one is ready to fear
that his shoes or clothes will take fire."
[Illustration: PHOSPHORESCENT CRUSTACEAN FROM MUSSEL BAY.
_Metridia armata_, A. Boeck.
1. A male magnified twelve times.
2. A foot of the second pair. ]
On a closer examination it appeared that this light-phenomenon proceeded
from a minute crustacean, which according to the determination of Prof
W. LILLJEBORG belongs to the species _Metridia armata_, A. Boeck, and
whose proper element appears to be snow-sludge drenched with salt water
cooled considerably under 0 deg. C. First when the temperature sinks below
-10 deg. does the power of this small animal to emit light appear to cease.
But as the element in which they live, the surface of the snow nearest
the beach, is in the course of the winter innumerable times cooled
twenty degrees more, it appears improbable that these minute animals
suffer any harm by being exposed to a cold of from -20 deg. to -30 deg., a very
remarkable circumstance, as they certainly do not possess in their
organism any means of raising the internal animal heat in any noteworthy
degree above the temperature of the surrounding medium.
We did not see these animals at Pitlekaj, but a similar phenomenon,
though on a smaller scale, was observed by Lieut. BELLOT[267] during
a sledge-journey in Polar America. He believed that the light arose
from decaying organic matter.
[Illustration: REITINACKA. (After a photograph by L. Palander.) ]
After the Chukches had told us that an exceedingly delicious black
fish was to be found in the fresh-water lagoon at Yinretlen, which
is wholly shut off from the sea and in winter freezes to the bottom,
we made an excursion thither on the 8th July. Our friends at the
encampment were immediately ready to help us, especially the women,
Artanga, and the twelve-year-old, somewhat spoiled _Vega_-favourite
Reitinacka. They ran hither and thither like light-hearted and
playful children, to put the net in order and procure all that was
needed for the fishing. We had carried with us from the vessel a net
nine metres long and one deep. Along its upper border floats were
fixed, to the lower was bound a long pole, to which were fastened
five sticks, by which the pole was sunk to the bottom of the lagoon,
a little way from the shore. Some natives wading in the cold water
then pushed the net towards the land with sticks and the pole, which
glided easily forward over the bottom of the lake, overgrown as it
was with grass. In order to keep the fish from swimming away, the
women waded at the sides of the net with their _pesks_ much tucked
up, screaming and making noise, and now and then standing in order
to indicate by a violent shaking that the water was very cold. The
catch was abundant. We caught by hundreds a sort of fish altogether
new to us, of a type which we should rather have expected to find in
the marshes of the Equatorial regions than up here in the north. The
fish were transported in a dog sledge to the vessel, where part of
them was placed in spirits for the zoologists and the rest fried,
not without a protest from our old cook, who thought that the black
slimy fish looked remarkably nasty and ugly. But the Chukches were
right it was a veritable delicacy, in taste somewhat resembling eel,
but finer and more fleshy. These fish were besides as tough to kill
as eels, for after lying an hour and a half in the air they swam, if
replaced in the water, about as fast as before. How this species of
fish passes the winter is still more enigmatical than the winter
life of the insects. For the lagoon has no outlet and appears to
freeze completely to the bottom. The mass of water which was found
in autumn in the lagoon therefore still lay there as an unmelted
layer of ice not yet broken up, which was covered with a stratum of
flood water several feet deep, by which the neighbouring grassy
plains were inundated. It was in this flood water that the fishing
took place.
After our return home the Yinretlen fish was examined by Professor F.A.
SMITT in Stockholm, who stated, in an address which he gave on it before
the Swedish Academy of Sciences, that it belongs to a new species to
which Professor Smitt gave the name _Dallia delicatissima_. A closely
allied form occurs in Alaska, and has been named _Dallia pectoralis_,
Bean. These fishes are besides nearly allied to the dog-fish (_Umbra
Krameri_, Fitzing), which is found in the Neusidler and Platten Lakes,
and in grottos and other water-filled subterranean cavities in southern
Europe. It is remarkable that the European species are considered
uneatable, and even regarded with such loathing that the fishermen throw
them away as soon as caught because they consider them poisonous, and
fear that their other fish would be destroyed by contact with it. They
also consider it an affront if one asks them for dog-fish.[268] If we
had known thus we should not now have been able to certify that _Dallia
delicatissima_, SMITT, truly deserves its name.
[Illustration: DOG FISH FROM THE CHUKCH PENINSULA. _Dallia
delicatissima_, Smitt. Half the natural size. ]
In the beginning of July the ground became free of snow, and we
could now form an idea of how the region looked in summer in which
we had passed the winter. It was not just attractive. Far away in
the south the land rose with terrace-formed escarpments to a hill,
called by us Table Mount, which indeed was pretty high, but did not
by any steep or bold cliffs yield any contribution to such a
picturesque landscape border as is seldom wanting on the portions of
Spitzbergen, Greenland, and the north part of Novaya Zemlya which I
have visited, south Novaya Zemlya has at least at most places bold
picturesque shore-cliffs. If I except the rocky promontory at
Yinretlen, where a cliff inhabited by ravens rises boldly out of the
sea, and some cliffs situated farther in along the beach of
Kolyutschin Bay, the shore in the immediate neighbourhood of our
wintering station consisted everywhere only of a low beach formed of
coarse sand. Upon this sand, which was always frozen, there ran
parallel with the shore a broad bank or dune, 50 to 100 metres
broad, of fine sand, not water-drenched in summer, and accordingly
not bound together by ice in winter. It is upon this dune that the
Chukches erect their tents. Marks of them are therefore met with
nearly everywhere, and the dune accordingly is everywhere bestrewed
with broken implements or refuse from the chase. Indeed it may be
said without exaggeration that the whole north-eastern coast of the
Siberian Polar Sea is bordered with a belt of sweepings and refuse
of various kinds.
The coarse sand which underlies the dune is, as has been stated,
continually frozen, excepting the shallow layer which is thawed in
summer. It is here that the "frost formation" of Siberia begins,
that is to say, the continually frozen layer of earth, which, with
certain interruptions, extends from the Polar Sea far to the south,
not only under the treeless _tundra_, but also under splendid
forests and cultivated corn-fields.[269] To speak correctly, however,
the frozen earth begins a little from the shore _under the sea_.[270]
For on the coast the bottom often consists of hard frozen
sand--"rock-hard sand," as the dredgers were accustomed to report.
The frost formation in Siberia thus embraces not only terrestrial
but also marine deposits, together with pure clear layers of ice,
these last being formed in the mouths of rivers or small lakes by
the ice of the river or lake frozen to the bottom being in spring
covered with a layer of mud sufficiently thick to protect the ice
from melting during summer. The frozen sea-bottom again appears to
have been formed by the sand washed down by the rivers having
carried with it when it sank some adhering water from the warm and
almost fresh surface strata. At the sea-bottom the sand surrounded
by _fresh_ water freezing at 0 deg. C thus met a stratum of _salt_
water whose temperature was two or three degrees under 0 deg., in
consequence of which the grains of sand froze fast together. That it
may go on thus we had a direct proof when in spring we sank from the
_Vega_ the bodies of animals to be skeletonised by the crustacea
that swarmed at the sea-bottom. If the sack, pierced at several
places, in which the skeleton was sunk was first allowed to fill
with the slightly salt water from the surface and then sink rapidly
to the bottom, it was found to be so filled with ice, when it was
taken up a day or two afterwards, that the crustacea were prevented
from getting at the flesh. We had already determined to abandon the
convenient cleansing process, when I succeeded in finding means to
avoid the inconvenience, this was attained by drawing the sack,
while some distance under the surface, violently hither and thither
so that the surface water carried down with it was got rid of.
Frozen clay and ooze do not appear to occur at the bottom of the
Polar Sea. Animal life on the frozen sand was rather scanty, but
algae were met with there though in limited numbers.
From the shore a plain commences, which is studded with extensive
lagoons and a large number of small lakes. In spring this plain is
so water-drenched and so crossed by deep rapid snow-rivulets, that
it is difficult, often impossible, to traverse it. Immediately after
the disappearance of the snow a large number of birds at all events
had settled there. The Lapp sparrow had chosen a tuft projecting
from the marshy ground on which to place its beautiful roofed
dwelling, the waders in the neighbourhood had laid their eggs in
most cases directly on the water-drenched moss without trace of a
nest, and on tufts completely surrounded by the spring floods we met
with the eggs of the loom, the long-tailed duck, the eider and the
goose. Already during our stay, the water ran away so rapidly, that
places, which one day were covered with a watery mirror, over which
a boat of light draught could be rowed forward, were changed the
next day to wet marshy ground, covered with yellow grass-straws from
the preceding year. At many places the grassy sward had been torn up
by the ice and carried away, leaving openings sharply defined by
right lines in the meadows, resembling a newly worked off place in a
peat moss.
In summer there must be found here green meadows covered with pretty
tall grass, but at the time of our departure vegetation had not
attained any great development, and the flowers that could be
discovered were few. I presume however that a beautiful Arctic
flower-world grows up here, although, in consequence of the exposure
of the coast-country to the north winds, poor in comparison with the
vegetation in sheltered valleys in the interior of the country.
There are found there too pretty high bushes, but on the other hand
trees are represented at Pitlekaj only by a low species of willow
which creeps along the ground.
[Illustration: CRAB FROM THE SEA NORTH OF BEHRING'S STRAITS.
_Chionoecetes opilio_ Kroeyer. Half the natural size. ]
[Illustration: TREE FROM PITLEKAJ. _Salix arctica_, PALLAS.
(Natural size.) ]
We did not, however, see even this "wood" in full leaf. For in order
that full summer heat may begin it is necessary, even here, that the
ice break up, and this longed-for moment appeared to be yet far
distant. The ice indeed became clear of snow in the beginning of
July, and thus the slush and the flood water were lessened, which
during the preceding weeks had collected on its surface and made it
very difficult to walk from the vessel to land. Now, again pretty
dry-shod and on a hard blue ice-surface, we could make excursions in
the neighbourhood of the vessel. We had however to be cautious. The
former cracks had in many places been widened to greater or smaller
openings by the flood water running down, and where a thin black
object--a little gravel, a piece of tin from the preserved
provision-cases, &c.--had lain on the ice there were formed round
holes, resembling the seal-holes which I saw in spring laid bare
after the melting of the snow on the ice in the fjords of
Spitzbergen. The strength of the ice besides was nearly unaltered,
and on the 16th July a heavily loaded double sledge could still be
driven from the vessel to the shore.
On the 17th the "year's ice" next the land at last broke up, so that
an extensive land clearing arose. But the ground-ices were still
undisturbed, and between these the "year's ice" even lay so fast,
that all were agreed that at least fourteen days must still pass
before there was any prospect of getting free.
When on the 16th the reindeer-Chukch Yettugin came on board, and,
talking of the collection of whale-bones in which we had been
engaged some days before, informed us that there was a mammoth bone
at his tent, and that a mammoth tusk stuck out at a place where the
spring floods had cut into the bank of a river which flows from
Table Mount to Riraitinop, I therefore did not hesitate to undertake
an excursion to the place. Our absence from the vessel was reckoned
at five or six days. It was my intention to go up the river in a
skin boat belonging to Notti to the place where the mammoth tusk
was, and thence to proceed on foot to Yettugin's tent. Yettugin
assured us that the river was sufficiently deep for the
flat-bottomed boat. But when we had travelled a little way into the
country it appeared that the river had fallen considerably during
the day that Yettugin passed on the vessel. So certain was I however
that the ice-barrier would not yet for a long time be broken up,
that I immediately after my return from the excursion, which had
thus been rendered unsuccessful, made arrangements for a new journey
in order with other means of transport to reach the goal.
While we were thus employed the forenoon of the 18th passed. We sat
down to dinner at the usual time, without any suspicion that the
time of our release was now at hand. During dinner it was suddenly
observed that the vessel was moving slightly Palander rushed on
deck, saw that the ice was in motion, ordered the boiler fires to be
lighted, the engine having long ago been put in order in expectation
of this moment, and in two hours, by 3:30 P.M. on the 18th July, the
_Vega_, decked with flags, was under steam and sail again on the way
to her destination.
We now found that a quite ice-free "lead" had arisen between the
vessel and the open water next the shore, the ice-fields west of our
ground-ices having at the same time drifted farther out to sea, so that
the clearing along the shore had widened enough to give the _Vega_ a
sufficient depth of water. The course was shaped at first for the N.W.
in order to make a _detour_ round the drift-ice fields lying nearest us,
then along the coast for Behring's Straits. On the height at Yinretlen
there stood as we passed, the men, women, and children of the village
all assembled, looking out to sea at the fire-horse--the Chukches would
perhaps say fire-dog or fire-reindeer--which carried their friends of
the long winter months for ever away from their cold, bleak shores.
Whether they shed tears, as they often said they would we could not see
from the distance which now parted us from them. But it may readily have
happened that the easily moved disposition of the savage led them to do
this. Certain it is that in many of us the sadness of separation mingled
with the feelings of tempestuous joy which now rushed through the breast
of every _Vega_ man.
The _Vega_ met no more ice-obstacles on her course to the Pacific.
Serdze Kamen was passed at 1:30 A.M. of the 19th, but the fog was so
dense that we could not clearly distinguish the contours of the
land. Above the bank of mist at the horizon we could only see that
this cape, so famous in the history of the navigation of the
Siberian Polar Sea, is occupied by high mountains, split up, like
those east of the Bear Islands, into ruin-like gigantic walls or
columns. The sea was mirror-bright and nearly clear of ice, a walrus
or two stuck up his head strangely magnified by the fog in our
neighbourhood, seals swam round us in large numbers, and flocks of
birds, which probably breed on the steep cliffs of Serdze Kamen,
swarmed round the vessel. The trawl net repeatedly brought up from
the sea bottom a very abundant yield of worms, molluscs, crustacea,
&c. A zoologist would here have had a rich working field.
The fog continued, so that on the other side of Serdze Kamen we lost
all sight of land, until on the morning of the 20th dark heights
again began to peep out. These were the mountain summits of the
easternmost promontory of Asia, East Cape, an unsuitable name, for
which I have substituted on the map that of Cape Deschnev after the
gallant Cossack who for the first time 230 years ago circumnavigated
it.