To this argumentation we make the following reply. We admit that release
consists only in the cessation of Nescience, and that this cessation
results entirely from the knowledge of Brahman. But a distinction has
here to be made regarding the nature of this knowledge which the
Vedânta-texts aim at enjoining for the purpose of putting an end to
Nescience. Is it merely the knowledge of the sense of sentences which
originates from the sentences? or is it knowledge in the form of
meditation (upâsana) which has the knowledge just referred to as its
antecedent? It cannot be knowledge of the former kind: for such
knowledge springs from the mere apprehension of the sentence, apart from
any special injunction, and moreover we do not observe that the
cessation of Nescience is effected by such knowledge merely. Our
adversary will perhaps attempt to explain things in the following way.
The Vedânta-texts do not, he will say, produce that knowledge which
makes an end of Nescience, so long as the imagination of plurality is
not dispelled. And the fact that such knowledge, even when produced,
does not at once and for every one put a stop to the view of plurality
by no means subverts my opinion; for, to mention an analogous instance,
the double appearance of the moon--presenting itself to a person
affected with a certain weakness of vision--does not come to an end as
soon as the oneness of the moon has been apprehended by reason.
Moreover, even without having come to an end, the view of plurality is
powerless to effect further bondage, as soon as the root, i.e.
Nescience, has once been cut But this defence we are unable to admit. It
is impossible that knowledge should not arise when its means, i.e. the
texts conveying knowledge, are once present. And we observe that even
when there exists an antagonistic imagination (interfering with the rise
of knowledge), information given by competent persons, the presence of
characteristic marks (on which a correct inference may be based), and
the like give rise to knowledge which sublates the erroneous
imagination. Nor can we admit that even after the sense of texts has
been apprehended, the view of plurality may continue owing to some small
remainder of beginningless imagination. For as this imagination which
constitutes the means for the view of plurality is itself false, it is
necessarily put an end to by the rise of true knowledge. If this did not
take place, that imagination would never come to an end, since there is
no other means but knowledge to effect its cessation. To say that the
view of plurality, which is the effect of that imagination, continues
even after its root has been cut, is mere nonsense. The instance of some
one seeing the moon double is not analogous. For in his case the
non-cessation of wrong knowledge explains itself from the circumstance
that the cause of wrong knowledge, viz. the real defect of the eye which
does not admit of being sublated by knowledge, is not removed, although
that which would sublate wrong knowledge is near. On the other hand,
effects, such as fear and the like, may come to an end because they can
be sublated by means of knowledge of superior force. Moreover, if it
were true that knowledge arises through the dispelling of the
imagination of plurality, the rise of knowledge would really never be
brought about. For the imagination of plurality has through gradual
growth in the course of beginningless time acquired an infinite
strength, and does not therefore admit of being dispelled by the
comparatively weak conception of non-duality. Hence we conclude that the
knowledge which the Vedânta-texts aim at inculcating is a knowledge
other than the mere knowledge of the sense of sentences, and denoted by
'dhyâna,' 'upâsanâ' (i. e. meditation), and similar terms.
With this agree scriptural texts such as 'Having known it, let him
practise meditation' (Bri. Up. IV, 4, 21); 'He who, having searched out
the Self, knows it' (Ch. Up. VIII, 7, 1); 'Meditate on the Self as Om'
(Mu. Up. II, 2, 6); 'Having known that, he is freed from the jaws of
death' (Ka. Up. I, 3, 15); 'Let a man meditate on the Self only as his
world' (Bri. Up. I, 4, 15); 'The Self is to be seen, to be heard, to her
reflected on, to be meditated on' (Bri. Up. IV, 5, 6); 'That we must
search out, that we must try to understand' (Ch. Up. VIII, 7, 1).
(According to the principle of the oneness of purport of the different
sâkhâs) all these texts must be viewed as agreeing in meaning with the
injunction of meditation contained in the passage quoted from the Bri.
Up.; and what they enjoin is therefore meditation. In the first and
second passages quoted, the words 'having known' and 'having searched
out' (vijñâya; anuvidya) contain a mere reference to (not injunction of)
the apprehension of the meaning of texts, such apprehension subserving
meditation; while the injunction of meditation (which is the true
purport of the passages) is conveyed by the clauses 'let him practise
meditation' (prajñâm kurvîta) and 'he knows it.' In the same way the
clause 'the Self is to be heard' is a mere anuvâda, i.e. a mere
reference to what is already established by other means; for a person
who has read the Veda observes that it contains instruction about
matters connected with certain definite purposes, and then on his own
account applies himself to methodical 'hearing,' in order definitely to
ascertain these matters; 'hearing' thus is established already. In the
same way the clause 'the Self is to be reflected upon' is a mere anuvâda
of reflection which is known as a means of confirming what one has
'heard.' It is therefore meditation only which all those texts enjoin.
In agreement with this a later Sûtra also says, 'Repetition more than
once, on account of instruction' (Ve. Sû. IV, I, I). That the knowledge
intended to be enjoined as the means of final release is of the nature
of meditation, we conclude from the circumstance that the terms
'knowing' and'meditating' are seen to be used in place of each other in
the earlier and later parts of Vedic texts. Compare the following
passages: 'Let a man meditate on mind as Brahman,' and 'he who knows
this shines and warms through his celebrity, fame, and glory of
countenance' (Ch. Up. III, 18, 1; 6). And 'He does not know him, for he
is not complete,' and 'Let men meditate on him as the Self (Bri. Up. I,
4, 7). And 'He who knows what he knows,' and 'Teach me the deity on
which you meditate' (Ch. Up. IV, 1, 6; 2, 2).
'Meditation' means steady remembrance, i.e. a continuity of steady
remembrance, uninterrupted like the flow of oil; in agreement with the
scriptural passage which declares steady remembrance to be the means of
release, 'on the attainment of remembrance all the ties are loosened'
(Ch. Up. VII, 26, 2). Such remembrance is of the same character (form)
as seeing (intuition); for the passage quoted has the same purport as
the following one, 'The fetter of the heart is broken, all doubts are
solved, and all the works of that man perish when he has been seen who
is high and low' (Mu. Up. II, 2, 8). And this being so, we conclude that
the passage 'the Self is to be seen' teaches that 'Meditation' has the
character of 'seeing' or 'intuition.' And that remembrance has the
character of 'seeing' is due to the element of imagination
(representation) which prevails in it. All this has been set forth at
length by the Vâkyakâra. 'Knowledge (vedana) means meditation (upâsana),
scripture using the word in that sense'; i.e. in all Upanishads that
knowledge which is enjoined as the means of final release is Meditation.
The Vâkyakâra then propounds a pûrvapaksha (primâ facie view), 'Once he
is to make the meditation, the matter enjoined by scripture being
accomplished thereby, as in the case of the prayâjas and the like'; and
then sums up against this in the words 'but (meditation) is established
on account of the term meditation'; that means--knowledge repeated more
than once (i.e. meditation) is determined to be the means of Release.--
The Vâkyakâra then goes on 'Meditation is steady remembrance, on the
ground of observation and statement.' That means--this knowledge, of the
form of meditation, and repeated more than once, is of the nature of
steady remembrance.
Such remembrance has been declared to be of the character of 'seeing,'
and this character of seeing consists in its possessing the character of
immediate presentation (pratyakshatâ). With reference to remembrance,
which thus acquires the character of immediate presentation and is the
means of final release, scripture makes a further determination, viz. in
the passage Ka. Up. I, 2, 23, 'That Self cannot be gained by the study
of the Veda ("reflection"), nor by thought ("meditation"), nor by much
hearing. Whom the Self chooses, by him it may be gained; to him the Self
reveals its being.' This text says at first that mere hearing,
reflection, and meditation do not suffice to gain the Self, and then
declares, 'Whom the Self chooses, by him it may be gained.' Now a
'chosen' one means a most beloved person; the relation being that he by
whom that Self is held most dear is most dear to the Self. That the Lord
(bhagavân) himself endeavours that this most beloved person should gain
the Self, he himself declares in the following words, 'To those who are
constantly devoted and worship with love I give that knowledge by which
they reach me' (Bha. Gî. X, 10), and 'To him who has knowledge I am dear
above all things, and he is dear to me' (VII, 17). Hence, he who
possesses remembrance, marked by the character of immediate presentation
(sâkshâtkâra), and which itself is dear above all things since the
object remembered is such; he, we say, is chosen by the highest Self,
and by him the highest Self is gained. Steady remembrance of this kind
is designated by the word 'devotion' (bhakti); for this term has the
same meaning as upâsanâ (meditation). For this reason scripture and
smriti agree in making the following declarations, 'A man knowing him
passes over death' (Svet. Up. III, 8); 'Knowing him thus he here becomes
immortal' (Taitt. Âr. III, 12,7); 'Neither by the Vedas, nor by
austerities, nor by gifts, nor by sacrifice can I be so seen as thou
hast seen me. But by devotion exclusive I may in this form be known and
seen in truth, O Arjuna, and also be entered into' (Bha. Gî. XI, 53, 54);
'That highest Person, O Pârtha, may be obtained by exclusive devotion'
(VIII, 22).
That of such steady remembrance sacrifices and so on are means will be
declared later on (Ve. Sû. III, 4, 26). Although sacrifices and the like
are enjoined with a view to the origination of knowledge (in accordance
with the passage 'They desire to know,' Bri. Up. IV, 4, 22), it is only
knowledge in the form of meditation which--being daily practised,
constantly improved by repetition, and continued up to death--is the
means of reaching Brahman, and hence all the works connected with the
different conditions of life are to be performed throughout life only
for the purpose of originating such knowledge. This the Sûtrakâra
declares in Ve. Sû. IV, 1, 12; 16; III, 4, 33, and other places. The
Vâkyakâra also declares that steady remembrance results only from
abstention, and so on; his words being 'This (viz. steady remembrance =
meditation) is obtained through abstention (viveka), freeness of mind
(vimoka), repetition (abhyâsa), works (kriyâ), virtuous conduct
(kalyâna), freedom from dejection (anavasâda), absence of exultation
(anuddharsha); according to feasibility and scriptural statement.' The
Vâkyakâra also gives definitions of all these terms. Abstention (viveka)
means keeping the body clean from all food, impure either owing to
species (such as the flesh of certain animals), or abode (such as food
belonging to a Kândâla or the like), or accidental cause (such as food
into which a hair or the like has fallen). The scriptural passage
authorising this point is Ch. Up. VII, 26, 'The food being pure, the
mind becomes pure; the mind being pure, there results steady remembrance.'
Freeness of mind (vimoka) means absence of attachment to desires. The
authoritative passage here is 'Let him meditate with a calm mind' (Ch.
Up. III, 14, 1). Repetition means continued practice. For this point the
Bhâshya-kâra quotes an authoritative text from Smriti, viz.: 'Having
constantly been absorbed in the thought of that being' (sadâ
tadbhâvabhâvitah; Bha. Gî. VIII, 6).--By 'works' (kriyâ) is understood
the performance, according to one's ability, of the five great
sacrifices. The authoritative passages here are 'This person who
performs works is the best of those who know Brahman' (Mu. Up. III, 1,
4); and 'Him Brâhmanas seek to know by recitation of the Veda, by
sacrifice, by gifts, by penance, by fasting' (Bri. Up. IV, 4, 22).--By
virtuous conduct (kalyânâni) are meant truthfulness, honesty, kindness,
liberality, gentleness, absence of covetousness. Confirmatory texts are
'By truth he is to be obtained' (Mu. Up. III, 1, 5) and 'to them belongs
that pure Brahman-world' (Pr. Up. I, 16).--That lowness of spirit or
want of cheerfulness which results from unfavourable conditions of place
or time and the remembrance of causes of sorrow, is denoted by the term
'dejection'; the contrary of this is 'freedom from dejection.' The
relevant scriptural passage is 'This Self cannot be obtained by one
lacking in strength' (Mu. Up. III, 2, 4).--'Exultation' is that
satisfaction of mind which springs from circumstances opposite to those
just mentioned; the contrary is 'absence of exultation.' Overgreat
satisfaction also stands in the way (of meditation). The scriptural
passage for this is 'Calm, subdued,' &c. (Bri. Up. IV, 4, 23).--What the
Vâkyakâra means to say is therefore that knowledge is realised only
through the performance of the duly prescribed works, on the part of a
person fulfilling all the enumerated conditions.
Analogously another scriptural passage says 'He who knows both knowledge
and non-knowledge together, overcoming death by non-knowledge reaches
the Immortal through knowledge' (Îs. Up. II). Here the term
'non-knowledge' denotes the works enjoined on the different castes and
âsramas; and the meaning of the text is that, having discarded by such
works death, i.e. the previous works antagonistic to the origination of
knowledge, a man reaches the Immortal, i.e. Brahman, through knowledge.
The non-knowledge of which this passage speaks as being the means of
overcoming death can only mean that which is other than knowledge, viz.
prescribed works. The word has the same sense in the following passage:
'Firm in traditional knowledge he offered many sacrifices, leaning on
the knowledge of Brahman, so as to pass beyond death by non-knowledge'
(Vi. Pu. VI, 6, 12).--Antagonistic to knowledge (as said above) are all
good and evil actions, and hence--as equally giving rise to an
undesirable result--they may both be designated as evil. They stand in
the way of the origination of knowledge in so far as they strengthen the
elements of passion and darkness which are antagonistic to the element
of goodness which is the cause of the rise of knowledge. That evil works
stand in the way of such origination, the following scriptural text
declares: 'He makes him whom he wishes to lead down from these worlds do
an evil deed' (Ka. Up. III, 8). That passion and darkness veil the
knowledge of truth while goodness on the other hand gives rise to it,
the Divine one has declared himself, in the passage 'From goodness
springs knowledge' (Bha. Gî. XIV, 17). Hence, in order that knowledge
may arise, evil works have to be got rid of, and this is effected by the
performance of acts of religious duty not aiming at some immediate
result (such as the heavenly world and the like); according to the text
'by works of religious duty he discards all evil.' Knowledge which is
the means of reaching Brahman, thus requires the works prescribed for
the different âsramas; and hence the systematic enquiry into works (i.
e. the Pûrva Mîmâmsâ)--from which we ascertain the nature of the works
required and also the transitoriness and limitation of the fruits of
mere works--forms a necessary antecedent to the systematic enquiry into
Brahman. Moreover the discrimination of permanent and non-permanent
things, &c. (i.e. the tetrad of 'means' mentioned above, p. 11) cannot
be accomplished without the study of the Mîmâmsâ; for unless we
ascertain all the distinctions of fruits of works, means, modes of
procedure and qualification (on the part of the agent) we can hardly
understand the true nature of works, their fruits, the transitoriness or
non-transitoriness of the latter, the permanence of the Self, and
similar matters. That those conditions (viz. nityânityavastuviveka,
sama, dama, &c.) are 'means' must be determined on the basis of viniyoga
('application' which determines the relation of principal and
subordinate matters--angin and anga); and this viniyoga which depends on
direct scriptural statement (sruti), inferential signs (linga), and so
on, is treated of in the third book of the Pûrva Mîmâmsâ-sûtras. And
further we must, in this connexion, consider also the meditations on the
Udgîtha and similar things--which, although aiming at the success of
works, are of the nature of reflections on Brahman (which is viewed in
them under various forms)--and as such have reference to knowledge of
Brahman. Those works also (with which these meditations are connected)
aim at no special results of their own, and produce and help to perfect
the knowledge of Brahman: they are therefore particularly connected with
the enquiry into Brahman. And that these meditations presuppose an
understanding of the nature of works is admitted by every one.