RETURN TO JUPITER
A Successor to Voyager
The spectacular discoveries of the Voyagers did not exhaust our interest
in the Jovian system. Both the giant planet and its system of satellites
will almost certainly play a central role in any future program of solar
system exploration and research. Thus, even as the two Voyager
spacecraft directed their attention further outward toward Saturn, NASA
had begun development of the next Jupiter mission, named Galileo.
Galileo is an ambitious, multiple-vehicle planetary mission. It has two
major interlocking elements: a probe to be placed in the atmosphere of
Jupiter and an orbiter to explore Jupiter, its satellites, and its
magnetosphere. By using individual satellite flybys to alter its orbit,
the Galileo spacecraft can carry out a satellite “tour” consisting of
flybys of the Galilean satellites at different geometries and a deep
penetration into the magnetosphere in the unexplored region of space
behind Jupiter.
Both an atmospheric probe for the planet and a long-lived orbiter to
study the satellites and magnetosphere are logical successors to
Voyager. In 1974, three years before Voyager launch, the Space Science
Board of the National Academy of Sciences was already emphasizing the
scientific advantages of both of these approaches. In suggesting goals
for 1975-1985, the Board wrote, “We recommend that a significant effort
in the NASA planetary program over the next decade be devoted toward the
outer solar system. Jupiter is the primary object of outer solar system
exploration.” Looking at specific mission goals, the Board recommended
that “the primary objectives in the exploration of Jupiter and its
satellites for the period 1975-1985 in order of importance are (1)
determination of the chemical composition and physical state of its
atmosphere, (2) the chemical composition and physical state of the
satellites, and (3) the topology and behavior of the magnetic field and
the energetic particle fluxes. In order to carry out this program, it
will be necessary to utilize orbiting spacecraft and probe-delivering
spacecraft.”
In the same period NASA carried out studies of two possible orbiter and
probe missions. Working through the Ames Research Center, a scientific
panel chaired by James Van Allen explored the adaptation of the Pioneer
10 and 11 spinning spacecraft to carry a probe to Jupiter and to carry
out an orbiter mission emphasizing magnetospheric studies. William B.
Hubbard of the University of Arizona chaired a JPL-based panel
investigating the use of a Mariner-class fully stabilized spacecraft
similar to Voyager to carry out a satellite-oriented orbiter mission. In
1976 these concepts were combined in a study, again chaired by Dr. Van
Allen, of a Voyager-type orbiter with probe-carrying capability. This
mission concept was given the name JOP, for Jupiter Orbiter Probe, and
lead responsibility was assigned by NASA to JPL, with Ames carrying out
the design of the probe.
In 1977, as Voyager activity was building toward autumn launch, a
struggle was underway in Washington to obtain approval for the new
Jupiter orbiter and probe mission. Budgeting authority was requested in
the President’s Fiscal Year 1978 budget, but only after extensive
testimony and several Congressional votes was the mission approved. The
official new start for JOP, soon to be renamed Galileo, was set for July
1, 1977, and the scientific investigators and their instruments were
selected in August.
At JPL, many members of the Voyager Team made a smooth transition to the
Galileo Project. Much of the knowledge that had gone into the design of
the Voyager spacecraft and its subsystems was now incorporated into
Galileo. Similarly, at Ames the knowledge gained from the design of the
Pioneer Venus probes, which were launched to Venus in 1978, a year after
Voyager launch, was applied to design of a Jupiter probe. Among the
individuals who brought their Voyager experience to Galileo were John
Casani, who left the position of Voyager Project Manager to become
Galileo Project Manager, and Torrence Johnson of the Voyager Imaging
Team, who became Galileo Project Scientist.
The Scientific Capability of Galileo
The investigations of Jupiter and its system planned for the Galileo
Project represented substantial advances over those carried out by
Voyager. In part, this was the result of new spacecraft capabilities,
particularly the atmospheric entry probe. It also represented increasing
sophistication in scientific instrumentation over the seven-year
interval between the selection of the payloads for the two missions.
The main emphasis in the study of Jupiter itself is on direct
measurements with the Probe. For the first time it will be possible to
examine directly the atmosphere of a giant planet. By measuring the
temperature and pressure as it descends through the clouds, the Probe
can determine the structure of the atmosphere with much higher precision
than could ever be obtained from remote observations. The structure, in
turn, provides information on dynamics—the circulation and heat balance
of the Jovian atmosphere. In addition, the Probe can make direct
measurements of the composition of the gases, with sensitivity in some
cases to quantities as low as a few parts per billion. In addition to
the elemental abundance, the amount of different isotopes can also be
measured.
Direct studies of the clouds of Jupiter can be made from the Galileo
Probe. With a device called a nephelometer (literally, cloud-meter), the
sizes and compositions of individual aerosol particles will be
determined. An infrared instrument will determine the temperatures of
the cloud layers and measure the amounts of sunlight deposited in
different regions of the atmosphere. Another instrument will search for
lightning; it has the ability to detect both the flash of light and the
radio static generated by each bolt.
Additional studies of the atmosphere, similar to those of Voyager, can
be carried out from the Galileo Orbiter. Television pictures,
ultraviolet and infrared spectra, and measurements of the polarization
of reflected light will all be obtained with the same scan platform
instruments that are used to study the surfaces of the satellites.
A full battery of fields and particles instruments is planned for the
Galileo Orbiter. Many of these are direct descendants of Voyager
instruments. In general, their capabilities have been improved,
particularly their ability to determine the composition of charged
particles. There is a steady progression from Pioneer to Voyager to
Galileo: The early measurements were concentrated on particle energies,
but more sophisticated instruments yield the composition of the ions and
the details of their motion.
Many of the advances expected from Galileo in magnetospheric studies
result from the Orbiter’s ability to explore many parts of the
environment of Jupiter. The Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft made single
cuts through the magnetosphere, and often it was difficult to
distinguish temporal from spatial effects. Galileo will repeatedly swing
around Jupiter, sampling conditions at many distances from the planet
over a time span of two years or more. In addition, it is planned to
adjust the orbit of Galileo to swing out into the magnetotail, the
turbulent region of the magnetosphere that stretches “downwind” from
Jupiter for hundreds of Jupiter radii. No flybys can reach the
magnetotail; an orbiting spacecraft is required.
The Galilean satellites naturally will be a primary focus of Galileo
science, particularly after Voyager. It is planned to have as many as a
dozen individual encounters, most of them at much closer range than the
Voyager flybys. To take advantage of these opportunities, the Galileo
scan platform will carry two new remote sensing systems.
[Illustration: The Orbiter section of the Galileo spacecraft will
carry both remote sensing and direct measuring instruments for the
study of Jupiter, its satellites, and its magnetosphere. Several
remote sensing instruments—an imagery system, a near infrared
mapping spectrometer, an ultraviolet spectrometer, and a
photopolarimeter/radiometer—will be mounted on a scan platform. The
particles and fields instruments will be on a spinning section of
the spacecraft. The Orbiter is expected to operate for at least two
years around Jupiter, providing one close flyby of Io and several
each of Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. [P-20772]]
Instead of the vidicon television camera on Voyager, Galileo imaging
will be done with a new solid-state detector called a charged coupled
device (CCD). The CCD has a wider spectral response and greater
photometric accuracy. In addition, its increased sensitivity permits
shorter exposures, so that even on very close flybys the pictures will
not be blurred by spacecraft motion. Substantial coverage at a
resolution of 100 meters should be possible, compared to Voyager’s best
resolution of 1 kilometer for Io and 4 kilometers for Europa.
[Illustration: Galileo will be launched by the Space Shuttle, the
central element of the new NASA Space Transportation System.
Together with its upper stage launch rocket, Galileo will be placed
into Earth’s orbit in the large Shuttle bay, about 20 meters long
and 5 meters in diameter. After releasing Galileo, the Shuttle will
be piloted back to a landing at Cape Canaveral, to be used again for
many future flights. [5-78-23599]]
[Illustration: The Space Shuttle and the Inertial Upper Stage of
Galileo as they will appear in Earth orbit. The upper stage has been
released from the Shuttle bay and is being prepared for launch to
Jupiter.]
To determine the composition of satellite surface materials, Galileo
will also carry a near-infrared mapping spectrometer (NIMS). This
instrument will obtain measurements over the visible and infrared
spectra of areas as small as 10 kilometers across. With NIMS, it should
be possible to investigate the composition of individual features as
small as the volcanic calderas on Io or the ejecta blankets of
Ganymede’s craters.
Galileo Mission Design
The Galileo Orbiter and Probe are to be launched with NASA’s new Space
Shuttle and Inertial Upper Stage. To carry the maximum possible payload
to Jupiter, a close flyby of Mars is planned en route. The gravitational
field of Mars will give a boost to Galileo, just as that of Jupiter was
used by Voyager to swing on to Saturn.
The exact launch date and trajectory for Galileo have not yet been
specified, but if all goes well, the Orbiter spacecraft will approach
Jupiter from the dawn side of the planet sometime in the mid-1980s. It
will not be moving as fast as Voyager, since it must be placed into
orbit around Jupiter rather than flashing past on its way to the outer
solar system. On its initial trajectory, Galileo will probably come
within 5 R_J of Jupiter, slightly closer than Voyager 1. At this time it
will fire its rocket engines (supplied by the Federal Republic of
Germany in a cooperative program with NASA) to shed excess speed and let
itself be captured by Jupiter’s gravity. The first pass will also be the
time for a close flyby of Io.
[Illustration: The most critical period of the Galileo flight will
be the Probe entry at Jupiter. The Probe must strike the atmosphere
at precisely the correct angle and speed to be slowed down without
being destroyed. At a pressure level of about 0.1 bar the rapid
deceleration period ends and the heat shield is released. A
parachute is deployed to slow the descent further, and the Probe
then has a period of nearly an hour to study the atmosphere and
clouds of Jupiter. The Probe mission ends when its batteries run
down or when it is crushed by the pressure of the Jovian atmosphere
near the 20-bar level, whichever comes first. [SL78-545(3)]]
GALILEO PROBE SCIENCE INVESTIGATIONS
Probe Scientist: L. Collin, NASA Ames
Investigation Principal Investigator Primary Objectives
Atmospheric structure A. Seiff, NASA Ames Measure temperature,
density, pressure,
and molecular weight
to determine the
structure of
Jupiter’s atmosphere.
Neutral mass H. B. Neimann, NASA Measure the
spectrometer Goddard composition of the
gases in Jupiter’s
atmosphere and the
variations at
different levels in
the atmosphere.
Helium abundance U. von Zahn, Bonn U. Measure with high
interferometer (Germany) accuracy the ratio of
hydrogen to helium in
Jupiter’s atmosphere.
Nephelometer B. Ragent, NASA Ames Determine the sizes
of cloud particles
and the location of
cloud layers in
Jupiter’s atmosphere.
Net flux radiometer R. W. Boese, NASA Ames Measure energy being
radiated from Jupiter
and the Sun, at
different levels in
Jupiter’s atmosphere.
Lightning and radio L. J. Lanzerotti, Measure lightning
emission Bell Labs flashes in Jupiter’s
atmosphere, from the
light and radio
transmissions from
those flashes.
Energetic particles H. M. Fischer, U. Measure energetic
Kiel (Germany) electrons and protons
in the inner regions
of the Jovian
radiation belts and
determine their
spatial distributions.
Because of the intense radiation environment, the Galileo Orbiter will
not be able to spend much time in the inner magnetosphere, near the
orbit of Io. To do so would risk damage to the spacecraft electronics
and a premature end to the mission. Additional thruster firing during
the first orbit can be used to raise the periapse to 10 R_J or greater.
No more close passes by Io will be possible, but studies of this
satellite can be made on each subsequent orbit with imaging resolutions
of about 10 kilometers, sufficient to see details of the volcanic
eruptions and monitor volcano-associated changes in the surface.
At each subsequent orbit, Galileo will be programmed for a close flyby
of one of the other satellites. Several passes each of Callisto,
Ganymede, and Europa should be possible. The satellite tour does not
need to be fully planned in advance; by adjusting the spacecraft
trajectory with small bursts of the thruster motors, navigation
engineers can modify the orbit to permit adaptation to scientific needs.
As the Orbiter mission progresses, the spacecraft will also sample many
parts of the magnetosphere, including one long excursion, at least 150
R_J, into the magnetotail.
The total duration of the Orbiter mission is planned to be at least 20
months. Additions to the basic mission are possible if the spacecraft
remains healthy and fuel reserves are adequate. In contrast, the Galileo
Probe mission lasts only a few hours.
As the Probe approaches the atmosphere of Jupiter at the awesome speed
of 26 kilometers per second, it will be traversing a region of space
never before explored. An energetic particle detector will investigate
the innermost magnetosphere before the entry begins. Then, within a
period of just a few minutes, friction with the upper atmosphere must
dissipate the Probe energy until it is falling gently in the Jovian air.
Jupiter, being the largest planet, presents the most challenging
atmospheric entry mission ever undertaken by NASA. The design of the
Galileo Probe calls for a massive heat shield to protect the instruments
during the high-speed entry phase. After the Probe has slowed to
subsonic velocities, a parachute will be deployed, and the heat shield,
having done its job, will be dropped free.
GALILEO ORBITER SCIENCE INVESTIGATIONS
Project Scientist: T. V. Johnson, JPL
Investigation Principal Investigator Primary Objectives
Solid state imaging M. J. S. Belton, Kitt Provide images of
Peak Observatory Jupiter’s
(Team Leader) atmosphere and its
satellites; study
atmospheric
structure and
dynamics on
Jupiter;
investigate the
composition and
geology of the
satellite surfaces;
study the active
volcanic processes
on Io.
Ultraviolet spectrometer C. W. Hord, U. Study composition and
Colorado structure of the
upper atmospheres
of Jupiter and its
satellites.
Near-infrared mapping R. W. Carlson, JPL Provide spectral
spectrometer (NIMS) images and
reflected sunlight
spectra of
Jupiter’s
satellites,
indicating the
composition of
their surfaces;
measure reflected
sunlight and
thermal emission
from Jupiter’s
atmosphere to study
composition, cloud
structure, and
temperature
profiles; monitor
hot spots on Io.
Photopolarimeter/radiometer J. E. Hansen, NASA Measure temperature
Goddard profiles and energy
balance of
Jupiter’s
atmosphere; measure
Jupiter’s cloud
characteristics and
composition.
Magnetometer M. G. Kivelson, UC Measure magnetic
Los Angeles fields and the ways
they change near
Jupiter and its
satellites; measure
variations caused
by the satellites
interacting with
Jupiter’s field.
Plasma particles L. A. Frank, U. Iowa Provide information
on low-energy
particles and
clouds of ionized
gas in the
magnetosphere.
Energetic particles D. J. Williams, NOAA Measure composition,
Space Environment distribution, and
Lab energy spectra of
high-energy
particles trapped
in Jupiter’s
magnetosphere.
Plasma waves D. A. Gurnett, U. Iowa Investigate waves
generated inside
Jupiter’s
magnetosphere and
waves radiated by
possible lightning
discharges in the
atmosphere.
Dust detection E. Grün, Determine size,
Max-Planck-Institut speed, and charge
(Germany) of small particles
such as
micrometeorites
near Jupiter and
its satellites.
Celestial mechanics J. D. Anderson, JPL Use the tracking data
(Team Leader) to measure the
gravity fields of
Jupiter and its
satellites; search
for gravity waves
propagating through
interstellar space.
Radio propagation H. T. Howard, Use radio signals
Stanford U. (Team from the Orbiter
Leader) and Probe to study
the structure of
the atmospheres and
ionospheres of
Jupiter and its
satellites.
Interdisciplinary F. P. Fanale (JPL), P. J. Gierasch (Cornell
Scientists: U.), D. M. Hunten (U. Arizona), H.
Masursky (U.S. Geological Survey), M. B.
McElroy (Harvard U.), D. Morrison (U.
Hawaii), G. S. Orton (JPL), T. Owen (SU
New York), J. B. Pollack (NASA Ames), C.
T. Russell (UC Los Angeles), C. Sagan
(Cornell U.), F. L. Scarf (TRW), G.
Schubert (UC Los Angeles), C. P. Sonett
(U. Arizona), J. A. Van Allen (U. Iowa).
The Probe will spend nearly an hour descending from a pressure level of
about 0.1 bar, where the heat shield is jettisoned, to a depth of 10-20
bars. During this time it will make most of its scientific measurements,
relaying them back to Earth via the Probe carrier. Designers expect the
Probe to sink through regions of ammonia clouds, ammonium hydrosulfide
clouds, and ice and water clouds during this hour.
By the time it has descended below the water clouds, the increasing
pressure will exceed the strength of some Probe components. Engineers
expect the Probe to have completed its mission, exhausted its battery
power, and been crushed by the atmospheric pressure before the 20-bar
level is reached. Lifeless, it will then sink on into the thick, hot
lower atmosphere of Jupiter.
[Illustration: During its two years in orbit, the Galileo Orbiter
will carry out many investigations of the planet, the Galilean
satellites, and the Jovian magnetosphere. Repeated close flybys of
the satellites are used to modify and shape the orbit to provide
additional flybys at an optimum viewing geometry. Initially, the
orbit is a long loop that extends in the general direction of the
sunset side of Jupiter. The orbit is then contracted, and the
encounters with the satellites rotate it behind the planet for a
long excursion into the magnetotail late in the tour.]
Beyond Galileo
After Galileo, the future cannot be predicted. Perhaps there will no
longer be a program of planetary exploration. But if humanity still has
the vision to seek a future in the stars, there will surely be other
Jupiter missions.
Perhaps the next mission will concentrate on Jupiter itself. Probes
could be built to withstand pressures as high as several hundred bars,
feeling their way deep into the murky depths of the planet. Or a hot-air
balloon could be deployed from a probe to carry instruments for
long-term studies of the atmosphere. A number of proposals have also
been made for additional satellite missions, including orbiters or
landers for Ganymede and Callisto. Or perhaps it will be desirable to
land a vehicle on one of the satellites and collect a sample and return
it to Earth for laboratory analysis.
Whatever the future holds, it is clear that the Pioneer and Voyager
missions blazed the path to Jupiter and beyond. The little Pioneers
proved that it could be done, and the Voyagers expanded their vision,
exploring and discovering new worlds more remarkable and exciting than
anyone could have imagined.
APPENDIX A
PICTORIAL MAPS OF THE GALILEAN SATELLITES
These maps were prepared for the Voyager Imaging Team by the U.S.
Geological Survey in cooperation with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
California Institute of Technology and the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration. Copies are available from Branch of Distribution,
U.S. Geological Survey, 1200 South Eads Street, Arlington, VA 22202, and
Branch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey, Box 25286, Federal
Center, Denver, CO 80225.
Preliminary Pictorial Map of Callisto
Atlas of Callisto
1:25,000,000 Topographic Series
Jc 25M 2RMN, 1979
I-1239
This map was compiled from Voyager 1 and 2 pictures of Callisto.
Placement of features is based on predicted spacecraft trajectory data
and is highly approximate. The linkage between Voyager 1 and Voyager 2
pictures is particularly tenuous. Placement errors as large as 10° are
probably common throughout the map, and a few may be even larger.
Feature names were approved by the International Astronomical Union in
1979. Airbrush representation is by P. M. Bridges.
Jc 25M 2RMN: Abbreviation for (Jupiter) Callisto, 1:25,000,000 series,
second edition, shaded relief map, R, with surface markings, M,
and feature names, N.
[Illustration: North polar region; South polar region]
Scale 1:13 980 000 at 56° latitude
Polar stereographic projection
[Illustration: Callisto]
Scale 1:25 000 000 at 0° latitude
Mercator projection
Preliminary Pictorial Map of Ganymede
Atlas of Ganymede
1:25,000,000 Topographic Series
Jg 25M 2RMN, 1979
I-1242
This map was compiled from Voyager 1 and 2 pictures of Ganymede.
Placement of features is based on predicted spacecraft trajectory data
and is highly approximate. The linkage between Voyager 1 and Voyager 2
pictures is particularly tenuous. Placement errors as large as 10° are
probably common throughout the map, and a few may be even larger. A
large unresolved discrepancy exists in the area bounded by the -45° and
-55° parallels between 120° and 180° longitude. Relative placement of
features is distorted in that area. Feature names were approved by the
International Astronomical Union in 1979. Airbrush representation is by
J. L. Inge.
Jg 25M 2RMN: Abbreviation for (Jupiter) Ganymede, 1:25,000,000 series,
second edition, shaded relief map, R, with surface markings, M,
and feature names, N.
[Illustration: North polar region; South polar region]
Scale 1:13 980 000 at 56° latitude
Polar stereographic projection
[Illustration: Ganymede]
Scale 1:25 000 000 at 0° latitude
Mercator projection
Preliminary Pictorial Map of Europa
Atlas of Europa
1:25,000,000 Topographic Series
Je 25M 2RMN, 1979
I-1241
This map was compiled from Voyager 1 and 2 pictures of Europa. Placement
of features is based on predicted spacecraft trajectory data and is
highly approximate. Feature names were approved by the International
Astronomical Union in 1979. Airbrush representation is by J. L. Inge.
Je 25M 2RMN: Abbreviation for (Jupiter) Europa, 1:25,000,000 series,
second edition, shaded relief map, R, with surface markings, M,
and feature names, N.
[Illustration: North polar region; South polar region]
Scale 1:13 980 000 at 56° latitude
Polar stereographic projection
[Illustration: Europa]
Scale 1:25 000 000 at 0° latitude
Mercator projection
Preliminary Pictorial Map of Io
Atlas of Io
1:25,000,000 Topographic Series
Ji 25M 2RMN, 1979
I-1240
This map was compiled from Voyager 1 and 2 pictures of Io. Placement of
features is based on preliminary control information provided by M. E.
Davies of the Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, California, and is
probably accurate within 50 to 100 km. Feature names were approved by
the International Astronomical Union in 1979. Airbrush representation is
by P. M. Bridges.
Ji 25M 2RMN: Abbreviation for (Jupiter) Io, 1:25,000,000 series, second
edition, shaded relief map, R, with surface markings, M, and
feature names, N.
[Illustration: North polar region; South polar region]
Scale 1:13 980 000 at 56° latitude
Polar stereographic projection
[Illustration: Io]
Scale 1:25 000 000 at 0° latitude
Mercator projection
APPENDIX B
VOYAGER SCIENCE TEAMS
Imaging Science
Bradford A. Smith, University of Arizona, Team Leader
Geoffrey A. Briggs, NASA Headquarters
A. F. Cook, Smithsonian Institution
G. E. Danielson, Jr., California Institute of Technology
Merton Davies, Rand Corp.
G. E. Hunt, University College, London
Tobias Owen, State University of New York
Carl Sagan, Cornell University
Lawrence Soderblom, U.S. Geological Survey
V. E. Suomi, University of Wisconsin
Harold Masursky, U.S. Geological Survey
Radio Science
Von R. Eshleman, Stanford University, Team Leader
J. D. Anderson, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
T. A. Croft, Stanford Research Institute
Gunnar Lindal, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
G. S. Levy, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
G. L. Tyler, Stanford University
G. E. Wood, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Plasma Wave
Frederick L. Scarf, TRW Systems, Principal Investigator
D. A. Gurnett, University of Iowa
Infrared Spectroscopy and Radiometry
Rudolph A. Hanel, Goddard Space Flight Center, Principal Investigator
B. J. Conrath, Goddard Space Flight Center
P. Gierasch, Cornell University
V. Kunde, Goddard Space Flight Center
P. D. Lowman, Goddard Space Flight Center
W. Maguire, Goddard Space Flight Center
J. Pearl, Goddard Space Flight Center
J. Pirraglia, Goddard Space Flight Center
R. Samuelson, Goddard Space Flight Center
Cyril Ponnamperuma, University of Maryland
D. Gautier, Meudon, France
S. Kuman, University of Southern California
Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
A. Lyle Broadfoot, Kitt Peak National Observatory, Principal
Investigator
J. L. Bertaux, Service d’Aeronomie du CNRS, France
J. Blamont, Service d’Aeronomie du CNRS, France
T. M. Donahue, University of Michigan
R. M. Goody, Harvard University
A. Dalgarno, Harvard College Observatory
Michael B. McElroy, Harvard University
J. C. McConnell, York University, Canada
H. W. Moos, Johns Hopkins University
M. J. S. Belton, Kitt Peak National Observatory
D. F. Strobel, Naval Research Laboratory
Sushil Atreya, University of Michigan
William R. Sandel, University of Southern California
Donald Shemanski, University of Southern California
Photopolarimetry
Charles W. Hord, University of Colorado, Acting Principal Investigator
D. L. Coffeen, Goddard Institute for Space Studies
J. E. Hansen, Goddard Institute for Space Studies
K. Pang, Science Applications Inc.
Planetary Radio Astronomy
James W. Warwick, University of Colorado, Principal Investigator
Anthony Riddle, Radiophysics, Inc.
Jeffrey Pearce, Radiophysics, Inc.
J. K. Alexander, Goddard Space Flight Center
A. Boischot, Observatoire de Paris, France
W. E. Brown, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
T. D. Carr, University of Florida
Samuel Gulkis, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
F. T. Haddock, University of Michigan
C. C. Harvey, Observatoire de Paris, France
Y. LeBlanc, Observatoire de Paris, France
R. G. Peltzer, University of Colorado
R. J. Phillips, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
D. H. Staelin, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Magnetic Fields
Norman F. Ness, Goddard Space Flight Center, Principal Investigator
Mario H. Acuna, Goddard Space Flight Center
K. W. Behannon, Goddard Space Flight Center
L. F. Burlaga, Goddard Space Flight Center
R. P. Lepping, Goddard Space Flight Center
F. M. Neubauer, Technische Universitat, F.R.G.
Plasma Science
Herbert S. Bridge, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Principal
Investigator
J. W. Belcher, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
J. H. Binsack, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
A. J. Lazarus, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
S. Olbert, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
V. M. Vasyliunas, Max Planck Institute, F.R.G.
L. F. Burlaga, Goddard Space Flight Center
R. E. Hartle, Goddard Space Flight Center
K. W. Ogilvie, Goddard Space Flight Center
G. L. Siscoe, University of California, Los Angeles
A. J. Hundhausen, High Altitude Observatory
Low-Energy Charged Particles
S. M. Krimigis, Johns Hopkins University, Principal Investigator
T. P. Armstrong, University of Kansas
W. I. Axford, Max Planck Institute, F.R.G.
C. O. Bostrom, Johns Hopkins University
C. Y. Fan, University of Arizona
G. Gloeckler, University of Maryland
L. J. Lanzerotti, Bell Telephone Laboratories
Cosmic Ray
R. E. Vogt, California Institute of Technology, Principal Investigator
J. R. Jokipii, University of Arizona
E. C. Stone, California Institute of Technology
F. B. McDonald, Goddard Space Flight Center
B. J. Teegarden, Goddard Space Flight Center
James H. Trainor, Goddard Space Flight Center
W. R. Webber, University of New Hampshire
APPENDIX C
VOYAGER MANAGEMENT TEAM
NASA Office of Space Science
Thomas A. Mutch, Associate Administrator for Space Science
Andrew J. Stofan, Deputy Associate Administrator
Adrienne F. Timothy, Assistant Associate Administrator
Angelo Guastaferro, Director, Planetary Division
Rodney A. Mills, Program Manager
Milton A. Mitz, Program Scientist
Walter Jakobowski, Viking and Flight Support Manager
NASA Office of Space Tracking and Data Systems
William Schneider, Associate Administrator of Space Tracking and Data
Systems Acquisition
Charles A. Taylor, Director, Network Operations and Communication
Programs
Frederick B. Bryant, Director, Network System Development Programs
Maurice E. Binkley, Director, DSN Systems
NASA Office of Space Transportation Systems
John F. Yardley, Associate Administrator for Space Transportation
Systems
Joseph B. Mahon, Director, Expendable Launch Vehicles
Joseph E. McGolrick, Chief, Small and Medium Launch Vehicles
B. C. Lam, Titan III Manager
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California
Bruce C. Murray, Laboratory Director
Gen. Charles H. Terhune, Jr., Deputy Laboratory Director
Robert J. Parks, Assistant Laboratory Director for Flight Projects
Raymond L. Heacock, Project Manager
Esker K. Davis, Deputy Project Manager
Peter T. Lyman, Deputy Project Manager
Richard P. Laeser, Mission Director
George P. Textor, Deputy Mission Director
Charles E. Kohlhase, Mission Planning Office Manager
James E. Long, Science Directorate Manager
Charles H. Stembridge, Deputy
Arthur L. Lane, Assistant Project Scientist for Jupiter
Francis M. Sturms, Sequence Design and Integration Directorate Manager
Robert K. Wilson, Deputy
Michael J. Sander, Development, Integration and Test Directorate
Manager
Robert G. Polansky, Deputy
Michael W. Devirian, Space Flight Operations Directorate Manager
Raymond J. Amorose, Deputy
Marvin R. Traxler, Tracking and Data System Manager
Kurt Heftman, Mission Control and Computing Center Manager
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
Edward C. Stone, Project Scientist
ADDITIONAL READING
TECHNICAL
_Jupiter_, T. Gehrels, Ed., U. of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1254 pages
(1976).
_Space Science Reviews_, special Voyager instrumentation issues, _Vol.
21_, No. 2, pgs. 75-232 (November 1977); _Vol. 21_, No. 3, pgs. 234-376
(December 1977).
“Melting of Io by Tidal Dissipation,” by S. J. Peale, P. Cassen, and R.
T. Reynolds, _Science, Vol. 203_, pgs. 892-894 (2 March 1979).
_Science_, special Voyager 1 issue, _Vol. 204_, pgs. 945-1008 (1 June
1979).
_Nature_, special Voyager 1 issue, _Vol. 280_, pgs. 725-806 (30 August
1979).
“Jupiter’s Ring,” by T. Owen et al., _Nature, Vol. 781_, pgs. 442-446
(11 October 1979).
_Science_, special Voyager 2 issue, _Vol. 206_, pgs. 925-996 (23
November 1979).
_Geophysical Research Letters_, special Voyager issue, _Vol. 7_, pgs.
1-68 (January 1980).
NONTECHNICAL
“The Solar System,” special issue of _Scientific American, Vol. 223_,
No. 3 (September 1975).
“The Galilean Satellites of Jupiter,” by D. P. Cruikshank and D.
Morrison, _Scientific American, Vol. 234_, No. 5, pgs. 108-116 (May
1976).
_Pioneer Odyssey_, by R. O. Fimmel, W. Swindell, and E. Burgess, NASA
SP-396, 217 pages (1977).
_Murmurs of the Earth: The Voyager Interstellar Record_, by Carl Sagan
et al., Random House, New York, 1978.
“Jupiter and Family,” by J. Eberhart, _Science News, Vol. 115_, pgs.
164-173 (17 March 1979).
“The Far-Out Worlds of Voyager,” by J. K. Beatty, _Sky and Telescope,
Vol. 57_, pgs. 423-427 (May 1979) and pgs. 516-520 (June 1979).
“Return to Jupiter and Co.,” by J. Eberhart, _Science News, Vol. 116_,
pgs. 19-21 (14 July 1979).
“Voyage to the Giant Planet,” by C. Sutton, _New Scientist, Vol. 83_,
pgs. 217-220 (19 July 1979).
“Voyager Views Jupiter’s Dazzling Realm,” by R. Gore, _National
Geographic, Vol. 157_, No. 1, pgs. 2-29 (January 1980).
“The Galilean Moons of Jupiter,” by L. A. Soderblom, _Scientific
American, Vol. 242_, No. 1, pgs. 88-100 (January 1980).
“The Great Red Spot,” by D. Schwartzenburg, _Astronomy, Vol. 8_, pgs.
6-13 (July 1980).
“Four New Worlds,” by D. Morrison, _Astronomy, Vol. 8_ (September 1980).
[Illustration: National Aeronautics and Space Administration]
Transcriber’s Notes
—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
is public-domain in the country of publication.
—Silently corrected a few palpable typos.
—Moved captions nearer the relevant images; tweaked image references
within captions accordingly.
—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
_underscores_.
End of Project Gutenberg's Voyage to Jupiter, by David Morrison and Jane Samz