PRODUCTIVE POWER OF THE THREE OASIS COUNTRIES OF TURKESTAN.
In arguing about the Russian conquest of Central Asia, we are wont
to say that the Court of St. Petersburg, in those far-reaching
schemes which she pursues towards the Hindu-Khush with so much toil,
at so heavy a cost, seeks some richer recompense than is to be found
on the shores of the Yaxartes and the Oxus. Well; it is true that
Russia's policy does not confine itself to the possession of the
plains of Bokhara, Khokand, and Khiva. But in the meantime let us
not undervalue the immediate gain of these conquests. It is right
that we should learn the comparative worth of the three Khanats,
the nature and extent of their produce, both as it is, and as with
proper management it might become.
The very name of "oasis countries" contributes towards creating an
impression, that the inhabited part of Turkestan must be unimportant
as regards productive power; add to this the poverty and the
extremely primitive and simple mode of life of its inhabitants, and
it is not surprising that the great distance and the consequent
want of knowledge should have begotten and spread erroneous
notions. The natives themselves, as well as oriental travellers and
geographers, such as Idrisi, Ibni Haukal, Ebulfeda, and the learned
Prince Baber, fall into the opposite extreme, by representing
Turkestan as the richest country on the face of the globe, India
alone excepted. This opinion prevailed in former times,[21] not
only throughout Western Asia, but even very lately I have met with
it in several localities, and never felt more astonished than when
I heard the egotistic Persian eloquently praising the wealth of
Turkestan, a country he looks upon with deadly hatred and aversion.
As for ourselves, we will try to form as far as possible an
impartial estimate, although we must maintain at the outset, that
Turkestan by far surpasses the known parts of European and Asiatic
Turkey, Afghanistan and Persia, both in the wealth and variety of
its productions; nay, that it might be difficult to find in Europe,
flourishing as it is, and rich in every blessing, a territory that
would rival the oasis countries of Turkestan.
[21] The plain of Sogdiana or the Zerefsha--valley between Bokhara
and Samarkand--is spoken of as an earthly paradise, and Hafiz calls
the towns of Bokhara and Samarkand the greatest treasure, and yet
surpassed by his beloved.
The great variety of productions is to be ascribed essentially to
the climate of the countries bordering the Oxus and Yaxartes. It is
neither harsh, nor could it exactly be termed mild. On the average
it corresponds to the climate of Central Europe, though it must
be remarked, that the winter is far more severe on the shores of
the Sea of Aral and in the mountainous parts of Khokand, and the
summer, on the contrary, much warmer in those districts that lie to
the south, and often almost tropical in the immediate neighbourhood
of the great sandy deserts. The Oxus is frozen over every winter,
from Kerki and Tchardshuy to its mouth; in Kungrad, Khodja Ili,
and on the right bank, where the Karakalpaks dwell, the winter is
generally very severe; the snow lies often for weeks on the ground,
and tempestuous north winds (Ayamudjiz) are not unfrequent. Under
such conditions there can be no question of a mild climate, and yet
in Khiva I have found the heat unbearable as early as the beginning
of June, while in August, near Kerki and Belkh, it was more sultry
and oppressive, even in the shade, than is the case in really
tropical countries. This great variation in the climate produces
corresponding local differences in the vegetation of even a small
extent of country. Thus, for instance, the cotton of Yengi Üergendj
is far better than that in the more northern districts, and the
silk of Hezaresp is considered throughout the Khanat of Khiva to
be of first-rate quality. Görlen produces the finest rice, and the
finest fruit is found in the environs of Khiva, which lies farther
south. In Bokhara and in Khokand we see the same effects produced
by the climate, and hence the reason why each of the three Khanats
contains, on a comparatively small area, such various and manifold
productions, as are usually met with only in larger countries, which
lie between several zones.[22]
[22] The difference in the harvest time in Turkestan best
illustrates the above remark. In Belkh, for instance, and in the
neighbourhood of Andkhuj, the harvest is at the beginning of June;
in Hezaresp, Khiva, and Karaköl, towards the end of June; in the
oasis-countries, in July; in Kungrat, and in the north of Khokand,
not before the beginning of August.
The extraordinary productiveness of the soil is to be ascribed
partly to the "blessed" rivers, so-called by the natives, which
intersect the oasis-countries, and partly to the quality of the
soil. Of these rivers the Oxus is the most important. From its
fertilizing influence upon the land it may be compared to the Nile;
although, when used as drinking-water, the latter still surpasses it
in its pleasantness to the taste. Next comes the Zerefshan, whose
name, "Scatterer of Gold," sufficiently indicates the blessing it
scatters over its shores. Nor are the smaller rivers, such as the
Shehr Sebz and the tributaries of the Yaxartes, of less importance.
When we finally add, that the irrigation of the fields is carried
on with as much care, and much more ease, than in other parts of
Western Asia, we shall cease to marvel any longer at the rich
resources of the soil, however grand and important they may still
appear.
I have already noticed in my "Travels in Central Asia" that the
irrigation is carried on--firstly, by natural canals, called _arna_,
which are formed by the irregular course of the Oxus; secondly, by
_yaps_, _i.e._, smaller artificial canals, by which every village
and colony is surrounded and intersected. In all places of any
importance there is a high official, called Mirab (prince or warden
of the water), who inspects the various aqueducts, and orders them
every spring to be freed from the accumulated sand. During the
winter the sluice-gates of all the principal "arnas" are closed as
a protection against the inundations which naturally follow the
breaking up of the ice. The cleaning of the canals takes place at
the beginning of April, and the great object in view is to make
them constantly deeper and narrower. The sand that is taken out is
heaped up on both sides of the bank, which have thus for miles the
appearance of intrenchments, and with their cooling shade protect
the precious water from the burning rays of the summer's sun. To the
general purposes of communication, however, these intrenched ditches
are very prejudicial, although of real advantage to agriculture.
Hence, the more expensive kahriz--subterranean canals--in Persia,
are far more advantageous, and, moreover, preserve the water purer
and cooler. The yaps and arnas in Central Asia form great obstacles
to the traveller. Bridges are either very bad or altogether wanting.
Let the reader imagine the trouble and the dreadful loss of time
incurred, when a caravan with its heavily-laden camels has to cross
from ten to fifteen of such embanked canals in one day's march. How
prejudicial it is to the rivers to have so much water drawn off,
we see clearly in the Oxus. Formerly it flowed, no doubt, into the
Caspian Sea, now its embouchure is in the Sea of Aral,[23] and this
great change in its watercourse must be ascribed, if not wholly, yet
in a great degree, to the evil of the many small canals.
[23] Burnes (Travels in Bokhara, ch. ii. p. 188) doubts altogether
whether the Oxus had formerly a different watercourse, and, amongst
other reasons, supports his view by the opinion of the natives. No
one will feel surprised that I heard them assert the very contrary.
Among the Turkomans there exist numerous contradictory legends in
connection with the former watercourse of the Oxus.
It is difficult to decide which of the three Khanats is the most
fertile, especially now, when since the death of the much-lamented
Conolly, nobody is able to furnish a succinct account of the nature
and resources of the soil. To judge from all I have seen in my
journey to Samarkand, and learned from my fellow-travellers, of
Khokand, the native home of most of them, I should feel inclined to
give the preference to the Khanat of Khiva in point of vegetation.
The two other Khanats have more land under cultivation, but
Khiva surpasses them by far in the quantity and quality of its
productions, with the exception, perhaps, of fruit, which Bokhara
furnishes in greater variety, and of finer flavour. Bokhara also
deserves the prize with respect to all mineral productions; but the
breeding of the finest cattle and horses is the exclusive property
of the nomads.
The land is measured by _tanab_ (cord,--a tanab is equal to sixty
square yards), and in Khiva and Khokand consists of (1) _Mülk_,
freehold property, which is subject to the payment of taxes; (2)
_Khanlik_, arrear estates, _i.e._, such land which the Government
has either reclaimed and brought under cultivation, or which has
devolved upon it by confiscation and conquest. Of this land a third
of the net income is claimed by the State. (3) _Yarimdji_,[24]
all land that belongs to the medresse (schools), mosques, or any
religious institutions, and which is liable to a fourth of the net
income. The Khanlik estates in each district are under the control
of a certain number of officials, called _Müshürüb_, who at the same
time collect the taxes. Church property, on the contrary, is under
the management of the mutevalis, as in other Islamitic countries.
[24] These were formerly let on the system of half-profit, as
indicated by the name.
The quality of the land in general may be judged best by my stating,
that the richest soil under cultivation produces one hundred batman
(one batman is equal to twenty-four pounds) on a tanab, and that of
least productive quality never less than sixty batman. And taking
into consideration that the cultivation of the ground here, as
everywhere in Asia, is done in the most negligent manner, and is in
the highest degree primitive, a competent judge can easily form an
idea of the great fertility of the soil.
It is impossible for me to say how many square miles of cultivated
land, or of land capable of cultivation, the three Khanats possess.
The frequent wars and unsettled times sufficiently explain the
numerous ruins of former flourishing colonies. Of the Khanat of
Khiva thus much at all events may be assumed, that the area of
territories laid waste and turned into deserts is larger than the
land at present under cultivation. With the exception of a few
single productions, with which the three Khanats carry on an export
trade among each other, and with Russia, only so much of the rest is
grown as is required for home consumption. There is no doubt that
not only might the quality of all present productions be essentially
improved, but also considerably multiplied.
A short survey of the productions of the three Khanats will help to
explain and confirm in detail all I have hitherto stated.
1. THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
Wheat and barley are the most important among the cereals grown in
the oasis countries of Turkestan. There are four kinds of wheat:--
1. _Bukhara budayi_ (Bokhara wheat) is considered the finest; it has
a long, thin, and reddish grain, with a greenish top. Of this sort
the delicious bread is baked, in the preparation of which the town
of Bokhara excels, and which is famed far and wide under the name of
_shirmaye_ (milk-marrow).
2. _Tokmak bash_ (cuneiform top) has a round, thick grain; it is
very substantial, and most like our wheat. The best quality is found
in Khiva.
3. _Kara süllü_ (black-haired) has a thin and dark-brown grain; it
is chiefly used as food for horses, not being of a particularly good
quality.
4. Yazlik (summer-fruit) takes a very short time to grow; it is
exceedingly light, and, when used, is mixed with other kinds of
wheat.
Barley is not so good in Central Asia as in Persia or Turkey. There
is, besides the usual sort, an inferior one, called _karakalpak_ in
Khiva, which is here used, as everywhere in the East, as food for
horses. The average prices of all cereals are exceedingly low, as
compared with the countries of western Asia. The price of a Khiva
batman of the best wheat varies from two to three tenge (one tenge,
seventy-five cent.), whilst barley costs often less than one tenge,
and seldom more.
Rice is grown in enormous quantities, but it is far inferior to the
Herat or the excellent Shiraz rice, called tchampa and amberbuy
(amber perfume) in quality. It is more like the Egyptian, called in
Turkey dimyati (damietter), but would no doubt surpass the latter,
if cultivated with more care and attention.
_Djügeri_ (holcus sorghum) is grown and consumed in far larger
quantities in the three Khanats than anywhere else in Asia. It
is eaten in a milky state, but when dry it is used as fodder,
principally for young colts, being less heating, and also more
nourishing, than barley, from the quantity of saccharine matter it
contains. Bread is made of it, either alone or mixed with wheat.
_Mekke djügeri_ (Turkish wheat) never grows higher than a small
span's length. Two kinds of it are found, one with a yellowish, the
other with a red, small grain. It is never dried, and always either
eaten in its milky state or used as fodder.
_Tari_ (groats) is an important article of consumption in Central
Asia, and is therefore much grown. There are several sorts.
Besides the well-known kinds of pulse, such as peas (burtshak),
beans (lubie), lentils (jasmuk), &c., there are several others which
we do not know; as for instance, the _konak_, which has smaller but
thicker seeds, and a lower shrub than our lentil; _mash_, rather
larger than millet, of a brownish colour, and several others, which
are of no interest to the general reader.
Of oil-plants, I must mention first of all the _kündshi_ sesame,
which thrives very well, and provides the Khanats amply with oil
for cooking and burning. Then there is the _zigir_, a plant similar
to millet, which bears on one stalk several fruits, which are
like apples, and the yellow seeds in which are not bigger than
poppy-seeds. This oil is fit in food, especially in pastry. Then
the _djigit_, the seeds of the cotton-capsule, the oil of which,
however, is not fit for food. _Kender_ (hemp), of which an inferior
sort of linen is made, and which also furnishes the very popular
narcotic, called beng. Lastly, indau, a small shrub, from the
greenish seeds of which a bitter oil, and of a disagreeable smell,
is made, which is used as a medicine for animals, and especially for
camels.
Among the plants, which produce dye-drugs, the following are most
esteemed:--_ruyan_ or _boyak_, an excellent species of madder,
which thrives in all three Khanats, and is exported in considerable
quantities to Russia. In the year 1835 this article was very little
in request, and in the year 1860 as many as 24,523 Russian pud
(883,000 English pounds) were imported.[25] _Isbarak_ or _barak_,
whose small yellow flowers, when dried and powdered, give a fine
yellow colour. _Görtchük_, a plant resembling clover, with small
red flowers; the leaves, when boiled, give a fine black colour.
_Buzgundjh_, a plant with a fruit similar to gall-nuts, only grows
in southern Maymene, and in the Badkhiz mountains, north of Herat,
and is said to produce the finest red colour; it fetches a high
price in the place itself.
[25] Mitchell. "The Russians in Central Asia," p. 462.
Although not belonging to the same class of plants, I must mention
here the _terendjebin_, a resinous and very sweet substance,
which grows on a thorn, called khari shutur (camel's thorn). The
_terendjebin_ shows itself suddenly and quite unexpectedly towards
the end of the summer during the night, and has to be collected at
once in the early morning, before it grows hot. It resembles a gum,
is of a greyish white colour, exceedingly sweet, and can be eaten in
its raw state; in Central Asia it is made into shire (syrup), but
in Persia it is used in the sugar-manufactures of Meshed and Yezd.
As regards fruit, we find in the Khanats almost every species (with
the exception of fruits of the South) in great quantity, and of
excellent quality. A very considerable export trade is carried on
in it to Russia, and even to "rich" India. The Central Asiatic is
not a little proud of his superiority in this respect, in Asia the
glory and value of a country being determined by the quality of
its water, air, and fruit. Each of the three Khanats has in the
latter its spécialité; Khiva is distinguished for its melons and
apples, Bokhara for its grapes and peaches. It may be that some
parts of Persia and Turkey surpass Bokhara; but for melons, Khiva is
unrivalled, not only in Asia, but I feel inclined to say, throughout
the world. No European can form an idea of the sweet taste and
aromatic flavour of this delicious fruit. It melts in the mouth,
and, eaten with bread, is the most wholesome and refreshing food
that nature affords.
The celebrated Nasrabadi melon alone, near Ispahan, reminds one,
though very feebly, of this fruit of Central Asia, unique in its
kind. There is a great variety of species. The principal summer
melons are the following:--1. _Zamtche_, which ripens earliest; it
is round, of a yellowish colour, and has a thin skin. 2. _Görbek_,
of a greenish colour, and with a white meat. 3. _Babasheikhi_ is
small, round, and with a white meat. 4. _Köktche._ 5. Shirin
_Petchek_, especially mellow and sweet, of a small round shape.
6. _Shekerpare._ 7. _Khitayi._ 8. _Koknabat._ 9. _Aknabat._ 10.
_Begzade._[26] The winter melons are not ripe until the beginning
of October, but they keep the whole winter, and are most palatable
in February. There are the following kinds:--1. _Karagulebi._ 2.
_Kizilgulabi._ 3. _Beshek._ 4. _Payandeki._ 5. _Saksaul_ Kavunu.
These are mostly exported to Russia.
[26] I observe with pleasure, that of the seeds, which I brought
with me from Central Asia, several kinds have succeeded in Hungary.
These will undoubtedly be the best melons we have in Europe.
The Oxus chiefly contributes to render the melons of Central Asia so
incomparably excellent, since the finest quality thrives only on its
banks. The melons of Bokhara are very indifferent, and in quality
even inferior to those of Khokand.
Khanikoff mentions in his interesting work[27] ten different
kinds of grapes he found in Bokhara. In Khiva I met with the
following:--1. _Huseini_, with oblong seeds and a thin skin, very
sweet, and keeps throughout the winter. 2. _Meske_, with large
round seeds. 3. _Sultani._ 4. _Khalide_ are ripe first of any. 5.
_Shiborgani._ 6. _Taifi._ 7. _Khirmani._ 8. _Sayeke._ All these
different sorts of grapes grow on the level ground, and are either
made into shire (syrup) or dried for eating; wine being made only by
the Jews in Bokhara, and in a very small quantity.
[27] "Bokhara, its Emir and its People."
There are four sorts of apples grown, and that of Hezaresp may
boldly challenge the productions of our European horticulture.
The mulberry, too, is larger, more varied, and sweeter than ours,
and to this superiority we must, perhaps, ascribe the fact, that the
silk of Central Asia is better than the Italian and French, and that
a certain disease among silk-worms, common with us for many years,
is there quite unknown.
The rearing of silk-worms came originally from Chinese Tartary,
especially from Khoten, where, as M. Reinaud[28] correctly remarks,
it was introduced in the first century of our era from the interior
of China. Silk stuffs of native manufacture were known in Bokhara
in pre-Islamitic times, according to the testimony of a certain
Manuscript,[29] which treats of the ancient history of Bokhara.
It is no exaggeration to assert that the cultivation, spinning,
and dyeing of silk, is a still more primitive process in the
three Khanats than in China itself, where industrial progress, no
doubt, effected many changes, whilst here everything has remained
as it was years ago. The Khanat Bokhara supplies most of the raw
silk; it is produced in the capital, in Samarkand, and among the
Lebab-Turkomans. Much also comes from the Khanat of Khokand, in
the neighbourhood of Mergolan and Namengan. Khiva contributes but
little, and this little is inferior in quality to the productions
of the other Khanats, though, as competent judges have assured me,
it is far superior to the silk of Gilan and Mazendran, in Persia.
The manipulation, however, is very imperfectly performed. I was
struck with the manner of winding off the cocoons, which were placed
in a cauldron of boiling water and stirred with a broom, until a
certain number of threads unwind themselves, which are then wound
round the broom. The dyeing is almost exclusively in the hands of
the Jews, the weaving is done by the Tadjik and Mervi, who, in
accordance with the taste and fashion of the country, prepare only
stuffs of glaring colours.
[28] "Relations Politiques et Commerciales de l'Empire Romain avec
l'Asie Orientale," p. 197.
[29] Tarichi Narschachi.
In former times, especially during the Arabian occupation, the silk
stuffs of Central Asia were celebrated throughout the East; but when
the cleverest of the artisans were transferred by the conquerors to
Damascus and Bagdad, the old art gradually disappeared, and is now
gone for ever, in spite of the efforts of Timur to transplant it
back from Transoxania. How great is the quantity of silk produced
here, is shown by the circumstance, that the greater part of the
cotton stuffs, called _aladja_, that are generally worn, are
strongly intermixed with silk; that not only the rich, but every man
of middle rank, possesses one or more garments, several table-cloths
and pocket-handkerchiefs made of silk; and that a considerable
export trade in silk is carried on, not only with Persia, India, and
Afghanistan, but to a large extent with Russia.
The cotton in Central Asia promises to become an important article
for the future. It is cultivated in large quantities in the three
Khanats, furnishing the material for the upper and under garments of
every body, high and low, for their bed-clothes, and cloths of every
kind. The cotton in Turkestan is better than the Indian, Persian,
and Egyptian, and is said to equal the far-famed American cotton.
At present, however, Russia alone consumes this article in her
manufactures at Moskau, Wladimir, Tverskoy, &c., and in quantities
which increase annually in a surprising degree. The manufacturers
complain greatly of the clumsy management of the planters,
especially of the insufficient cleansing of the cotton from the
seeds, as well as of the dishonesty of the traders, who wet the
bales, or fill them with stones, to make them heavier. Nevertheless,
the cotton, which is imported from Khiva and Bokhara by Orenburg, is
almost indispensable to Russian industry.
In Central Asia the cultivation of cotton is comparatively easy
and convenient, the cotton fields requiring no irrigation, and the
rain being considered, if anything, prejudicial even in the spring.
A hard, stony ground, called _Soga_, is always chosen, and is
ploughed once; on the whole, the cultivation of cotton is the least
troublesome of all field occupations. According to the statistical
dates of the Orenburg custom-house the greatest quantity of cotton
is produced in the Khanat of Bokhara; this statement, however,
rests upon an error, since the caravans of Khiva, when crossing the
Jaxartes, frequently join the Bokhariots, or they give themselves
out for Bokhariots; these latter standing on a much better footing
with the Russians, whilst the people of Khiva are in very ill favour
with them. I know from my own experience, and have convinced myself
by frequent inquiries, that not only is the cultivation of cotton
far more flourishing in Khiva, but its quality is far superior to
that in the two sister Khanats. The pod, here called gavadje, is
smaller than that of Bokhara; but the cotton is much finer and
whiter even than the guzei sefid, that is, the first quality of
Bokhariot cotton industry. The Central Asiatics themselves give the
preference to the Khiva production, a fact which tends to confirm
our opinion. In dyeing and weaving Bokhara stands pre-eminent, but
the stuffs from Khiva are better paid in her capital than her own
manufactures. They are exported to Afghanistan, India, and Northern
Persia, and are a highly-prized article even among the nomads.
There is no doubt that the cotton of the oasis countries will
one day considerably increase in value. Several circumstances of
paramount and urgent necessity must combine to further this object.
Above all things, it is requisite that important improvements should
be introduced in the mode of cultivation; our European machines
should come in aid of the cleansing and packing, and the roads
should be rendered, as far as possible, secure. By these means the
cotton would not only be improved in quality, but, without any great
additional expense, the quantity might be considerably multiplied.
It is very probable that Central Asia may one day, although not
in the immediate future, be to Russia what New Carolina is to the
manufacturing towns of England at the present day.
The immense increase in the exportation of cotton from Central
Asia is shown very clearly in the Blue Books of 1862 and 1865, in
the list which Mr. Saville Lumley, former secretary to the English
embassy at St. Petersburg, has contributed. According to this
official statement the Khanats exported to the value of--
| BOKHARA. | KHIVA. | KHOKAND.
| Roubles. | Roubles. | Roubles.
-----------+-----------+-----------+---------
| | |
1840-1850 | 2,065,697 | 470,781 | 16,851
| | |
-----------+-----------+-----------+---------
1853 | 280,514 | 133,799 |
1854 | 509,600 | 248,347 | The
1855 | 513,023 | 185,683 | dates
1856 | 501,225 | 36,050 | are
1857 | 578,483 | 66,776 | wanting.
1858 | 634,643 | 59,729 |
1859 | 495,065 | 2,274 |
1860 | 721,899 | 22,429 | 4,907
| | |
-----------+-----------+-----------+---------
| | |
Total... | 4,234,412 | 755,087 | 4,907
| | |
-----------+-----------+-----------+---------
From this list we see, that the exports of 1840-1850 did increase
more than double during the next ten years, and under favourable
political circumstances would, no doubt, continue to increase.
We must add the remark, that although Bokhara shows in this list
throughout the largest figures, it does not by any means follow
that they are the result of its own exclusive production. Much
Khiva cotton has been included, as well as the cotton which the
Urgends traders carry to Orenburg on the Bokhara road. The Orenburg
custom-house furnishes the list, and all the cotton is entered under
the head of Bokhara. In like manner much Khokand cotton is mixed up
with it. The Khokand traders give themselves out for Bokhariots on
the frontier, on account of the frequent hostilities between their
tribe and the Russians.
2. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
We must mention first of all the domestic animals, and among these
the genus, sheep. Two species are usually distinguished: 1, the
_Kazak koy_ (the Kirghis sheep); and, 2, the _Œzbeg koy_ (the
Œzbeg sheep). The Kirghis sheep is preferred to the latter, for
its wool as well as its meat. Throughout Central Asia we meet with
the fat-tailed sheep. Of these it is said, that their masters are
obliged to fasten either cylinders or wheels under their broad,
thick tails, which they drag after them on the ground, in order to
render walking easier to them, or rather to enable them to walk at
all--a story which is by no means exaggerated, however incredible
it may appear. The so-called Bakkan koy, the fatted sheep, give
often from two to three batman of pure fat. The meat I found, in
point of taste and flavour, superior to any in all those parts of
Asia I am acquainted with. The highly celebrated Kivirdjik and
Karaman sheep in Turkey cannot be compared to them; and even the
south Persian sheep, of which the Persians are exceedingly proud,
are inferior to them.
The wool is not of the same excellence, and is used less for
clothing (probably for want of knowledge in the preparation of it)
than for carpets, travelling-bags, horse-cloths, and similar other
coarse stuffs; it is little seen in the export trade. Black, curly
lamb-skins, on the other hand, form an important article of trade.
Its chief source is Bokhara, especially Karaköl; from here it is
exported all over Asia, and even to Europe, where it is known under
the name of Astrachan. The skin is drawn off the young lamb two or
three days after its birth, and then softened in barley meal and
salt. It is said, that washing it in the water of the Zerefshan
gives it the beautiful lustre; and in the month of July thousands
of them may be seen spread out for drying along its banks, between
Bokhara and Behaeddin. The skins are everywhere admired, but mostly
in request in Persia, where they are made into the fashionable hats
of the country. If we take into account, that a külah (a hat, for
which three or four skins are used) costs there as much as from
ten to fifteen ducats, we may feel assured that our Astrachan
of a considerably lower price is no Bokhara production. With the
nomads of Central Asia the breeding of sheep is a chief means of
maintenance, and we can easily form an idea of the innumerable
flocks of sheep which graze and rove upon the steppes. The Kirghis
send great quantities of sheep to the Khanats and to Russia, where
the importation is constantly on the increase. In the year 1835
about 850,000, and in the year 1860 already 3,644,000 roubles' worth
of sheep were imported.[30] In addition to this enormous quantity of
sheep, raw sheep-skins to the value of 75,000, and wool to the value
of 86,000 silver roubles, passed the Russian frontier at Orenburg in
the same year.
[30] Compare "The Russians in Central Asia," p. 462.
The _goat_ is, after the sheep, one of the most important of
domestic animals. Goats' flesh is not so palatable as that of sheep,
but it is here better than anywhere else in Asia. The wool of the
goat, according to Burnes, is far inferior to that of the Cashmir
goat, but tolerably good; and waterproof stuffs are made of it.
_Horses_, of excellent breed, are found among the Turkomans, who
export the finest to Afghanistan, India and Persia. The Turkoman
horse, especially the Akhal and Yomut race,[31] is very little
inferior to the Arab horse in point of swiftness and endurance, as
well as in beauty of form. The Œzbeg horse, or the species met
with in Bokhara, Khiva, and Maymene, possesses more strength than
swiftness.
[31] Compare "Travels in Central Asia," p. 420.
The _camels_ of Central Asia, among which the breed of Bokhara and
the two-humped Kirghis are considered the best of their kind, are
surpassed in point of strength and swiftness only by the Arab, and
especially by the Hedshaz camel. The story that the camels can
preserve water pure and cool in their second stomach, and that
travellers, when suffering from thirst, drink it in their utmost
need, is perfectly unknown here; and on questioning the nomads on
the subject, they only laughed and seemed highly amused. These
animals are famous in Central Asia for their rare contentedness,
satisfied as they are with the very worst water, and most miserable
food, consisting of thistles and briars, and in spite of which
they hold on for days, loaded with the heaviest burdens. They are
at the same time entirely free from the spite and viciousness of
the Arabian camel. They are exported to Russia and Afghanistan;
less to Russia. Their hair is cut twice a year, and is used in the
manufacture of ropes and coarse stuffs. Cattle on the whole are not
very numerous, and in rather a poor condition. The finest cattle are
said to exist in Khokand, and among the Karakalpaks on the Oxus,
whose exclusive occupation is to rear them. Beef is, in Central
Asia, still more tough and unpalatable than in Persia or Turkey,
and the consumption of it is therefore limited to the poorest class
of the people. Butter and cheese are made of cow's milk, but in
comparatively small quantities. _Mules_ are not found in Central
Asia, from a religious superstition against disgracing the horse,
the noble animal, "par excellence;" but all the greater care is
bestowed upon the breeding of the ass, which undoubtedly is here
the finest and most excellent of all I have seen in Asia. The ass
is, in Bokhara, not only of a vigorous frame and high stature, but
of surprising nimbleness, and in long caravan marches can be relied
upon as much as the horse. The fowls are of the long-legged Chinese
breed. Geese are smaller than those in Europe; and there are several
species of ducks. Besides these, there are swans, partridges,
guinea-fowls and pheasants, of which the finest sort is found in
Khokand.
3. MINERAL KINGDOM.
My readers will not feel surprised that we should have but a scanty
knowledge of the mineral riches in the three Khanats. Lehmann, and
other Russian travellers, who, furnished with sufficient geological
knowledge, might have made closer investigations, were thwarted in
their efforts at every step by the jealousy of the Tartar officials.
I incline, however, to the opinion of Burnes, that Central Asia
possesses either no precious metals or extremely few, and that the
gold dust in the Zerefshan is not the property of the country,
but washed down by the small rivers that rise in the Hindukhush.
According to a statement of the Central Asiatics, the mountainous
country round Samarkand and in Bedakhshan, the Oveis-Karayne
mountains on the left bank of the Oxus (in the Khanat of Khiva),
and the Great Balkan in the desert near the Caspian Sea, are rich
in metallic wealth. That gold mines really do exist near the upper
Oxus, is proved by a certain considerable quantity of gold annually
obtained from it, although the gold-washing is carried on in the
most primitive and negligent manner.
The gold-washing, or more correctly the gold-fishing, is done with
camels' tails, of which several are hung up side by side between
two poles. People beat them about in the water for some time, or
they dip them into the river, and then hang them up. Those places
are always chosen where the water is troubled, and the work is
generally performed in June and July, the months in the year most
fit for the purpose. I doubt whether any gold-dust is exported; it
is not probable, since the smaller ornaments are made of native
metal, as the Persian goldsmith in Bokhara informed me. Silver is
found in Khiva in the above-mentioned mountains, and a considerable
quantity of this valuable metal was really gained during the reign
of Allahkuli-Khan, when the miners were worked for three years
under the management of a native of India, who had been educated
for this department. It is said that after the death of this prince
he either fled or was murdered. Since that time the mines have been
much neglected. I also heard some vague reports of the existence of
silver mines near Shehri Sebz.
Of precious stones, we must mention first of all the rubies of
Bedakhshan, which were formerly of high repute in Asia, under the
name of Laali Bedakhshan; at the present day not many of them are
found. Cornelian exists in large quantities in the mountain-rivers
of Bedakhshan. It is very cheap, and is exported to Arabia, Persia,
and Turkey. Lapis lazuli, which is used in dyeing, is of small value
in Central Asia, and is exported to Russia and Persia. The turquoise
of Bedakhshan and Khokand is far inferior in colour to that of
Nishapur in Persia, and is purchased by none but the nomads and
Nogay silversmiths; it is of a green instead of a blue colour, and
liked far less than the latter.[32]
[32] Compare Ritter, "Erdkunke," viii., 326.
This sketch of the productions of the oasis countries in Central
Asia will have convinced my readers, and especially those who
are acquainted with Asiatic countries and their conditions, that
Turkestan cannot be numbered among the sterile countries. Called
by the natives "a jewel set in sand," from its own peculiar value
and the barrenness around it, Central Asia will certainly play an
important part one day among the countries of the far East, and
occupy a prominent position, as soon as the beneficent beams of our
European civilisation shall have dried up the stagnant pool of its
miserable social relations, and as soon as the grand results we
have gained for industry and agriculture shall there likewise have
received their acknowledgment. It is robbery, murder, and war, but
not the barrenness of nature, which convert the shores of the Oxus
and Jaxartes into a desert. In Bokhara, but especially in Khiva,
agriculture is almost exclusively in the hands of slaves, of which
there are in the latter Khanat more than 80,000. Their rude manners
have placed the sword in the hands of the inhabitants,--the plough
is considered degrading, and is entirely given over to slaves.
When will these Khanats learn to see that a great part of their
misfortunes, and the unsettled state of their political and social
relations, originate in the perversity of their nature and conduct?
A government which endeavours to smooth existing relations deserves
our full acknowledgment and cordial wishes for success, although it
is premature to anticipate a complete change. Nor must we grudge it
the natural wealth of the country. Setting aside the moral influence
of such a Government, and its possible future political schemes, the
material gain is, on the whole, not large; nay, I maintain, that it
is small, when compared to the trouble and expense the occupation
and administration of such a province require--a province, the
communication with which must always be attended with endless
hardships and difficulties.