square; the depth of the trough, half their thickness; and they are
supported by cross-pieces at every two or three yards, nailed to the
timbers of the ship, and to the wood-work, which encloses the fore
and mainmasts. The decks and troughs are all well payed with melted
rosin. On each side of the ship, six small port-holes are cut, from
fifteen to eighteen inches large, (the ports opening downwards), and
are close caulked up.
Against each port is fixed an iron chamber, which, at the time of
firing the ship, blows open the ports and lets out the fire. At
the main and fore chains, on each side, a wooden funnel is fixed
over a fire-barrel, and comes through a scuttle in the deck, up to
the shrouds to set them on fire. Both funnels and scuttles must be
stopped with plugs, and have sail-cloth or canvass nailed close
over them to prevent any accident happening that way by fire to the
combustibles below.
The port-holes, funnels, and scuttles, not only serve to give the
fire a free passage to the outside and upper parts of the ship and
her rigging, but also to allow the inward air (otherwise confined)
to expand itself, and push through those holes at the time of the
combustibles being on fire, and prevent the blowing up of the decks,
which otherwise must happen from the sudden and violent rarefaction
of the air.
In the bulkhead behind on each side, is cut a small hole, large
enough to receive a trough of the same size as the others, from
which, to each side of the ship, lies a leading trough, one end
coming through a sally port, cut through the ship's side, and the
other fixing into a communicating trough, that lies along the bulk
head, from one side of the ship to the other; and being laid with
quick-match, at the time of firing either of the leading troughs, it
communicates the fire, in an instant, to the contrary side of the
ship, and both sides burn together.
Having thus described this preparatory arrangement, we shall
consider, in the next place, the combustibles made use of in fitting
up a fire-ship.
_Fire-barrel._ The fire-barrels for this purpose are cylindrical,
on account of that shape answering better both for filling them
with reeds, and for stowing them between the troughs. Their inside
diameters are about 21 inches, and their length 33. The bottom
parts are first filled with double-dipt reeds, set on end, and
the remainder with fire-barrel composition, made of the following
substances.
_Composition for fire-barrels, for fire-ships._
Grained Powder 30 lbs.
Pitch 12 --
Saltpetre 6 --
Tallow 3 --
There are 5 holes of three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and
3 inches deep, made with a drift of that size, in the top of the
composition, while it is warm; one in the centre, and the other four
at equal distances, round the sides of the barrel.
When the composition is cold and hard, the barrel is primed by well
driving these holes, full of fuse composition, to within an inch
of the top; then fixing in each hole a strand of quick-match twice
doubled, and in the centre hole, two strands the whole length; all
which must be well driven with meal-powder. Then lay the quick-match
all within the barrel, and cover the top of it with a dipped curtain,
fastened on with a hoop to slip over the head, and nailed on.
_Bavins._ Bavins are made of birch, heath, or other sort of brush
wood, that is both tough and quickly fired. Their length is 2-1/2 to
3 feet. The bush ends are all laid one way, and the other ends, tied
with two bands each. They are dipped, and sprinkled with sulphur,
the same as reeds; with this difference, that the bush ends only are
dipped, and should be a little closed together by the hand as soon as
done, to keep them more compact, in order to produce a stronger fire,
and to preserve the branches from breaking in shifting and handling
them.
_Composition for Bavins._
Rosin 120 lbs.
Sulphur, coarse, or roll 90 --
Pitch 60 --
Tallow 6 --
Meal-powder 12 --
_Iron Chambers._ These are ten inches long, and 3.5 in diameter;
breeched against a piece of wood, fixed across the holes. When
loaded, they are almost filled with grained powder, with a wooden
tompion well driven into their muzzles. They are primed with a small
piece of quick-match, thrust through their vents into the powder,
with a part of it hanging out; and, when the ship is fired, they blow
open the ports, which either fall downwards, or are carried away,
and accordingly give vent to the fire out of the sides of the ship.
_Curtains._ Curtains are made of barras, about three-quarters of
a yard wide, and one yard in length. When they are dipped, two
men, with each a fork, must run the prongs through the corner of
the curtain at the same end. Then dip them into a large kettle of
composition, (which is the same as the composition for bavins,)
well melted; and, when well dipped and the curtain extended to its
full breadth, whip it between two sticks of about 5.5 feet long,
and 1.5 inches square, held close by two other men, to take off the
superfluous composition hanging to it. Then immediately sprinkle
sawdust on both sides, to prevent it from sticking, and the curtain
is finished.
_Reeds._ They are made up in small bundles of about 12 inches in
circumference, cut even at both ends, and tied with two bands each.
The longest sort are 4 feet, and the shortest 2.5, the only lengths
which are used. One part of them is single dipped, only at one end;
the rest are double dipped, that is, at both ends. In dipping, they
must be put about 7 or 8 inches deep into a copper kettle of melted
composition, of the same kind as that for bavins; and, when they have
drained a little over it, to carry off the superfluous composition,
sprinkle them, over a tanned hide, with pulverized sulphur, at some
distance from the copper. With respect to the stores, required for a
fire ship of 150 tons, the following complement is given: _viz._
No.
Fire barrels 8
Iron chambers 12
Priming composition barrels 3½
Quick-match barrels 1
Curtains dipped 30
Long reeds, single dipped 150
Short reeds { double dipped 75
{ single dipped 75
Bavins, single dipped 209
The quantity of composition, for preparing the stores of a fire ship
is as follows:
For 8 barrels; grained powder 960 pounds, pitch 480 pounds, tallow 80
pounds.
For 3 barrels of priming composition, saltpetre 175 lbs. sulphur 140
lbs. grained powder 350 lbs. rosin 21 lbs. oil-pots 11.
For curtains, bavins, and reeds, and sulphur to _salt_ them, as
artificers call it; sulphur 240 lbs. pitch 350 lbs. rosin 175 lbs.
tallow 50 lbs. tar 25 lbs.
Total weight of the composition 3017 pounds, equal to 26 cwt. 3 qr.
21 lbs.
The composition, required for the rods and barrels, is one-fifth of
the whole of the last article, which is equal to 160 lbs. making in
the whole, 3177 lbs. or 28 cwt. 1 qr. 13 lbs.
Adye (_Bombardier and Pocket Gunner_) has given two general formulæ
for the composition, used in fire-ships, which we will here insert.
_Composition for dipping reeds, bavins, and curtains._
Rosin, 120 lbs
Coarse sulphur, 90 --
Pitch, 60 --
Tallow, 6 or 8
Mealed powder, 12 --
_Composition for priming._
Pulverized saltpetre, 22 lbs. 8 oz.
Rosin, 2 -- 11 --
Sulphur, 18 --
Meal-powder, 45 --
Linseed oil, 1 pint.
The composition put in cases, to set fire to fascine batteries, is
sometimes used in fire-ships, _viz._
_Composition for setting fire to Fascine Batteries._
Meal-powder, 1 lb. 4 oz.
Saltpetre, 6 --
Sulphur, 1 -- 8 oz.
There is also another composition, which might be used advantageously
for the same purpose, and which is employed for hoops, fire-arrows,
and lances, namely:
_Composition for Hoops, Fire-Arrows, &c._
Meal-powder, 1 lb.
Saltpetre, 3 --
Sulphur, 8 oz.
Linseed oil, 8 --
The composition of kitt, used for the last covering of carcasses,
may also be employed. It must be applied when very thin and hot.
_Composition of Kitt._
Rosin, 9 lbs.
Bees' wax, 6 --
Pitch, 6 --
Tallow, 1 --
_Sec. XVIII. On Infernal Machines._
The _Machines Infernales_ of the French, which have excited so much
attention in Europe, we deem of sufficient importance to describe.
This invention is by no means new, although it has been attributed
to the French. It appears that Fredric Jambelli, an Italian
engineer, was the first that used them, when Alexander, of Parma,
besieged Antwerp. The Prince of Orange likewise had recourse to the
destructive effects of an infernal machine, in order to bombard
Havre-de-Grace, and to set it on fire. The Dutch and English, in
conjunction, attempted to destroy St. Malo by the same means. The
first instance, however, upon record, in which the French made use
of this machine, was when Louis XIV ordered a vessel, carrying an
enormous shell, full of every kind of combustible matter, to be
despatched to Algiers, for the purpose of demolishing its harbour.
This, it is supposed, suggested the use of fire-ships, which have
frequently been used against maritime places.
The author of the _Œuvres Militaires_, tom. xxii, p. 222, speaking
of the infernal machine, observes, that, if he were to be in a
situation, which required the use of so dreadful an explosion,
especially to destroy a bridge, he would prefer having the machine
made simply with different strong pieces of wood, joined together, so
as to be in the shape of an egg, or of a cone reversed.
The whole must then be made compact with cords twisted round. This
method, in his opinion, is not only the best, but can be executed in
the most easy and expeditious manner. He further adds, that, in order
to burn or blow up wooden bridges, and even to destroy such as are
constructed upon arches, several sorts of barges or boats might be
used, which should be filled with fire-works, bombs, petards, &c. It
would, likewise, be easy to construct these machines upon floating
rafters, carrying several thousand pounds weight of gunpowder, which
might be confined within strong pieces of wood, put together in the
manner already described.
These machines should be piled one above another, and long iron
bars must be thrown across the floats, or be fixed like masts; so
that, when the whole of the combustible material is beneath the
centre of the bridge, the rafters may be stopped. Great care must be
taken to dispose the matches in such a manner, that no fire may be
communicated to the gunpowder before the machine reaches the exact
spot, which is to be destroyed.
In 1804, an infernal machine was used at Boulogne, which is described
as follows:
This machine appears to be as simple in its construction, as it is
calculated to be effectual in its operations. It is composed of 2
stout planks, 17 feet long, which form its sides, and are distant
from each other about 7 feet.
These planks are connected by transverse timbers, screwed to the
planks; so as to keep the whole firm and compact, and to prevent
the danger of their being separated at sea. Of these transverse
timbers, two are at the fore extremity, and three behind. This may
be called, the frame or hull of the machine; the remainder of the
work, being either for the stowage of the combustible matter, or
for the accommodation of the seamen, who row the machine. Along the
transverse timbers, at both extremities, are laid parallel to the
sides, five longitudinal bars of nearly the same strength as the
transverse timbers, which form a kind of grate, on which the coffers,
containing the combustible matter, are placed. The grate behind
is double the size of the one before, on the principle of giving
facility to the motion of the whole, by making the machine lighter at
the head. In the centre, between the planks forming the sides, from
the inner extremity of the grate behind, to the outer extremity of
the grate before, there is fixed a plank, somewhat broader than the
side planks, which is well secured to them by three stout transverse
timbers, which pass under the centre plank, to prevent its giving way
to pressure.
In this plank, two triangular apertures are cut for men who row,
to dispose of the lower extremities, whilst they ply the machine.
Their seats, however, are so contrived, that each man's pressure
is directly over that part of the plank, which is supported by the
transverse timbers. The seats lie nearer to the head than to the hind
part of the machine; perhaps to be some counterpoise for the greater
weight of the combustible matter behind. Near each seat are fastened
by rings to the sides, two oars, one on each side, and each man plies
a pair. When the machine is worked to its destination, the men set
the combustibles in a train for explosion, and abandon their posts.
The whole is so regulated, as to weight of materials, that the
machine floats, or, more probably, moves under the surface of the
water; so that little more than the heads of the men are seen. This
secures the men and the machine from the fire of the enemy; and as
the oars must be constantly plied under water, there is less danger
of their being discovered by their noise, as they approach.
Infernal machines have also been made, to be used on land. Such is
the machine we are told, which was intended for the destruction
of Bonaparte. They may be made to explode at a given time, by
clock-work, or by a match, calculated to burn a certain time!
_Sec. XIX. Of the Catamarin._
The catamarin, properly so called, is a floating raft, originally
used in China, and among the Portuguese as a fishing-boat. The Indian
catamarin consists of two logs of wood, upon which the natives float,
and go through the heaviest surf.
The military or naval catamarin is a different thing. It is properly
a case, filled with combustibles, and contrived to remain so low
in the water as to be almost imperceptible. This, being towed to
the building, or ship, against which the attack is to be directed,
is left to explode, by means of machinery within itself, when its
operation is sometimes very destructive.
English writers acknowledge, that the catamarin, submitted by the
late Mr. Pitt to the English government, and which cost in its
construction a considerable sum, was originally invented by our
countryman, the late Mr. Fulton, of whose invention we will speak
hereafter.
Some observations on a boat, named, by the French, _Chelingues_,
and the Indian catamarin, may be seen in the _Dictionnaire de
l'Industrie_, article _Bateau_.
Several diving machines have been invented in France and elsewhere.
M. Castera (_Archives des Découvertes_, iii, p. 185) describes a
_plunging boat_, which resembles in figure a cone. It is furnished
with a reservoir, calculated to hold water, and may be filled or
emptied by means of pumps. By means of glasses and copper handles,
the navigator is enabled to see and to take hold of objects. It is
also furnished with tubes for the transmission of the air necessary
for respiration, that communicate from the interior of the vessel
with the atmosphere; and a double bellows, designed as well for
receiving, as expelling air. Besides oars or paddles, necessary
to move it under water, there is a contrivance for detaching the
boat from the reservoir, either wholly or in part, according to
circumstances.
M. Castera, in a memoir on _sub-marine navigation_, has noticed
several applications of the plunging boat, which may be seen in the
_Bulletin de la Société d'Encouragement_, No. 71. In No. 61, of the
same work, is the first notice of Castera's invention, an extract
of which may be seen in the _Archives des Découvertes_, ii. p. 121.
A description of Lutgendorf's boat may be seen in the _Magazin der
Erfindungen_, No. 46.
_Sec. XX. Of the American Turtle._
It is well known that the diving-bell, and similar contrivances, have
been used for naval purposes, in connection with naval warfare.
Divers, or those who made it a business, by long habit and
experience, to remain under water, and go to a great depth, were
often employed in war to destroy the works and ships of the enemy.
When Alexander was besieging Tyre, divers swam off from the city,
under water, to a great distance, and, with long hooks, tore to
pieces the mole, with which the besiegers were endeavouring to block
up the harbour. The invention of the diving-bell, the _campana
urinatoria_ of some, is generally assigned to the sixteenth century;
but it is evident, from the writings of Aristotle and others, that,
in his time, divers used a kind of kettle to enable them to continue
longer under water.
At the pearl fisheries, in the Bay of Condalzchy, in Ceylon, divers
usually remain under water two minutes. There are some who can stay
five minutes; and a diver from Anjano, engaged in this fishery in
1797, was able to remain six minutes under water. But their efforts
are so great, that, when they come up, blood frequently issues
from their mouths, ears, and nostrils. Notwithstanding this, they
frequently dive from forty to fifty times a day, and bring up in a
bag-net a hundred oysters each time.
It may be proper to observe, that the subject of sub-marine
navigation was largely descanted upon by Mersennus, (_Tractatus de
Magnetis Proprietatibus_), and by Bishop Wilkins (_Mathematical
Magic_, 1648), who, by the way, is rather visionary. The conveniences
and advantages he enumerates, are: 1. 'Privacy, as a man may thus
go to any part of the world invisibly, without being discovered
or prevented. 2. Safety, from the uncertainty of tides and
tempests, &c. 3. It may be used to blow up, or undermine a navy:
4. Or to relieve a blockaded place, &c. But, with regard to the
use of sub-marine vessels in war, Mr. David Bushnel, of Saybrook,
Connecticut, appears to be entitled to the credit of the invention.
His account of it may be seen in the _Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society_. The intended object of this vessel was to
destroy shipping, by the explosion of a magazine of gunpowder.
In Silliman's _Journal of Science and Arts_, vol. II, p. 94, is a
communication by Mr. Griswold, on the subject of Bushnel's machine,
with an account of the first attempt with it, in August, 1776, by
Ezra Lee, a sergeant in the American army, to destroy some of the
British ships then lying at New York. Mr. Griswold remarks, that,
considering the invention of Mr. Bushnel as the first of its kind,
it will be pronounced to be remarkably complete throughout in its
construction, and that such an invention furnishes evidence of those
resources and creative powers, which must rank him as a mechanical
genius of the first order.
He has given a description of it; but the outline which we give is
taken from _Nicholson's Journal_, quarto, iv, p. 229.
It is a decked boat, to go underwater: and several persons have gone
under water many leagues. The difficulty is, to provide the persons
in the boat with fresh air for respiration; and this is contrived,
by having a reservoir of air, of suitable dimensions to the size of
the boat, and the number of persons in it. By means of a condensing
pump, the air, in this reservoir, is condensed about 400 times;
and by a spring, the air is let out at intervals, as circumstances
require, the carbonic acid produced by respiration being absorbed by
quicklime. Within this boat are flaps, like those of a rundle, to
move the boat, two rudders, one vertical, the other horizontal, and
a pump to empty the hold, or air reservoir. The person within, can,
at pleasure, come to the top of the water. The different experiments
made by Mr. Bushnel may be seen in the _Transactions_ referred to, or
in _Nicholson's Journal_, quarto, iv, 229.
During the late war, Mr. Fulton, Mr. Mix, and some others, made
various experiments with submarine machines; and during the
revolution, the incendiary kegs, well known by the name of the
"_battle of the kegs_," excited no small attention, and, had it
not been for some unforeseen circumstance, they would, in all
probability, have produced the effect for which they were intended.
Of Bushnel's vessel, we may observe, that, in the fore part of the
brim of the crown, as it is called, was a socket, and an iron tube
passing through the socket. The tube stood upright, and could slide
up and down in the socket, six inches. At the top of the tube was a
wood screw, fixed by means of a rod, which passed through the tube,
and screwed the wood screw fast upon the top of the tube. By pushing
the wood screw up against the bottom of a ship, and turning it at the
same time, it would enter the planks. When the wood screw was firmly
fixed, it could be cast off by unscrewing the rod, which fixed it
upon the top of the tube.
Behind the submarine vessel, was a place, above the rudder, for
carrying a large powder magazine. This was made of two pieces of oak
timber, sufficiently large, when hollowed out, to contain 150 lbs.
of powder, (130 lbs. according to Griswold,) with the apparatus used
in firing it, and was secured in its place by a screw, turned by the
operator. A strong piece of rope extended from the magazine to the
wood screw above mentioned, and was fastened to both. When the wood
screw was fixed, and to be cast off from its tube, the magazine was
to be cast off likewise by unscrewing it, leaving it hanging to the
wood screw; it was lighter than the water, that it might rise up
against the object, and apply itself when fastened.
Mr. Griswold remarks, that the most difficult point of all to be
gained, was to fasten this magazine to the bottom of a ship.
Within the magazine, was a machine, constructed to run any proposed
length of time under twelve hours. When it had run out its time,
it unpinioned a strong lock resembling a gun-lock, which gave fire
to the powder. This apparatus was so pinioned, that it could not
possibly move, till, by casting off the magazine from the vessel, it
was set in motion.
This skilful operator could swim so low on the surface of the
water, as to approach very near a ship in the night without fear
of discovery, and might, if he chose, approach the stem or stern
above water, with very little danger. He could sink very quickly,
keep at any depth he pleased, and row a great distance in any
direction he desired, without coming to the surface; and, when he
rose to the surface, he could soon obtain a fresh supply of air;
when, if necessary, he might descend again and pursue his course.
The projector found some time and attention to be requisite for the
gradual instruction of this operator, and, after various attempts,
he found one, on whom he thought he could depend. He sent this man
from New York to a 50 gun ship, lying not far from Governor's island.
He went under the ship, and attempted to fix the wood screw in her
bottom, but struck, as he supposed, a bar of iron, which passes from
the rudder's hinge, and is spiked under the ship's quarter. Had he
removed a few inches, which he might have done without rowing, the
projector has no doubt but he might have found wood, where he might
have fixed the screw; or if the ship were sheathed with copper, he
might easily have pierced it. But, not being well skilled in the
management of the vessel, in attempting to row to another place, he
lost the ship. After seeking her in vain some time, he rowed to some
distance, and rose to the surface of the water, but found day light
had advanced so far, that he durst not renew the attempt. He says,
he could easily have fastened the magazine under the stern of the
ship above the water, as he rowed up to the stern, and touched it
before he descended. Had he fixed it there, the explosion of 150 lbs
of gunpowder (the quantity contained in the magazine) must have been
fatal to the ship. In his return from the ship to New York, he passed
near Governor's island, and thought he was discovered by the enemy
on the island. Being in haste to avoid the danger he feared, he cast
off the magazine, as he imagined it retarded him in the swell, which
was very considerable. After the magazine had been cast off an hour,
the time the internal apparatus was set to run, it blew up with great
violence.
Mr. Griswold gives an account of an attempt to destroy a ship of
war; and having received his information from Mr. Lee, one of the
adventurers, we have thought proper to introduce it from that source.
"It was in the month of August, 1776, when Admiral Howe lay with a
formidable British fleet in New York bay, a little above the narrows,
and a numerous British force upon Staten Island, commanded by General
Howe, threatened annihilation to the troops under Washington, that
Mr. Bushnel requested General Parsons, of the American army, to
furnish him with two or three men to learn the navigation of his new
machine, with the view of destroying some of the enemy's shipping.
"General Parsons immediately sent for Lee, then a sergeant, and two
others, who had offered their services to go on board a fire ship;
and on Bushnel's request being made known to them, they enlisted
themselves under him for this novel piece of service. The party
went up into Long Island sound with the machine, and made various
experiments with it in the different harbours along shore; and
after having become pretty thoroughly acquainted with the mode of
navigating it, they returned through the sound; but, during their
absence, the enemy had got possession of Long Island and Governor's
Island. They, therefore, had the machine conveyed by land across from
New Rochelle to the Hudson river, and afterwards arrived with it at
New York.
"The British fleet now lay to the north of Staten Island, with a
large number of transports, and were the objects against which this
new mode of warfare was destined to act. The first serene night
was fixed upon for the execution of this perilous enterprize, and
sergeant Lee was to be the engineer. After a lapse of a few days, a
favourable night arrived, and, at 11 o'clock, a party embarked in
two or three whale boats, with Bushnel's machine in tow. They rowed
down as near the fleet as they dared, when sergeant Lee entered the
machine, was cast off, and the boats returned.
"Lee now found the ebb tide rather too strong, and before he was
aware, had drifted him down past the men of war. He, however,
immediately _got the machine about_, and by hard labour at the crank
for the space of five glasses by the ship's bells, two and a half
hours, he arrived under the stern of one of the ships at about slack
water. Day had now dawned, and by the light of the moon he could
see the people on board, and hear their conversation. This was the
moment for diving: he accordingly closed up over head, let in water,
and descended under the ship's bottom. He now applied the screw, and
did all in his power to make it enter; but owing probably in part to
the ship's copper, and the want of an adequate pressure, to enable
the screw to get a hold on the bottom, his attempts all failed.
At each essay, the machine rebounded from the ship's bottom, not
having sufficient power to resist the impulse thus given to it. He
next paddled along to a different part of her bottom, but, in this
manœuvre, he made a deviation, and instantly rose to the water's
surface on the east side of the ship, exposed to the increasing
light of the morning, and in imminent hazard of being discovered.
He immediately made another descent, with a view of making one more
trial; but the fast approach of day, which would expose him to the
enemy's boats, and render his escape difficult, if not impossible,
deterred him; and he concluded the best generalship would be, to
commence an immediate retreat. He now had before him a distance of
more than four miles to traverse, but the tide was favourable. At
Governor's island, great danger awaited him; for his compass having
got out of order, he was under the necessity of looking out from the
top of the machine very frequently, to ascertain its course, and at
first made a very irregular zigzag track. The soldiers at Governor's
island espied the machine, and curiosity drew several hundreds upon
the parapet to watch its motions. At last a party came down to the
beach, shoved off a barge, and rowed towards it. At that moment,
sergeant Lee thought he saw his certain destruction, and as the last
act of defence, let go the magazine, expecting they would seize that
likewise, and thus all would be blown to atoms together. Providence,
however, otherwise directed it: the enemy, after approaching within
50 or 60 yards of the machine, and seeing the magazine detached,
began to suspect a _yankee trick_, took alarm, and returned to the
island. Approaching the city, he soon made a signal; the boats came
to him, and brought him safe and sound to the shore. The magazine,
in the mean time, had drifted past Governor's island into the East
river, where it exploded with tremendous violence, throwing large
columns of water, and pieces of wood that composed it, high into the
air. General Putnam, with many other officers, stood on the shore,
spectators of this explosion.
"In a few days, the American army evacuated New York, and the machine
was taken up the North river. Another attempt was afterwards made by
Lee, upon a frigate that lay opposite Bloomingsdale. His object now
was to fasten the magazine to the stern of the ship, close at the
water's edge. But while attempting this, the watch discovered him,
raised an alarm, and compelled him to abandon his enterprize. He then
endeavoured to get under the frigate's bottom; but in this he failed,
having descended too deep. This terminated his experiments."
With regard to diving bells, several machines, for the purpose of
descending under water, &c. have been invented. Some experiments
have been made by the French with similar contrivances, without any
adequate result; and the difficulty of carrying them into execution,
in real practice, will prevent their introduction.
Dr. _Caustic_, (_Terrible Tractoration_, p. 65), in a note, in
reference to Bushnel's invention, observes, that if you consult the
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, "you will see
what Mr. D. Bushnel, of Connecticut, has done, and had like to have
done, by virtue of submarine explosions. You will find, that several
English ships have been put in jeopardy, and one schooner actually
blown up and demolished by Mr. Bushnel's submarine explosions."[33]
_Sec. XXI. Of the Torpedo._
The late Mr. Fulton applied himself to the improvement of the
_Turtle_ during the late war, and brought it to such perfection,
that if it came in contact with a ship's bottom, it would inevitably
blow up the vessel. From the account we have given of the turtle, we
may readily imagine the construction of the torpedo. These were of
several kinds; some (or rather the magazine attached to them,) were
designed to be screwed under the bottom, and others to explode by
coming in contact with the vessel, or any resisting body. The time of
explosion was so determined, by clock-work machinery, in the manner
of Bushnel's contrivance that it would invariably explode at the
minute or second required.
Mr. Fulton wrote a number of essays on this torpedo, and other
contrivances for annoying the enemy, such as the harpoon, &c. The
torpedo, at which the British ships, stationed on our coast, were
so much alarmed, is in fact a powerful weapon of destruction. It
is to be observed, that the magazine, accompanying the _bell_,
in some instances, was detached; so that the latter was removed
out of danger, when the former was fixed to the ship's bottom. In
order to prevent the torpedo from floating against the sides of a
vessel, the precaution of having netting spread at some considerable
distance round the vessel, and of keeping up a constant guard of
boats, which were rowed round the ship both day and night, was used.
Not having the writings of Mr. Fulton before us, we can give no
precise description of his improvements. They are described to be an
apparatus, of which the principal piece is a copper box, and prepared
with an interior spring, which sets fire to the powder; at the same
time that the whole is enclosed in a covering of cork, or some other
light wood, to make the torpedo float under the surface of the water.
It will be sufficient to remark, that _they_ have produced the
_effect_ of causing a constant, and, in our opinion, painful anxiety
to the British. Of this we have abundant proof. We may add, however,
the result of some of the experiments, by which it will appear, that
they are eminently calculated, like the infernal machine, to produce
death and destruction.
In consequence of some essays, published by Mr. Fulton, on the
practicability of destroying ships by torpedoes, several persons
turned their attention to this subject; among whom was a Mr. Mix
of the navy. Mr. Mix's intention was to destroy the ship of war
Plantagenet, of 74 guns, lying in Lynnhaven bay. Having made a
torpedo, Mr. Mix, accompanied by two gentlemen, one of whom was a
midshipman, proceeded in a boat, on the night of the 24th of July,
1813, and, having reached within 100 yards of the ship, dropped the
torpedo. It was swept along by the side, but exploded a few seconds
before it would have come in contact with the vessel. It produced,
however, great consternation and confusion on board the vessel,
and induced several of the crew to take to their boats. The ship
was greatly agitated, and some damage done by the violent motion
of the water. The noise, occasioned by the explosion, was loud and
tremendous; and the appearance of the water, thrown up in a column
of thirty or forty feet high, awfully sublime. It has not been
ascertained, that any lives were lost.
The case of a Mr. Penny, of Easthampton, Long Island, is connected
with the subject of torpedoes. He was carried on board the Ramilies,
and put in irons; because his name had been entered on the books of
one of the frigates, as having been "_employed in a boat, contrived
for the purpose, under the command of Thomas Welling, prepared with a
torpedo, to destroy this_ (Capt. Hardy's) _ship_."
The affair of Stonington, also, shows, that the British were
determined to punish the inhabitants for having, as captain Hardy
expresses it, prepared torpedoes; and the captain stated, in his
reply to the deputation from the town, that the bombardment should
cease, in case the inhabitants would engage that no _torpedoes_
should be fitted out by them. No torpedoes, however, were fitted out
at Stonington.[34]
Mr. Fulton made a number of experiments with the torpedo, in the
harbour of New York; and one vessel was completely cut in two. These
experiments were very satisfactory to all who witnessed them.
The greatest difficulty he experienced was in giving them a proper
direction, so as to hit the vessel intended to be destroyed. This he
acknowledged to a friend, professor Eaton, of Troy, who informed us
of the fact. He entertained no doubt whatever of the effect of the
torpedo, when once brought in contact with a vessel.
At Havre, in France, Mr. Fulton constructed a sub-marine boat,
sufficient to contain several men, and air for eight hours, and
strong enough to bear submersion to the depth of one hundred feet, if
necessary. In this boat, he remained an hour under water, made half a
league of way in that time, with his boat horizontally situated, and
at various depths, where he found that the compass traversed exactly,
as on the surface. To the boat he attached a machine, by means of
which he blew up a lighter in Brest Harbour.
While in France, in the time of the Republic, Mr. F. directed his
attention to this subject. His _Bateau-poisson_, described in the
_Dictionnaire de l'Industrie_, vol. i, p. 265, is of the same
character. A number of experiments performed with it are given.
_Sec. XXII. Of the Marine Incendiary Kegs, &c._
We purpose to notice, under this head, two contrivances, which have
been used, the one in the revolution, and the other, during the late
war with Great Britain.
The piece of poetry, called the _Battle of the Kegs_, written by
the late Francis Hopkinson, Esq. of Philadelphia, narrating the
incendiary kegs, is founded on this contrivance.
For the purpose of destroying the shipping at Philadelphia, which
was then in possession of the British, some forty or more kegs were
fitted up at Burlington, N. J. or in its neighbourhood, containing
a quantity of gunpowder. These kegs were connected in such a manner,
that, while they formed one float, when one exploded, the whole
would go off. This arrangement was also made with another, if our
information is correct, which consisted in a trigger connected with
a gun-lock, (one or more kegs having the same); so that, when the
triggers went off, by the casks coming against any thing, in floating
down the tide, the whole would explode at the same time. There is one
of the original kegs in the magazine of Fort Mifflin. We apprehend,
however, that the contrivance was more like that of clock-work, set
to a given time, like the torpedo of Fulton; but of this we have
no certain account. These kegs were towed down the river, within a
mile or two of the city, and were seen about sunrise opposite to it.
They did no execution; but, if they had been taken to a given spot,
instead of being left to the direction of the running current, and
then properly adjusted, no doubt the effect would have been as the
contriver calculated. It excited, however, no small sensation at the
time.
Of the other contrivance, we have the following account: A Mr.
Scudder (_History of the late War, &c._ p. 187) formed a design of
destroying the British ship Ramilies, of 74 guns, off New London.
For this purpose, 10 kegs of powder were put into a strong cask,
with a quantity of sulphur mixed into it. At the head of the cask
were, fixed two gun-locks, with cords fastened to the triggers, and
to the under side of the barrels in the hatchway; so that it was
impossible to hoist the barrels, without springing the locks each
side of the powder. On the top were placed a quantity of turpentine
and spirits of turpentine, which in all probability were sufficient
to destroy any vessel that ever floated. These kegs were put on
board the smack Eagle, which sailed from New York on the 15th of
June, for New London; but which the crew abandoned, on being pursued
by the boats of the enemy. It was expected, that the vessel would
be brought alongside the Ramilies, and, by exploding, destroy that
ship. The wind dying away, and the tide being against them, she could
not, very fortunately for the enemy, be brought alongside. When the
Eagle exploded, there were four boats alongside, and a great many
men on board of her. After the explosion, there was not a vestige
of the boats to be seen. A body of fire rose to a vast height, and
then burst like a rocket. Every man, near or about her, was probably
lost, as the boats sent from the Ramilies were seen to return without
picking up anything.
In relation to similar enterprizes, what could have been a more
daring and hazardous enterprize, than that of lieutenants Wadsworth,
Summers, &c. who, by a previous agreement, determined, if they were
likely to be captured by the Turks, to blow themselves up in the
fire-ship, which they had prepared to destroy the enemy's shipping,
in the harbour of Tripoli? Their fate is too well known, lamentable
as it is!
The marquis of Worcester, in his _Century of Inventions_, inventions
nine and ten, speaks of certain contrivances for the destruction of
vessels, which seem to have been of the kind mentioned: _viz._ "An
engine, portable in one's pocket, which may be carried and fastened
on the inside of the greatest ship, _tanquam aliud agens_; and, at an
appointed minute, though a week after, either of a day or night, it
shall irrecoverably sink that ship;" and "a way from a mile off, to
drive and fasten a like engine to any ship, so as it may punctually
work the same effect, either for time or execution."
_Sec. XXIII. Of Sea Lights._
The _fanaux de mer_, or sea lights, are so called, from the
particular application of this fire.
It is sometimes required at sea to throw light upon the water, and
around the vessel, in order to perceive the approach of an enemy.
This is effected by the composition for sea lights.
A tube must be formed of not less than three inches in diameter, and
eleven inches in length. A shield is then adapted, of four times the
exterior diameter of the tube or case, which shield is to be made of
wood, and attached at about the distance of one-fourth of the length
of the tube, and near the end of the orifice.
The case or tube is then charged with the following composition:
_Composition for Sea Lights._
Saltpetre, 16 parts.
Sulphur, 8 ----
Meal-powder, 3 ----
Antimony, 3 ----
The tube, which may be made of iron, pasteboard, or wood, by boring
it out, after being charged, is primed in the usual manner, inserting
in the end, at the same time, a piece of quick-match. When dried, it
is wrapped in paper for better preservation.
_Sec. XXIV. Of Signal and War-Rockets._
Rockets, we have said, are cylindrical cases, formed generally
of pasteboard, and filled with a peculiar composition, made of
meal-powder, saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal; or without powder,
and sometimes with the addition of pulverized cast iron. In some, as
the Congreve rocket, iron cases are substituted for those of paper.
The outer diameter is usually from one and a half to two inches,
the length of the charge five diameters, and the interior diameter
two-thirds as much as the exterior. The tools necessary are, a rod
or former of wood, to mould the case upon; an artificer's tool to
roll the paper close; a conical spit or piercer, by means of which
the rocket when loaded has a hollow through the middle, which piercer
should be four and two-thirds times as long as the outer diameter of
the rocket, one-third of this diameter at the base, and one-sixth at
the small end; three rods for loading, having a conical aperture to
receive the piercer, and one massive; and a ladle or measure, whose
diameter is equal to that of the inside of the rocket, and its length
three times as much. The construction of the cartouch case, or paper
cylinder, consists in using pasteboard of three or more thicknesses,
which is rolled on the former, until the case becomes sufficiently
thick. The choaking of the cylinder is performed by means of a cord,
of three lines in diameter, one end of which is firmly fixed into
a wall, and the other tied to a stick, against which the artificer
who bestrides the cord rests. The rocket is loaded or charged, by
introducing at a time, a ladle full of composition, first fixing the
case over the piercer, and using the appropriate rammer and mallet,
in the manner stated, &c.[35]
Signal rockets are sometimes _trimmed_ with serpents, stars, and
petards. The serpents are made of cases in the manner already
mentioned; _viz._ by rolling playing cards in the direction of their
length, upon a former, three lines in diameter, and covered with
three coats of paper, the last of which is pasted. The cases are
choaked at one end, and in the niche is placed a strand of tow, and
a priming of meal-powder, moistened with brandy. They are loaded,
by means of a rod, three-fourths full of the composition, and again
choaked at half their height. The remainder is filled up with powder,
to make a report. If a serpent with stars is to be made, only half
the case is filled with the serpent-composition, and the rest with
that for stars. Serpents are placed upright in the pot, the priming
down.
_Composition for Serpents, for trimming Signal Rockets._
Meal-powder, 16 parts.
Saltpetre, 3 ----
Sulphur, 2 ----
Charcoal, ½ ----
The star composition is the same as before given.[36] It is mixed and
made into balls or cubes, in the same manner. The petards or crackers
are small cubes of paper, filled with grained gunpowder. They are
wrapped with two layers of good thread, which is drawn tight in every
direction. They are dipped in tar to give them more consistence, and
pierced and primed with quick match. We have already given the theory
of the flight of rockets in the first part of this work; and also the
opinions of Mariotte and Dr. Desaguliers. On this head, therefore,
further observation seems unnecessary We have said, however, that it
is necessary, for giving the rocket a sufficient degree of motion,
that the powder within the rocket be bored with a tapering cavity
from the choke, and at the choke this cavity must be as wide as the
choke itself, and at the further end, not more than half that width.
The length of this bore must be but one inner diameter of the rocket,
short of the whole height to which the rocket is rammed. The use of
this bore, it is to be observed, is to increase the surface, that
takes fire at once; that a greater body of fire may issue out of the
mouth of the rocket. From the vehemence with which the fire issues
out, the rocket receives its motion. We have seen, that rockets are
used in all fire-works that have motion; for cases charged give
motion to wheels of various kinds, and act on the same principle.
Such works as are thrown into the air after the manner of bombs, are,
however, an exception.
The rocket-stick is a necessary appendage. When very heavy, to
prevent mischief by their fall, they now bore the sticks, and fill
them with powder, that they may shiver in the air before they fall.
That the stick keeps the rocket perpendicular is obvious. If the
rocket should begin to tumble, moving round a point in the choke,
as being the common centre of gravity of rocket and stick, there
would be so much friction against the air, by the stick between the
centre and the point, and the point would beat against the air with
so much velocity, that the reaction of the medium would restore it
to its perpendicularity. When the composition is burnt out, and the
impulse upwards has ceased, the common centre of gravity is brought
lower towards the middle of the stick. Hence the velocity of the
point of the stick is decreased, and that of the point of the rocket
increased; so that the whole will tumble down, with the rocket end
foremost. During the combustion of the rocket, the common centre of
gravity is shifting and getting downwards, and faster and lower as
the stick is lighter.
In the _Philosophical Transactions_, (vol. xlvi, p. 578) and Robins's
_Mathematical Tracts_, (vol. i, p. 317, &c.) are sundry experiments,
and observations concerning the flight of rockets; and as these
experiments appertain more to military purposes, the following
extracts may, on that account, be useful.
Mr. Robins, considering the great use that may be made of rockets,
in determining the position of distant places, and in giving signals
for naval and military purposes, procured some, with a view of
ascertaining the height to which they rise, and the distance at
which they may be seen. The greatest part of them did not rise to
above four hundred yards; one to about five hundred; and one to six
hundred yards nearly. The greatest distance at which these were
observed, was from thirty-five to thirty-eight miles. Others were
fired at a different time, one of which rose to six hundred and
ninety yards; and it was observed, that the largest, which were
about two and a half inches in diameter, rose the highest. In some
subsequent experiments, conducted by Mr. Da Costa, Mr. Banks, &c. it
was found, that, of two rockets, of about three and a half inches
in diameter, one rose to about eight hundred and thirty-three, and
the other to 915 yards. In another trial, a rocket of four inches
in diameter rose to one thousand one hundred and ninety yards. In
other experiments, a rocket of one and a half inches rose to seven
hundred and forty-three yards; one of two inches to six hundred
and fifty nine; one of two and a half inches to eight hundred and
eighty; another of the same size to one thousand and seventy-one;
one of three inches to one thousand two hundred and fifty-four; one
of three and a half inches to one thousand one hundred and nine; and
one of four inches rose to seven hundred yards, and, turning, fell
to the ground before it went out. Besides these, there was one of
the rockets of "twenty-four inches in diameter,"[37] which rose to
seven hundred and eighty four yards, and another of the same size, to
eight hundred and thirty-three yards. From these experiments, it is
inferred, that rockets from two and a half to three and a half inches
in diameter, are sufficient to answer all the purposes for which they
are intended; and they may be made to rise to a height, and to afford
a light capable of being seen to considerably greater distances than
those just mentioned.
Before we mention the war-rockets of Congreve, it may not be improper
to speak of the Indian rockets, which are used by the native troops
of India, and which were employed against the British, with great
effect, during the seige of Seringapatam in 1799. These rockets
are made of iron, and are lashed to a bamboo cane. The weight is
seldom more than two pounds, or less than one. The _fougette_, or
Indian rocket, resembles in shape a sky-rocket, _whose flight is
gradually brought to run along a horizontal direction_. By throwing
several fougettes into parks of artillery, and upon caissons, &c.
considerable damage might be occasioned from the fire, which would
inevitably be communicated to some part. A fougette forces itself
immediately forward, cuts as it penetrates, by the formation of its
sides, which are filled with small spikes, becomes combustible, and
on fire at all its points, and possesses within itself a thousand
different means, by which it can adhere to whatever object it is
destined to set on fire or destroy. A French writer even asserts,
that this weapon would be more effectual, because it might be more
variously applied, to defend the mouth of a harbour against an
enemy's shipping, than red-hot balls can ever prove; and we are also
told, that, by means of their natural velocity, they would do more
execution, in a less space of time, than the most active piece of
ordnance could effect; and they would also require fewer hands, as
the only necessary operation would be to light and dart them forward.
The fougette, called also in French the _Baguette à feu_, has
received improvements in France, which we will notice hereafter. In
favour of these improvements and their application, we are told,
that, to do execution at a distance, especially in sea-fights,
fougettes may be so made as that they may reach shipping at a great
distance, and with a given velocity.
The Congreve rocket is a new species of war-rocket, invented by Sir
William Congreve. This incendiary rocket drew the attention of the
European nations, after the attack of the British on Copenhagen;
where, we are informed, they did incredible execution. This rocket
may be considered to be a carrier of fire. Their effect, however,
in the Chesapeake, and elsewhere, during the late war, was very
trifling. They seemed, in fact, little calculated to injure and
more to intimidate.[38] They differ from the common rocket as well
in their magnitude and construction, as in the powerful nature of
their composition; which is such, that without the encumbrance of any
ordnance, (the rocket containing the propelling power wholly within
itself), balls, shells, case-shot and carcasses, may be projected to
the distance of one thousand to three thousand yards. The principle
of projectile force is so greatly increased, as not only to triple
the flight of small rockets so formed, but also to allow of the
construction of rockets of such dimensions, as, on the ordinary
principles of combination, would not even rise from the ground,
and of such powers of flight and burthen, as have hitherto been
considered altogether impracticable.
On the basis of this increase of power, Congreve has succeeded in
making this rocket. They are formed of various dimensions, as well in
length as in caliber, and are differently armed, according as they
are intended for the field, or for bombardment and conflagration;
carrying in the first instance either shells or case shot, and in
the second, for the purpose of destroying shipping, buildings,
stores, &c. a peculiar species of composition, which never fails
of destroying every combustible material with which it comes in
contact. The latter are called _carcass-rockets_, and were first
used at Boulogne in 1805, after many experiments, which were made
by Congreve, at Woolwich. The attack in 1806 was merely desultory,
in which not more than 200 rockets were fired. The town was set on
fire by the first discharge, and continued burning for near two days.
After the affair at Copenhagen, which established their reputation,
it appears that a committee of officers, who had witnessed their
effect in that bombardment, pronounced them to be "_a powerful
auxiliary to the present system of artillery._"
At the seige of Flushing, they appear to have been used with success,
and general Monnet, the French commandant, made a formal remonstrance
to lord Chatham respecting the use of them in that bombardment. The
rocket system was also tried with success, and the crown prince of
Sweden was the first general, who bore testimony to their effects
in this service. At the memorable battle of Leipzig, they proved,
we are informed, a powerful weapon, and also, when the British army
under Wellington, crossed the Adour. In 1814, a rocket-corps was
established in the British service.
General de Grave transmitted, to the Society of Encouragement of
Paris, a Congreve rocket, or an English incendiary rocket, which was
found on the French coast. M. Gay-Lussac examined it. The case was
made with gray paper, and painted. The inflammable matter was of a
yellowish-gray, and the sulphur was distinguishable with the naked
eye. It burnt with a quick flame, and exhaled sulphurous acid gas.
According to his analysis, (_Archives des Découvertes_, ii, 303), the
composition gave
Nitrate of potassa, 75.00
Charcoal, 1.6
Sulphur, 23.4
------
100
------
Gay-Lussac, after determining the proportions of the constituent
parts, made a composition of a similar kind, and charged a case,
which exhibited the same properties as the English rocket.
The great general point of excellence of the rocket system, if we
may judge from the account of English writers, is the facility with
which all the natures of this weapon may be conveyed and applied.
Its peculiar applicability to naval bombardment is said to rest on
this property, that there is no reaction, no recoil in the firing
of the largest rocket; so that by this means carcasses, equal to
those projected by the largest mortars, may be thrown from the
smallest boats. Its peculiar fitness for land service is, that it
is a description of extremely powerful ammunition without ordnance,
so that the burthen of mortars and guns is dispensed with, and all
that is to be carried is actual available missile matter, capable
of range, and of many of the most important effects of the heaviest
artillery. The rocket system, as a system of ammunition without
ordnance, is highly extolled by British writers.
We will now speak of their construction. All rockets designed
for service are cylindrical, having strong metallic cases, and
armed, as we before observed, either with carcass composition for
bombardment and conflagration, or with shells and case shot for
field service. They are, however, of various weights and dimensions,
from the eight-inch carcass or explosion rocket, weighing nearly
three hundred weight, to the six pound shell rocket, which is the
smallest size, used in the field. The sticks, which are employed for
regulating their flight, are also of different lengths, according to
the size and service of the rocket; and which, for the convenience
of carriage, are stowed apart from the rocket, and so contrived as
to consist of two or more parts, which are connected to it, and
to each other, when requisite, with the utmost expedition. The
32 pounder rocket carcass, which is the nature hitherto chiefly
used for bombardment, will range 3000 yards with the same quantity
of combustible matter as that contained in the 10 inch spherical
carcass, and 2500 yards with the same quantity as that of the 13
inch spherical carcass. The 12 pounder rocket case shot, which is
so portable that it may be used with the facility of musketry,
has a range nearly double that of field artillery, carrying as
many bullets as the 6 pounder spherical case. We may remark here,
that the projectile force of the rocket is well calculated for the
conveyance of case shot to great distances; because, as it proceeds,
its velocity is accelerated instead of being retarded, as happens
with any other projectile; while the average velocity of the shell
is greater than that of the rocket only in the ratio of 9 to 8.
Independent of this, the case shot conveyed by the rocket admits of
any desired increase of velocity in its range by the bursting of
powder, which cannot be obtained in any other description of case.
Rocket ammunition is divided into three classes, _heavy_, _medium_,
and _light_; the former including all those above 42 lbs., which are
denominated according to their caliber, as eight-inch, seven-inch,
&c. rockets; the medium including all those from 42 lbs. to 24 lbs.;
and the light embracing from 18 pounder to 6 pounder inclusive.
The carcass-rockets are armed with strong iron conical heads,
containing a composition as hard and solid as iron itself, and which,
when once inflamed, cannot be extinguished. A 32 pounder carcass
rocket will penetrate 9 feet in common ground. They have been known
to pierce through several floors, and through the sides of houses.
For field service, the 24, 18, 12, and 6 pounders are commonly used.
The ranges of the eight-inch, seven-inch, and six-inch rockets, are
from 2000 to 2500 yards, and the quantity of combustible matter,
or bursting powder, from 25 lbs. to 50 lbs. These sized rockets
are equally efficient for the destruction of bomb proofs, or the
demolition of strong buildings. The largest rocket that has yet been
constructed has not exceeded 300 weight. It is proposed, however, to
make them from half a ton to a ton in weight.
The 42 and 32 pounders, which are used in bombardment, will convey
from 7 lbs. to 10 lbs. of combustible matter each, and have a range
of upwards of 3000 yards. The 24 pounder is equal to the propelling
of the coehorn shell, or 12 pounder shot. It is, from the saving in
weight, generally preferred to the 32 pounder. The eighteen-pounder,
which is the first of the light nature of rockets, is armed with a
nine pound shot or shell; the twelve-pounder, with a six do.; the
nine-pounder, with a grenade; and the six-pounder, with a 3 lb. shot
or shell.
The following table presents a general view of the ranges,
elevations, and other particulars of several of the most useful
descriptions of Congreve rockets.
----------------------+---------------------------+-------+---------
| | |Elevation
| |Extreme| for
Nature of ammunition. | Armed with | range.| extreme
| | | range.
----------------------+---------------------------+-------+---------
| _Carcasses_, large, 18 } | |Elevation
42 Pounder carcass } |lbs. of combustible } | yards.|for
rockets. } |matter; small, 12 lbs. } | |extreme
|do. } | 3,500 |range,
| } | |not less
42 Pounder shell } | _Shells_, 5½, 12 pr. } | |than 60°
rockets. } |spherical. } | |
| | |
|_Carcasses_, large, 18 lbs.| yards.|
32 Pounder carcass } |of combustible matter; | 2,000 | 60°
rockets. } |medium 12 lbs. = 13 inch | |
|carcass; | 2,500 | { 60° to
| | | { 55°
|Small, 8 lbs. = 10 inch } | 3,000 | 55°
|carcass. } | |
| | |
32 Pounder shell } |shells, 9 pr. spherical. | 3,000 | 50°
rockets. } | | |
| | |
32 Pounder case } |Case { large 200 carbine | |
shot rockets. } |shot, { balls. | 2,500 | 55°
| { small 100 do. | 3,000 | 50°
| | |
|Strong iron containing } | |
32 Pounder explosion }|from 5 lbs. to 12 lbs. } | from }|
rockets. }|of powder, to burst } | 2500 }| 55°
|by fusées. } | 8000 }|
| | |
| { large 72 carbine | |
12 Pounder case } |Case { balls. | 2,000 | 45°
shot rockets. } |shot, { small, 48 carbine | |
| { balls. | 2,500 | 45°
----------------------+---------------------------+-------+---------
From the preceding table, it will be seen, that the 32 pounder
carcass rocket will range 3000 yards, with the same quantity of
combustible matter as that contained in a ten-inch spherical case,
and 2500 yards, with the same quantity as that of the thirteen-inch
spherical carcass. The twelve pounder case-shot rocket, which is so
portable that it may be used with the facility of musquetry, has
a range nearly double that of field artillery, carrying as many
bullets as the six pounder spherical case: add to which, that, from
the nature of the combination of the rocket, these bullets are
projected from it in any part of its track, with an increase of
velocity, by which its operation becomes frequently more destructive
at that point, where any different species of ammunition ceases to
be effective. Of this description of rocket-case-shot, one hundred
soldiers will carry into action, in any situation where musquetry can
act, 300 rounds, and 10 frames for discharging them; from each of
which, four rounds may be fired in a minute. Of the same description
of case-shot, four horses will carry 72 rounds, and four frames;
from which may be fired 16 rounds in a minute. The rockets used by
cavalry are twelve pounders, armed with a 6 pounder shell or case
shot; each horse carrying four of these rockets. To detail the
arrangement of the rocket corps, the weight of ammunition carried by
the troop horse, and other particulars, would require more space than
we can conveniently appropriate to these subjects.
We may remark, however, that the heavier species of rockets, as
the 32 pounder or 24 pounder, as also the 18 and 12 pounders, are
sometimes carried in cars of a peculiar description; which not only
convey the ammunition, but are contrived also to discharge each two
rockets in a volley, from a double iron-plate trough. This trough is
of the same length as the boxes for the sticks, and travels between
them; but being moveable, may, when the car is unlimbered, be shifted
into its fighting position, at any angle from the ground ranges, or
point blank, up to 45°, without being detached from the carriage.
The limbers are always in the rear. The rockets are fired with a
port-fire and long stick.
When used by infantry, one man in ten, carries a frame of a very
simple construction, standing on three legs like a theodolite, when
spread. It is mounted at top with an open cradle, from which the
rockets are discharged, either for ground ranges, or at any required
elevation.
When they are used for bombardment, they are discharged from frames
of a different, though simple, construction; and, in many cases, the
frames are dispensed with, as they are thrown from a battery, erected
for the purpose.
For the defence of a pass, or for covering the retreat of an army,
the rockets are laid in batteries of 100 or 500 in a row, according
to the extent of the ground to be protected. One man may fire the
whole.
With regard to their use in the naval service, some additional
remarks may be interesting.
We observed, that, in consequence of there being no reaction in
these projectiles on the point of discharge, rockets may be used in
the smallest boats of the navy. These rockets carry a quantity of
combustible matter, and, according to the ordinary system, would
require to be thrown from the largest mortars, and from ships of
very heavy tonnage. The 12 and 18 pounder have been fired from a
four-oared gig. They may be made to ricochet in the water at low
angles. In boarding, they have been recommended, to be thrown into
the port holes of the enemy. They have also been recommended for
fire-ships, in order to produce an extensive and devastating fire
among the ships of the enemy.
Besides the advantages, which rockets possess, and of which we have
spoken; namely, that it is a species of projectile, containing within
itself the propelling power, by which heavy ordnance is dispensed
with, and that an extensive fire may be kept up, by a few men,
against any important point; there is another advantage said to be
peculiar to them; _viz._ that they may be employed in a variety of
cases, in which the usual artillery, from the nature of the ground,
or other impediments, cannot be rendered effective; and that, in
several bombardments, in consequence of their trifling reaction,
they may be thrown from cutters and small boats, and, therefore,
from points, which could never be approached by the vessels, usually
employed in that service. With respect to the expense of the
formation of war-rockets, calculations have been made, by which it
appears, that their cost is less than the usual expense of carcasses.
We are informed on this head, that it is the cheapest of all
ammunition, depending on the projectile force of gunpowder. For a 32
pounder carcass rocket costs only 1_l._ 1_s._ 11_d._ complete for
service, and its equivalent, the 10 inch spherical carcass, with the
charge of powder necessary to convey it 3000 yards, which power is
contained in the rocket, costs 1_l._ 2_s._ 7_d._, independent of any
charge for the mortar, mortar bed, platform, difference of transport,
&c. A vessel of 300 tons will carry 5000 of them at least. But the
comparison, as to the expense, is still more in favour of the rocket,
when compared with the larger nature of carcasses. The 15 inch
spherical carcass costs 1_l._ 17_s._ 11-1/2_d._ to throw 2500 yards;
while its equivalent rocket costs but 1_l._ 5_s._ being a saving on
the first cost, of 12_s._ 11-1/2_d._
Notwithstanding all the encomiums, bestowed on the Congreve rockets
by the English, the French entertain a different opinion of them.
For the following remarks, we are indebted to Ruggeri, (_Pyrotechnie
Militaire_, p. 278), by which it appears, that Congreve was not the
original inventor. He acknowledges, however, that they experienced
the sad effects of them; and we do not offer this remark with
any sort of prejudice, but as an acknowledgment, that the French
experienced their "sad effects." Ruggeri says, that the Congreve
rocket is nothing more than he described in his _Elements of
Pyrotechny_ five years before they were known to the English. It is,
therefore, wrong, he adds, that we regard it as an English invention.
It was invented, says he, by a naval officer at Bordeaux, and ought
not, he further remarks, to be regarded as a useful weapon in war.
The reason he gives is, that its utility must depend upon places and
circumstances. If it is required, he adds, to attack a fleet, we must
employ two or three hundred before making any impression; because we
cannot direct a firing rocket, as a cannon or ball. This is certainly
a great inconvenience. He makes the cost also much greater than the
English calculation; namely, for a single one of them ten times
more than for a red-hot shot. Ruggeri, however, is candid enough to
say, that, notwithstanding he differs in opinion, he is far from
opposing any trials or experiments, made with the view of improving
or perfecting it; but is decidedly of opinion, that it can never be
employed at sea with the same advantage as bombs and cannon-ball.
Ruggeri published, in the _Journal of Paris_, in September, 1809,
a letter, in reply to a writer, who had published some reflections
on incendiary rockets, from which, as it throws some light on this
subject, we shall here introduce a few extracts:
"Although Monsieur, the _cannonier_ of Ostend, may not have given the
precise construction of the rocket, which we name the sky-rocket, and
of which the English have made so criminal a use, I will commence
at first by assuring you, that I coincide perfectly with him, in
the preference he gives to howitzes, bombs, and other projectiles,
which are used by civilized nations. He has very satisfactorily
demonstrated their advantages over the Congreve rocket. I will
only add, that bombs and howitzes have also the advantage of being
one-fifth cheaper, and projected with greater facility.
"The Congreve rocket cannot be of any particular advantage, because
it only carries fire to the place where it falls; and if we wish to
use them against any vessel whatever, it is impossible to assure
ourselves of a direction on a given point, as many difficulties occur
in projecting them.
"The merit of the invention of these rockets does not belong to the
English.
"This invention was made by a Frenchman, a captain of a privateer,
who made the first attempt to use them about seventeen years since,
(1795).
"The English have perfected, or rather have modified this rocket.
"It is sometime since I offered a kind of bomb, which may be used
with more facility than the common kind. This bomb has the advantage
over the Congreve rocket: 1st, Because it is less troublesome to
use; 2dly, It may be made of any diameter or size, and consequently
suited to all calibers; 3dly, The place and time of its fall is
readily determined; and fourth, and lastly, It bursts into pieces,
and attaches itself to all combustible bodies, with which it meets.
"It remains for me to say, that it is not the powder which moves the
rocket, but a composition almost as strong. The powder, which is used
in the Congreve rocket, is intended to destroy the machine after it
has produced its destructive effects." See _Pyrotechnie Militaire_,
p. 278.
The difference between incendiary rockets, and common signal rockets,
is in the interior. Instead of the furniture, or garnishing pot and
head, a conical head of sheet iron is substituted, in which several
holes are made to suffer the composition it contains to burn more
readily. The composition is the same as that for fire-rockets; but
is coarsely pulverized, and mixed with an equal quantity of the
composition of fire-lances. These rockets are employed with advantage
to burn a city, or vessels in a harbour. The cone, with which they
are capped, enables them to penetrate the roofs of houses, and set
them on fire.
_Sec. XXV. Sky-Rockets (Meurtrières.)_
The sanguinary or _murdering rocket_ is made in the same manner as
the preceding. They have neither head nor pot; but, in their place,
they are furnished with a cone of beaten or solid iron. This cone is
the appendage, or weapon, which produces such destructive effects.
These rockets, when they fall upon the troops of an enemy, wound
them very dangerously, without their being able to prevent it. The
advantage, more particularly derived, is, that they may be projected
from under cover, and to double the distance of ordinary musketry. To
make use of these rockets, a box is constructed, whose interior is
so arranged as to receive the rockets in regular order. They should
be placed in it with their sticks; and, therefore, the case must
be made sufficiently large to admit them. By this contrivance, the
rockets are sheltered from the fire and water. To discharge them, the
box is first inclined on the side next to the heads of the rockets,
and in the direction of the place, to which they are to be thrown. A
communication is made by leaders, in the manner already mentioned in
the preceding part of this work; so that, when the match is fired,
or a single rocket, they all are discharged at the same time. The
mode of firing rockets either singly or in numbers, the manner of
preparing the cases, the different compositions, and the operation
of filling, and of furnishing them, &c. are given in the preceding
part.
_Sec. XXVI. Of the Rocket Light-Ball._
Congreve also invented a species of light-ball, which, when thrown
into the air by means of one of his rockets, and having reached
the elevation of the rockets' ascent, is detached from it with an
explosion, and remains suspended in the air by a small parachute,
to which it is connected by a chain. Thus, in lieu of the transient
momentary gleam, obtained by the common light ball, a permanent
and brilliant light is obtained, and suspended in the air for five
minutes at least, so as to afford time and light sufficient to
observe the motions of an enemy, either on shore or at sea; where
it is particularly useful in chasing, and for giving distant and
more extensive night signals. It is to be observed, that nothing of
this kind can be obtained by the projectile force of either guns or
mortars; because the explosion infallibly destroys any construction,
that could be made to produce the suspension in the air.
We have seen no account of any experiments, which have been made with
it.
_Sec. XXVII. Of the Floating Rocket Carcass._
Congreve also applied his rocket, and the parachute, for the purpose
of conveying combustible matter to distances far beyond the range
of any known projectile force, at the same time that it is cheap,
simple, and portable. The floating carcass, like the light-ball, is
thrown into the air, attached to a rocket, from which being liberated
at its greatest altitude, and suspended to a small parachute, it
is driven forward by the wind, and will, in a moderate breeze,
afford ranges at least double those of the common carcass. It may,
therefore, for naval purposes, be thrown from a blockading squadron,
in great quantities, by a fair wind, against any fleet or arsenal,
without the smallest risk, or without approaching within range of
either guns or mortars. The rocket containing the carcass is no
larger than the 32 pounder carcass rocket; and the whole expense,
added to the rocket, does not exceed five shillings. Nor are the
approaches of the carcass itself necessarily visible by night; as it
may be so arranged, as not to inflame, till some time after it has
settled. It is evidently, therefore, capable of becoming a harassing
weapon, if the account of it be true; and, among large fleets and
flotillas, it may do as much injury as any other carcass, by lodging
unperceived in the rigging, or lighting on extensive arsenals, in
such situations, where other means of annoyance could not be used.
_Sec. XXVIII. Observations on Rockets._
The following remarks on the subject of rockets by M. Bigot, (_Traité
d'Artifice de Guerre_, p. 131,) may be interesting to the reader.
Authors, who have written on rockets, are of opinion, that the height
of the different kinds of rockets should not be increased on account
of their diameter; because, as the diameter increases, the rocket
also increases in weight and surface; and if augmented in height in
the same ratio, its power of ascension would be feeble. It is from
this reasoning, together with practice, that they have determined the
height of empty cases. Some have given the proportion of six times
their exterior diameter, and others again have made them a third
longer than the piercer. There has resulted from this difference
of opinion, such an irregularity in the formation of rockets, that
artificers or fire-workers were left in uncertainty as to the best
mode to be pursued. To avoid, however, this embarrassment, if we
consider the diameter of the base of the piercer of any kind of
rocket as one-third of the exterior diameter of the case, the small
end must be the one-sixth part of it; and the piercer and the cone
are of the same diameter, and the surface of the one is equal to
the surface of the other. We might conclude, accordingly, that the
increase of the height of the case, should be the same with all kinds
of rockets. It appears by different authors, that the ancient and
modern fire-workers have fixed the dimensions of rockets and their
piercers, by various experiments. If we take for granted all the
heights of the piercers, or the rockets themselves, we obtain a curve
of double or treble reflection, which is very evidently in opposition
to the above principles, and of the law which results from them.
Experiments prove, that to make a good rocket of half an inch in
diameter, the piercer must be five times and a third of the same
diameter; and for a rocket of three inches, the piercer, or broach,
as it is sometimes called, is only four times the diameter in height.
To determine, however, the height of the piercer in general, greater
than the preceding, it is found necessary to have some satisfactory
result, in order to employ, mathematically speaking, _less times_ of
the exterior diameter of the rocket. The half-inch and three-inch
rocket are the extremes of an increasing arithmetical progression;
and their equivalents, 5-1/3 and 4 diameters is the extreme of a
similar, but decreasing progress; but if we insert the same number
of arithmetical mean between the two extremes of each of these two
progressions, and then continue them indifferently, the terms of the
first will express the diameter of as many different cases; and those
of the second, the height of the corresponding piercers. They will
be, for instance, in the two following proportions:
÷ 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14, &c. 36.
÷ 5-14/45 5-12/45 5-11/45 5-9/45 5-7/45 5-7/45 5-2/45 5-1/45 4-44/45 &c. 4.
The first of which has unity for its common difference. It has been
found, that, by inserting in each, a mean of 29, the height of the
piercers will correspond with the superior diameter, which is less,
or regulated by their respective diameters. Besides, as the diameters
go on augmenting, the rockets are proportionably increased in height,
but only in an inverse order, until the 58th term included, and
beyond which they decrease, until they become negative, which appears
to indicate that the term appertains to the diameter of the rocket,
and without any uncertainty.
It results from the intimate relation of these two progressions,
that, in stopping at the 58th term, if we bring back on an axis as it
were, the height of the piercers, we obtain a straight instead of a
curved line.
Bigot has given two tables relative to the construction of rockets,
and, as their use is seen by mere inspection, we here introduce them
without remark.
They comprehend the dimensions of rockets of different calibers,
compared with the exterior and respective diameter of each kind; and
relative to the dimensions of the tools of sky-rockets of different
calibers, and also compared with the exterior and respective diameter
of each.
It will be seen, on an examination of these tables, that all the data
are satisfactorily given; so that, in the construction of rockets,
the artificer will find them extremely useful, if not absolutely
necessary.
The principles on which these tables are founded, may be depended
on, inasmuch as M. Bigot has taken considerable pains on that
head; and, consequently, the calculations, which follow, and the
proportions, established for the construction of rockets in general,
are sufficiently conclusive.
(TABLE I: Part 1 of 3)
+-----------------+-----------++-----------------------------------------+
| |Diameter of|| Height of tools of wood. |
| |the rocket.|| |
| +-----+-----++-----------------------------------------+
| | | || Rammers, &c. |
+ | | ++------+----------------------------------+
| Name of the | | || | For charging the head not |
| Rocket. | | || | comprised. |
| | Ext | Int-|| +-------+---------+---------+------+
| |erior|erior||Roller| 1 | 2 | 3 |Solid4|
+-----------------+-----+-----++------+-------+---------+---------+------+
| |inch.|Diam.|| D. | D. | D. | D. | D. |
|Small Partement, | ½ | ⅔ || 24 |6⅓ |4-5/9 |2-7/9 |1⅓ |
|Partement, | ¾ |idem.|| 16 |6-2/9 |4-13/27 |2-6/27 |idem. |
|Marquise, | 1 |idem.|| 12 |6-1/12 |4-7/18 |2-25/36 |idem. |
|Double marquises | 1¼ |idem.|| idem.|5-14/15|4-13/45 |2-29/45 |idem. |
|Ditto, for 4 doz.| 1½ |idem.|| 10 |5-7/9 |4-5/27 |2-16/27 |idem. |
|Rocket of | 2 |idem.|| 9 |5⅜ |3-31/36 |2-25/72 |1⅙ |
|Ditto, | 2½ |idem.|| 8⅖ |5-1/15 |3-29/45 |2-2/9 |1-2/15|
|Ditto, | 3 |idem.|| 8 |4-7/9 |3-4/9 |2-1/9 |1-1/9 |
|Ditto, | 4 |idem.|| 6⅚ |4¼ |3-3/32 |1-15/16 |1⅛ |
|Ditto, | 5 |idem.|| 6 |3-43/60|2-133/180|1-137/180|1-7/60|
+-----------------+-----+-----++------+-------+---------+---------+------+
(TABLE I: Part 2 of 3)
+-----------------+-----------++-----------------------------------------+
| |Diameter of|| Height of | Diameter of the |
| |the rocket.||tools of wood| tools of wood. |
| +-----+-----++-------------+-----+------+------+-------+
| | | || | | Rammers. | | |
+ | | || | +-----+------| | |
| Name of the | | || | | | | | |
| Rocket. | | || | Con- | | | |Sockets|
| | Ext | Int-|| | ical | To | To | Of | of the|
| |erior|erior|| Pot. | head | run |charge| pots.| pot. |
+-----------------+-----+-----++------+------+-----+------+------+-------+
| |inch.|Diam.|| D. | D. | D. | D. | D. | D. |
|Small Partement, | ½ | ⅔ || 3 |1⅔ | ⅔ |7/12 |1⅔ | ⅔ |
|Partement, | ¾ |idem.|| 2⅔ |1-5/9 |idem.|11/18 |1-5/9 | 7/9 |
|Marquise, | 1 |idem.|| 2⅓ |1½ |idem.|idem. |1½ | ⅚ |
|Double marquises | 1¼ |idem.|| 2⅕ |1-8/15|idem.| ⅗ |1-8/15| 13/15 |
|Ditto, for 4 doz.| 1½ |idem.|| 2 |1½ |idem.|11/18 |1½ | ⅚ |
|Rocket of | 2 |idem.|| 1¾ |idem. |idem.| ⅝ |idem. | ⅞ |
|Ditto, | 2½ |idem.|| 1½ |idem. |idem.|19/30 |idem. | 9/10 |
|Ditto, | 3 |idem.|| 1⅓ |idem. |idem.|23/36 |idem. | 11/12 |
|Ditto, | 4 |idem.||1-1/16|idem. |idem.|31/48 |idem. | 15/16 |
|Ditto, | 5 |idem.|| 9/10|idem. |idem.|13/20 |idem. | 14/15 |
+-----------------+-----+-----++------+------+-----+------+------+-------+
(TABLE I: Part 3 of 3)
+-----------------+-----------++---------------+------------------+
| |Diameter of||Diameter of the| Dimension of |
| |the rocket.|| tools of wood.| mallets. |
| +-----+-----++-------+-------+---------+--------+
| Name of the | | || | | | |
| Rocket. | | ||Base of| | | |
| | Ext | Int-||conical| | | |
| |erior|erior|| head. | Ladle.|Diameter.| Length.|
+-----------------+-----+-----++-------+-------+---------+--------+
| |inch.|Diam.|| D. | D. | inches. | inches.|
|Small Partement, | ½ | ⅔ || 1⅔ | ⅔ | 2¾ | 3⅓ |
|Partement, | ¾ |idem.|| 1-5/9 | idem. | 2¾ | 3⅓ |
|Marquise, | 1 |idem.|| 1½ | idem. | 3½ | 4¼ |
|Double marquises | 1¼ |idem.|| 1-8/15| idem. | 3½ | 4¼ |
|Ditto, for 4 doz.| 1½ |idem.|| 1½ | idem. | 4 | 5 |
|Rocket of | 2 |idem.|| idem. | idem.}| | |
|Ditto, | 2½ |idem.|| idem. | idem.}| | |
|Ditto, | 3 |idem.|| idem. | idem.}| 5½ | 6⅔ |
|Ditto, | 4 |idem.|| idem. | idem.}| | |
|Ditto, | 5 |idem.|| idem. | idem.}| | |
+-----------------+-----+-----+--------+-------+---------+--------+
(TABLE II: Part 1 of 3)
+----------------+-----------++-----------------------------------+
| |Diameter of|| HEIGHT OF |
| | rockets. ||--------+--------+-------+---------+
| +-----+-----++ |Charged | | |
| Name of the | | || |rockets,| | |
| Rockets. | Ext-| Int-|| Empty |button, |Massive| |
| |erior|erior|| cases.|&c.incl.|Rockets|Piercers.|
+----------------+-----+-----++--------+--------+-------+---------+
| |inch.|Diam.|| D. | D. | D. | D. |
|Small partement,| ½ | ⅔ || 7⅓ | 6⅚ | ⅔ | 5⅓ |
|Partement, | ¾ |idem.|| idem. | 6-7/9 | idem. | 5-2/9 |
|Marquise, | 1 |idem.|| 7-7/12 | 6-7/12 | idem. | 5-1/12 |
|Double marquise | 1¼ |idem.|| 7 | 6-7/15 | idem. | 4-14/15 |
| of 3 doz. | | || | | | |
|Ditto, 4 doz. | 1½ |idem.|| 6-7/9 | 6-5/18 | idem. | 4-7/9 |
|Rocket of | 2 |idem.|| 6⅜ | 5⅞ | ½ | 4-13/24 |
|Ditto, | 2½ |idem.|| 6-1/15 | 5-17/30| 7/15 | 4-4/15 |
|Ditto, | 3 |idem.|| 5-7/9 | 5-5/18 | 4/9 | 4 |
|Ditto, | 4 |idem.|| 5¼ | 4-73/76| 11/24 | 3-15/32 |
|Ditto, | 5 |idem.|| 4-43/60| 4-13/60| 9/20 | 2-14/15 |
+----------------+-----+-----++-------+--------+--------+---------+
(TABLE II: Part 2 of 3)
+----------------+-----------++------------------------------------+
| |Diameter of|| HEIGHT OF |
| | rockets. ||--------+-------+-----------+-------+
| +-----+-----++ | |Total of | |
| Name of the | | || Button | |the piercer| |
| Rockets. | Ext-| Int-||& their | |and culot | |
| |erior|erior||cylinder|Culots.|comprised. | Screw.|
+----------------+-----+-----++--------+-------+-----------+-------+
| |inch.|Diam.|| D. | D. | D. | D. |
|Small partement,| ½ | ⅔ || ⅔ | 1⅔ | 7⅔ | ¼ |
|Partement, | ¾ |idem.|| idem. | idem. | 7-5/9 | 2⅔ |
|Marquise, | 1 |idem.|| idem. | idem. | 7-1/12 | 2½ |
|Double marquise | 1¼ |idem.|| idem. | 1⅕ | 6⅘ | 2 |
| of 3 doz. | | || | | | |
|Ditto, 4 doz. | 1½ |idem.|| idem. | 1-1/18| 6½ | 1⅚ |
|Rocket of | 2 |idem.|| idem. | ⅞ | 6-1/12 | 1½ |
|Ditto, | 2½ |idem.|| idem. | ⅘ | 5-11/15 | 1-3/10|
|Ditto, | 3 |idem.|| idem. | ⅔ | 5⅓ | 1⅙ |
|Ditto, | 4 |idem.|| idem. | ½ | 4-61/96 | 15/16 |
|Ditto, | 5 |idem.|| idem. | ⅖ | 4 | ⅘ |
+----------------+-----+-----++--------+-------+-----------+-------+
(TABLE II: Part 3 of 3)
+----------------+-----------++----------------------------------------+
| |Diameter of|| Diameter of the parts of the piercer. |
| | rockets. ||------+--------+---------+------+--- ---+
| +-----+-----++ | | | | |
| Name of the | | || |Exterior| Button | |Screw |
| Rockets. | Ext-| Int-|| |of small| and | |at the |
| |erior|erior|| Base.| end. |cylinder.|Culot.| base. |
+----------------+-----+-----++------+--------+---------+------+-------+
| |inch.|Diam.|| D. | D. | D. | D. | D. |
|Small partement,| ½ | ⅔ || ⅓ | ⅙ | ⅔ | 1 | 1 |
|Partement, | ¾ |idem.|| idem.| idem. | idem. | idem.| 7/9 |
|Marquise, | 1 |idem.|| idem.| idem. | idem. | idem.| ⅔ |
|Double marquise | 1¼ |idem.|| idem.| idem. | idem. | idem.| ⅗ |
| of 3 doz. | | || | | | | |
|Ditto, 4 doz. | 1½ |idem.|| idem.| idem. | idem. | idem.| 5/9 |
|Rocket of | 2 |idem.|| idem.| idem. | idem. | idem.| ½ |
|Ditto, | 2½ |idem.|| idem.| idem. | idem. | idem.| idem. |
|Ditto, | 3 |idem.|| idem.| idem. | idem. | idem.| idem. |
|Ditto, | 4 |idem.|| idem.| idem. | idem. | idem.| 5/12 |
|Ditto, | 5 |idem.|| idem.| idem. | idem. | idem.| ⅖ |
+----------------+-----+-----++------+--------+---------+------+-------+
_Note._ The rockets of two inches, and those between that and three
inches, require to be beaten with four rammers, independently of that
which is solid; and also those above three inches, require five. The
rolling board should be sufficiently large for the cases we wish to
form; _viz._ one of twenty-eight inches in length, and six inches
in breadth for small rockets; one of thirty inches in length, and
ten inches in breadth for middlesized rockets; and one of thirty-six
inches by eighteen for the largest rockets.
_Sec. XXIX. Of the Succouring Rocket._
The succouring, or marine rocket, is a name given to a rocket, which
is sufficiently large to convey a small cord or rope to some distance
from a vessel, and by its means to save the lives of persons in
danger of shipwreck. Rockets for this purpose should be at least two
inches in interior diameter. The rod should be of the same length and
thickness as a rocket of half this caliber. To this rod is tied the
cord, which must be light, and yet strong, and when the rocket is
fired, the string should be arranged loose, so that no impediment is
experienced in the flight of the rocket.
The applications of the succouring rocket are two in particular:
_viz._ In case a seaman should fall overboard, and in case of
shipwreck; in the former, to throw a cord to some distance, and in
the latter, to convey a cord from the ship to the shore, should a
vessel be stranded on a beach. Several methods have been proposed for
the same purpose, namely, that of conveying a line or rope to shore,
when the surf is too high for a small boat to live in it.
The invention of lieut. Bell, described in the _Annales des Arts
et Manufactures_, and in the _Archives des Découvertes_, ii, 120,
is designed for a similar purpose as the succouring rocket. Mr.
Bell's invention consists simply in throwing a rope from a vessel
by means of a mortar, attaching it to a shell, in order to make
a communication from a vessel in danger to the shore. For this
contrivance, he received one hundred guineas.
Several experiments were made with it, which were satisfactory.
In the essays, published by Mr. Fulton, a contrivance of this kind
is suggested, using, however, an instrument similar to a harpoon, to
which a rope is attached. This harpoon is thrown by a long gun. It is
calculated, also, as the harpoon for this purpose is furnished with
several barbs, to pierce and secure an enemy's vessel.
_Sec. XXX. Of the Greek Fire._
It is not known precisely what the composition of the Greek fire
was. It was invented by Callinicus of Hellipolis, a town in Syria,
who used it with so much skill and effect during a naval engagement,
that he destroyed a whole fleet belonging to the enemy, in which
were embarked thirty thousand men. It is defined to be a sort of
artificial fire, which insinuates itself beyond the surface of the
sea, and which burns with increased violence, when it mixes with
water. Its directions are contrary to the course of natural fire; for
the flames, we are told, will spread themselves downwards, to the
right or left, agreeably to the moment that is given.
It was used in the year 1679, and was known and used in 1291. It was
certainly liquid, and employed in many different ways; but, chiefly,
on board ships, being thrown from large engines on the ships of the
enemy. This fire was sometimes kindled in particular vessels, which
might be called fire-ships, and which were introduced among a hostile
fleet. Sometimes it was put into jars and other vessels, which were
thrown at the enemy by means of projectile machines; and sometimes
it was squirted by soldiers from hand-engines, or, as it appears,
blown through pipes. This fire was discharged from the fore part of
ships, by a machine constructed of copper and iron, the extremity of
which resembled the open mouth and jaws of a lion or other animal.
They were painted, and even gilded, and, it appears, were capable of
projecting the fire to a great distance.
Professor Beckman, who examined all the ancient authors respecting
the Greek fire, expressly says, that the machines which the ancients
employed to throw this fire were _spouting engines_. He also observes
(_History of Invent._ iv, p. 85) that "John Cameniata, speaking of
his native city, Thessalonica, which was taken by the Saracens in the
year 901, says, that the enemy threw fire into the wooden works of
the besieged, which was blown into them by means of tubes, and thrown
from other vessels. This passage, which I do not find quoted in any
of the works that treat on the Greek fire, proves, that the Greeks,
in the beginning of the tenth century, were no longer the only
people acquainted with the art of preparing this fire, the precurser
of our gunpowder. The Emperor Leo, who about the same period wrote
his art of war, recommends such engines, with a metal covering, to
be constructed in the fore part of ships; and he twice afterwards
mentions engines for throwing out Greek fire. In the east, one may
easily have conceived the idea of loading some kind of pump with the
Greek fire; as the use of a forcing pump for extinguishing fires was
long known there before the invention of Callinicus."
Writers differ considerably as to the composition of Greek fire,
properly so called, as there were many preparations, some hundred
years after the discovery, which went under the name of Greek fire.
Certain it is, that the Greeks had a knowledge of a very highly
combustible preparation, which water would not extinguish, and which,
from its nature, must have had the property of decomposing water
itself, or possessed so much oxygen, as to support the combustion of
the inflammable substances, even in contact with water.
Mr. Parke, (_Chem. Catechism_, p. 465), speaking of some of the uses
of nitre or saltpetre, says, that "for the same purposes it was
used by the ancients in that destructive composition of antiquity,
the Greek fire. Sulphur, rosin, camphor, and other combustibles,
were melted with it, and in this melted mass, woollen cords were
dipped, which were afterwards rolled up for use. These balls being
set on fire were thrown into the tents, &c. of the enemy, and as
the combustibles were furnished with a constant supply of _oxygen_
from the nitre, nothing could extinguish them." He also observes:
"For many centuries, the method of making this dreadful article
of destruction was lost; but it has just been discovered by the
librarian of the elector of Bavaria, who has found a very old latin
manuscript, which contains directions for preparing it."
It appears, however, that it could only be extinguished by urine,
sand, &c. James (_Mil. Dic._ p. 329) says, "it is composed, or made
up of naphtha, sulphur, bitumen, gum, and pitch, and it can only be
extinguished by vinegar, mixed with urine and sand, or with undressed
leather and green hides."
The author of a French work, _Œuvres Militaires_, says, that a
powerful composition, which is not extinguishable with water, may
be made of the following substances: _viz._ pitch, rosin, tallow,
camphor, turpentine, saltpetre, liquid varnish, oil of sulphur,
linseed, rock oil, flax, and charcoal finely pulverized. The whole is
melted together and boiled, and before it grows cold, quicklime in
powder is added. It is said to be susceptible of the most subtile and
destructive fire.
Bertrandon de la Brocquiere, who was in Palestine in 1432, as
counsellor to the Duke of Burgundy, observes, that the Moors were
then in possession of the Greek fire. He was present at Barrat,
during one of the Moorish celebrations. "It began," says he, "in the
evening at sun set. Numerous companies, scattered here and there,
were singing and uttering loud cries. While this was passing, the
cannon of the castle were fired, and the people of the town launched
into the air, '_bien hault et bien loing, une maniére de feu plus
gros fallot que je veisse oncques allume_.' They told me, they made
use of such at sea, to set fire to the sails of an enemy's vessel. It
seems to me, that as it is a thing easy to be made, and at a little
expense, it may be equally well employed to burn a camp or a thatched
village, or in an engagement with cavalry, to frighten their horses.
"Curious to know its composition, I sent the servant of my host to
the person who made this fire, and requested him to teach me this
method. He returned for answer, that he dared not, for that he should
run great danger, were it known; but as there is nothing a Moor will
not do for money, I offered him a ducat, which quieted his fears, and
he taught me all he knew, and even gave me the moulds in wood, with
the other ingredients, which I have brought to France."
Although La Brocquiere may have brought the secret to Europe, yet it
does not appear to have been used.
We may justly conclude, that the present gunpowder possesses
superior advantages to the Greek fire, and some authors, as Ruggeri,
are of opinion, that the account we have of it, that of its fire
_descending_, and the like, are exaggerated.
Porta, (_Magie Naturelle_), in treating of this subject, observes,
that the Greek fire was composed of the charcoal of willow, salt,
burnt brandy, sulphur, pitch, frankincense, flax, and camphor, and
that camphor alone has the effect of burning in water. He remarks
also, that, when Constantinople was attacked, the emperor Leon burnt
the vessels, or boats, to the number of 1800, by means of the Greek
fire. The _Journal des Savants_, 1676, p. 148, speaks of the origin
and use of the same fire.
In 1249, at the siege of Damietta, the French experienced the fatal
effects of it. The _Journal des Savants_ for 1666, mentions a machine,
which, when applied against a vessel, communicates fire to it
immediately, without injuring the person who uses it. In the _French
papers_ for 1797, M. Chevalier announced, that he had invented an
inextinguishable incendiary fuse, which is thrown by fire arms,
and calculated to set fire to the rigging of ships. In 1759, Dr.
Dupré published in the _French Journals_, that he had invented a
composition, which had the same properties and effects as the ancient
Greek fire, and that he possessed the means of extinguishing it. An
experiment was made at Versailles to the satisfaction of all, and
the secret was purchased by Louis XV. The Rev. J. P. Coste, in 1794,
laid before the French national convention, a new invention, for the
purpose of war, consisting of a carcass composition, which nothing
could extinguish, and which resembled in that respect the Greek fire.
Thevenot (_Travels in the Levant_), says, that in the 52d year of the
Hegira, (Anno Domini 672), Constantinople was besieged in the reign
of Constantine Prognates, by Yesid, the son of Moavia, the first
caliph of the family of the Ammiades; when the _Greek_ emperor found
himself so pressed, that he was almost reduced to despair. But the
famous engineer, Callinicus, invented a kind of _wild fire_, which
would burn under water, and by this means destroyed the whole fleet.
Gibbon (_History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, vol.
vii, p. 282), speaks also of the Greek fire, and observes, that the
deliverance of Constantinople may be chiefly ascribed to it. It
appears, that Callinicus, the inventor, deserted from the service of
the Caliph to that of the Emperor; and Gibbon is of opinion, that
this discovery or improvement of the military art, was fortunately
reserved for the distressful period, when the degenerate Romans of
the east were incapable of contending with the warlike enthusiasm
and youthful vigour of the Saracens. He is of opinion, that little
or no credit can be given to the Byzantine accounts, as to the
composition of this fire; although, from their obscure and fallacious
hints, it should seem that the principal ingredient was naphtha,
a liquid bitumen which springs from the earth.[39] This was mixed
with sulphur, and with the pitch, extracted from the evergreen firs,
according to the testimony of Anna Commena, (_Alexid_, l. xiii, p.
383), and Leo, in the xixth chapter of his _Tactics_, speaks of the
new invention.
Gibbon describes its effects much as we have stated, viz. that the
fire was strong and obstinate, and was quickened by water; that
sand, urine, and vinegar were the only agents that could damp its
fury; that it was used for the annoyance of the enemy, both by sea
and land, in battles or in sieges, and was either poured from the
rampart in large boilers, or lanched into red-hot balls of stone and
iron, or darted in arrows and javelins, twisted round with flax and
tow, which had deeply imbibed the inflammable oil; that, at other
times, it was deposited in fire ships, or blown through long tubes of
copper, fixed on a prow of a galley; that its composition was kept
secret at Constantinople, pretending that the knowledge of it came
from an angel to the first and greatest of the Constantines, with a
sacred injunction not to divulge it under any pretext, &c. He also
observes, that, after it was kept secret above four hundred years,
and to the end of the 11th century, the method of preparing it was
stolen by the Mahometans, who employed it against the crusaders.
A knight, it appears, who despised the swords and lances of the
Saracens, relates, with heartfelt sincerity, his own fears, at the
sight and sound of the mischievous engine, that discharged a torrent
of the Greek fire, the _feu Gregeois_, as it is styled by the more
early of the French writers. "It came flying through the air," says
Gibbon, quoting Joinville, (_Histoire de St. Louis_) "like a winged
long tailed dragon, about the thickness of a hogshead, with a report
of thunder and the velocity of lightning; and the darkness of the
night was dispelled by this deadly illumination. The use of the
Greek, or as it might now be called, Saracen fire, was continued
to the middle of the 14th century, when the scientific or casual
compound of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, effected a new revolution
in the art of war, and the history of mankind."
Ramsay, our learned historian, (_Universal History_, vol. ii, p.
150), gives the same account of the Greek fire. Morse, in his
_Universal Geography_, page 588, observes, that naphtha forms springs
in Persia, and, when scattered on the sea, it burns, and the flame is
often wafted to a great distance.
For remarks respecting the naphtha of Persia, and the universal fire
of the followers of Zoroaster, see the article on _Naphtha_. In
naphtha districts, the quantity of inflammable air is so great, that
it is used for fuel.
Since writing the above, we have examined Ruggeri, (_Pyrotechnie
Militaire_, p. 289), and find nothing new. He states the composition
of Greek fire, on the authority of others, to consist of naphtha,
sulphur, bitumen, camphor, and petroleum; that it was invented by
Callinicus, and employed against the Saracens as an incendiary; that
Pliny, in his time, mentioned a combustible substance, which was
thrown upon armed men, and burnt and destroyed them in the midst of
the battle; that it was employed successfully by the successors of
Constantine, and its composition was kept a state secret; that the
Turks used it, or a composition of a similar nature, at the siege of
Damieta, in 1249, forty-five years after the death of Roger Bacon;
and, finally, that, when the composition and effects of gunpowder
became known, the Greek fire, although it laid the foundation of the
invention of gunpowder, was no longer in use, and the secret of the
original preparation became lost. See _Gunpowder_.
_Sec. XXXI. Of Mines and Mining._
A mine is a subterraneous passage, dug under the wall or rampart of
a fortification, for the purpose of blowing it up by gunpowder; and
mining is the art of accomplishing this effect.
The art of mining, having become one of the most essential parts
of the attack and defence of places, should be well understood;
and requires a perfect knowledge of heights, depths, breadths, and
thicknesses; to judge perfectly of slopes and perpendiculars, whether
they be such as are parallel to the horizon, or such as are visual;
together with the true levels of all kinds of earth. To this may
be added, a knowledge of rocks, clays, soil, &c. and the effect of
gunpowder.
Mines were made long before the invention of gunpowder. The ancients
made galleries, or underground passages, much in the same manner
as the moderns, from without, under the walls of places, which
they cut off from the foundation, and supported with strong props.
The intervals were filled with all manner of combustibles, which,
being set on fire, burnt their props, and the wall, being no longer
supported, fell, by which a breach was made.
The besieged also made underground passages, from the town, under the
besiegers' machines, by which they battered the walls, to destroy
them, proving that necessity has been the inventress of mines.
The first mines we read of, since the invention of gunpowder, were
made in 1487, by the Genoese, at the attack of Serezanella, a town in
Florence. These, however, failed, and they were neglected, till Peter
Navarro, being then engineer to the Genoese, and afterwards to the
Spaniards, in 1503, against the French, at the siege of the castle
del Ovo, at Naples, made a mine under the wall, and blew it up; in
consequence of which the castle was taken by storm. Valliers says,
that the engineer was Francis George, an Italian.
The place where the powder is lodged, is called the chamber of the
mine, or _fourneau_, and the passage leading to the powder, is called
the gallery. The line of the least resistance, is the line drawn
from the centre of the chamber, perpendicular to the surface of the
ground; and the excavation, called the crater, is the pit or hole,
made by springing the mine.
Counter-mines are those made by the besieged, whereas mines are
generally made by the besiegers. Both mines and counter-mines, are
made in the same manner, and for like purposes, viz. to blow up their
enemies and their works.
Galleries, made within the fortification, before the place is
attacked, and from which several branches are carried to different
places, are generally 4 and 4-1/2 feet wide, and 5 or 5-1/2 feet
high. The earth is supported from falling in, by arches and walls, as
they are to remain for a considerable time. But when mines are made
to be used in a short time, then the galleries are but 3 or 3-1/2
feet wide, and 5 feet high, and the earth is supported by wooden
frames, or props.
The gallery being carried on to the place, where the powder is to be
lodged, the miners make the chambers. This is generally of a cubical
form, large enough to hold the wooden box, which contains the powder
necessary for the charge. The box is lined with straw and sand bags,
to prevent the powder from contracting dampness.
The chamber is sunk rather lower than the gallery, if the soil
permits; but where water is to be apprehended, it must be made higher
than the gallery; otherwise the besieged will let in the water, and
spoil the mine.
The fire is communicated to the mine by a pipe, or hose, made
of coarse cloth, whose diameter is about 1-1/2 inches, called a
_saucisson_, (for the filling of which, near half a pound of powder
is allowed to every foot), extending from the chamber to the entrance
of the gallery, to the end of which is fixed a match, that the miner
who sets fire to it, may have time to retire before it reaches the
chamber.
To prevent the powder from contracting any dampness, the saucisson
is laid in a small trough, called an _auget_, made of boards 3-1/2
inches broad, joined together lengthwise, with straw in it, and round
the saucisson, with a wooden cover nailed upon it.
The quantity of powder, required to charge mines, depends upon the
nature of the soil. That which is more tenacious, will require the
greatest force to separate its parts. The density may be learned,
comparatively speaking, by determining the specific gravity of each
kind of soil. The requisites in mining may be ascertained by four
simple problems, which relate to the nature of the soil, the diameter
of the excavation, the line of least resistance, and the charge.
_Table of the quantity of Gunpowder, to raise a cubic fathom of
different kinds of Soil._
----------------------------------+---------------+---------------
| DENSITY. | TENACITY.
|---------------+---------------
NATURE OF THE SOIL. | | Quantity of
| Weight of 1 | powder to
| cubic foot. | raise 1 cubic
| | fathom.
----------------------------------+---------------+---------------
1. Loose earth or sand. | 95 lbs. | 8 lbs.
2. Common light soil. | 124 | 10
3. Loam or strong soil. | 127 | 12¼
4. Potters' clay, or stiff soil. | 135 | 13½
5. Clay, mixed with stones. | 160 | 16
6. Masonry. | 205 | 21½
----------------------------------+---------------+---------------
The gallery and chamber being ready to be loaded, a strong box of
wood is made of the size and figure of the chamber, being about
one-third or one-fourth larger than is required for containing the
necessary quantity of powder. Against the sides and bottom of the
box is put some straw, and this straw is covered over with empty
sand bags, to prevent the powder from contracting any dampness. A
hole is made in the side, next the gallery, near the bottom, for
the saucisson to pass through, which is fixed to the middle of the
bottom, by means of a wooden peg, to prevent its loosening from the
powder, or to hinder the enemy (if he should reach the entrance) from
being able to tear it out. This done, the powder is brought in sand
bags, and thrown loosely in the box, and covered also with straw and
sand bags. Upon this is put the cover of the box, pressed down very
tight with strong props; and, to render them more secure, planks are
also put above them, against the earth, and wedged in as fast as
possible.
This done, the vacant spaces between the props are filled up with
stones and dung, and rammed in the strongest manner. The least
neglect in this work will considerably alter the effect of the mine.
Then the auget, or small trough, is laid from the chamber to the
entrance of the gallery, with some straw at the bottom; and the
saucisson laid in it, with straw over it. Lastly, it must be shut
with a wooden cover, nailed upon it. Great care must be taken in
stopping up the gallery, not to press too hard upon the auget, for
fear of spoiling the saucisson, which may hinder the powder from
taking fire, and prevent the mine from springing. The gallery is
stopped up with stones, earth and dung, well rammed, six or seven
feet further from the chamber than the length of the line of the
least resistance.[40]
Before closing this article, short as it is, compared with a full
view of the subject, which belongs exclusively to engineering, we
shall notice, from Belidor, the _globe of compression_ in mines. If
we imagine a large globe of earth, homogeneous in all its parts, and
a certain quantity of powder lodged in its centre, so as to produce
a proper effect without bursting the globe; by setting fire to the
powder, it is evident that the explosion will act all round, to
overcome the obstacles which oppose its motion; and as the particles
of the earth are porous, they will compress each other in proportion
as the flame increases, and the capacity of the chamber increases
likewise: but the particles of the earth next to the chamber will
communicate a part of their motion to those next to them, and those
to their neighbours; and this communication will thus continue in a
decreasing proportion, till the whole force of explosion is entirely
spent; and the particles of earth beyond this term will remain
in the same state as they were at first. The particles of earth,
that have been acted upon by the force of explosion, will compose
a globe, which Mr. Belidor calls the globe of _compression_. He
observed, that, when a mine exploded, and threw up the ground over
it, its action was, at the same time, felt in a circular direction,
throughout the surrounding ground, to a distance at least equal to
the oblique line drawn from the centre of inflammation to the edge of
the funnel.
Mines and counter-mines are now called offensive and defensive mines.
The hole made by the explosion is called the _entonnoir_, crater, or
funnel.
In the system of counter-mines, we have the _magistral gallery_, or
gallery of the counterscarp, which is that extended below the covered
way, from which branches are pushed to overthrow the works and
batteries of the beseiger, that crown it; the _enveloping gallery_
that communicates with the other passages, called the _galleries of
communication_, and is nearly parallel with the first at the distance
of from forty to sixty yards. Other galleries are pushed forward,
leaving the enveloping gallery, projecting at least thirty yards, and
having spaces between them of about fifty yards in width; so that
the enemy's miner, whose work may be heard under ground about thirty
yards, may not pass between any two of them without being discovered.
These are called _listening galleries_. It may be observed, that,
from these galleries, branches are carried forward to establish
chambers under the works of the enemy. Those who wish to acquire
information on this, and other subjects, connected with attack and
defence, and on some branches of engineering, would do well to
consult the French work of _Bousmard_.
There are likewise small mines called _Fougasses_, used in the
defence of field works. They are seldom more than ten feet beneath
the surface, and are placed at the expected points of attack, usually
nine feet from the salient angles, and without the counterscarp. The
chest of powder and the saucisson are placed as usual. Barrels or
casks and even grenades are used.
_Sec. XXXII. Of the Means of Increasing the Strength of Gunpowder for
Mining._
We mentioned, in the article on gunpowder, that quicklime had the
effect of increasing its strength. It has been suggested, to employ
quicklime, for this purpose, when gunpowder is used in mining.
Bottée and Riffault (_Traité de l'art de Fabriquer la Poudre à canon,
p. 301_) have given the result of some experiments on this subject,
which we purpose to notice. These experiments, however, are not
satisfactory on this head.
Dr. Baine, a physician of Foxano, in Tuscany, was the first who
announced the fact, that quicklime would increase the explosive
effect of gunpowder. The increase he states to be one-third.
The proportions are, twenty-three grammes of quicklime, and one
_kilogramme_ of powder.[41] The quicklime is powdered, and mixed with
the gunpowder.
Various experiments were made, with the eprouvette of Regnier, which
did not establish the truth of Dr. Baine's assertion. The Tuscan
hunters use gunpowder mixed with lime.
The experiments were made by M. L. Maitre and colonel Charbonel. They
employed pure dry powder, dry powder mixed with quicklime, moist
powder pure, and moist powder mixed with lime. The object of these
experiments was to ascertain, if the presence of quicklime added to
the force of powder; either as a fourth component part and acting
chemically, or by absorbing the moisture which the powder contains.
The charge of each was three ounces.
The result of the experiments is thus given:
Powder, dry and pure, 738 feet 2 inches.
Powder, dry, and mixed with quicklime, 690 -- 1 --
---- ----
Difference in favor of dry powder, 48 1
Powder, moist and pure, 714 feet 1 inch.
Powder, moist, and mixed with quicklime, 642 -- 2 --
---- ----
Difference in favor of moist powder, 71 11
It has been asserted, that the force of gunpowder is increased by
water, alcohol, and ether, in consequence of the great expansibility
of these fluids; but, according to the experiments of Bottée and
Riffault, the range of the ball was much less when the three fluids
were used successively, than when the dry and pure gunpowder alone
was employed. We are informed by a gentleman, who saw the experiment
made, that when gunpowder is mixed with an equal weight of fine saw
dust, and fired, it will give the same range to a ball as the same
weight of unmixed powder.
We find that col. Gibbs, (_American Journal of Science_, i. 87), in a
letter to professor Silliman, mentions the use of lime in increasing
the strength of gunpowder. He gives a certificate of the person,
whom he employed in blowing rocks, in which he used quicklime along
with powder, in the proportion of one part of the former to two of
the latter. In the certificate, it is stated, that a charge of this
mixture was found to be equally powerful, or to "answer equally well
with a like quantity of gunpowder," having made upwards of fifty
blasts in this manner, and, as he states, several hundred in the
usual way. He remarks, however, that, when the powdered lime was
mixed with the gunpowder the day before, the effect was diminished.
The colonel attributes the effect to the desiccation of the powder
by the lime; and, as gunpowder absorbs more or less water, the
lime, in its caustic state, takes it from the powder. If the lime
should remain too long, he is of opinion that it would probably
attack the water of crystallization of the saltpetre, and, according
to count Rumford's idea, destroy a great part of the powder. "The
examination of this subject," says Gibbs, "led me to consider the
increase of the power of gunpowder in various situations, and of its
use in the field. It is well known, that, after a few discharges,
a cannon becomes heated, and the range is much greater, as well
as the recoil. The charge of powder is, therefore, reduced about
one-quarter, to produce the original effect. As I have not heard or
seen any explanation of this fact, I shall take this opportunity of
mentioning, that it appears to arise from the same cause as the first
explained, _viz_: the desiccation of the powder, &c."
M. Humboldt, (_Bulletin de la Société Philomatique_, floreal, an. 3)
it appears, suggested an improvement in mining, not by increasing
the force of gunpowder, but in the charging of it; to leave a space
occupied only by air, a fact well known to those who are accustomed
to this work, although not always adopted. He states the effect of
powder on a shell; that, if it be filled, it breaks only into two or
three pieces; but if only half filled, it is shattered into a great
number, which he attributes to the presence of air in the shell.
_Sec. XXXIII. Of Incendiary Bombs._
These are used in sieges, and on water. Ruggeri gives the preparation
of these bombs as follows, observing to melt the substances in the
order they are mentioned.
1. Three parts of sulphur;
2. One part of pitch;
3. Two parts of nitrate of potassa;
4. One part of mutton suet.
After melting these substances, and mixing them intimately, the
mixture is removed from the fire, and two pounds of gunpowder are
added, and thoroughly blended. It is again submitted to heat, and a
sufficient quantity of quick match, to cover a good sized marron,
is immersed. The marron is furnished with a fuse. The composition
hardens on the match. The match is employed as before described.
Water does not extinguish the fire, produced by the combustion of
this composition. See _Carcasses_ and _Fire-Balls_.
_Sec. XXXIV. Of Murdering Marrons._
Marrons, which take this name, are those, whose effect is different
from the incendiary bomb. The latter is calculated to set fire to
houses, &c. while the former is designed to destroy the lives of
persons.
To make a murdering marron, we prepare, in the usual manner, a
cylindrical case, and fill it with gunpowder, and then wrap round
it, a quantity of pack-thread. In winding on the thread, care must
be taken to cross it in the manner mentioned in a former article. It
is then finished by coating it with a mixture of glue and wax, or,
in preference, pitch. This prevents the thread from unwrapping, and
renders the case firm and less liable to break. A hole is then made
in its side to the powder, in which we insert a piece of quick-match,
to communicate fire to the contents of the case. A small fuse,
similar to that of a bomb fuse, but shorter, and made of pasteboard,
is also used; and, after it is fixed to the marron, musket balls,
previously pierced with holes, are nailed round the marron, the nails
passing through the balls into the case. After thus fixing as many
balls as the surface of the case will admit, we cover them with a
composition made of three parts of glue and one part of wax. When
this coating is dry, a hemispherical case is adapted. This case is a
small _sack_ of paper, made round, and filled with gunpowder. It is
placed at the bottom of the marron, and secured there with paper and
glue. The match is conveyed to the orifice of the fuse of the marron;
and, in short, a communication is so made from the one to the other,
that, at a given time, the fire passes by means of the fuse to the
marron, which then explodes, and throws the balls, with which it is
furnished, in every direction.
Shells, made by uniting two hemispheres, containing powder, and
furnished with balls and a fuse, are also a destructive weapon of the
same character.
_Sec. XXXV. Of Incendiary Rope._
We have mentioned, under the head of _Tourteaux_, or tarred links and
fascines, the compositions made use of for these preparations. The
composition for incendiary rope is as follows:
Sulphur 12 parts
Saltpetre 6 ----
Rosin 2 ----
Camphor 2 ----
Meal-powder 4 ----
Grained powder 2 ----
The rosin, sulphur, camphor, and saltpetre are melted, and mixed
thoroughly together, and the kettle, which contains them, is removed
from the fire; the gunpowder is then added, and intimately blended.
The mixture is again heated, and the rope is then immersed in it,
and suffered to remain until it has imbibed sufficiently. It is then
taken out, and allowed to cool.
After this operation, we melt, in a separate kettle, the following
substances:
Rosin 4 parts.
Pitch (or tar) 4 ----
Mutton suet 2 ----
When they are melted, and mixed, the rope previously prepared as
above, is thrown into the mixture, and then removed and hung up.
After this second process, we make, in an earthen vessel, a priming
mixture, in which the rope is sometimes immersed, or such parts of
it, as are to take fire promptly. This priming paste is composed of,
Meal-powder 4 parts.
Saltpetre 4 ----
Sulphur 2 ----
Spirit of wine, (or brandy), a sufficient quantity.
Gum arabic ½ ----
Incendiary rope is used more generally in the form of a ball, which
is enclosed in a sack, and fired out of a common mortar. It was
invented by an officer at Toulon. See _Carcasses_.
_Sec. XXXVI. Of Balloons of Grenades, of Bombs, and of Flints or
Stone._
Balloons of this kind are cases, or sacks, made sufficiently large,
containing powder, and enclosing grenades, shells, and stones.
The balloon of grenades holds twelve charged grenades, containing
different quantities of powder. They are finished like powder sacks,
and _corded_ with small cord, twine, or thread. The balloon of
flints, river stones, or small pebbles, is made by enclosing these
substances along with powder in a sack, as before stated. These
balloons are employed for the defence of works, &c. See _Powder
Sacks_.
The _Ballon à Bombes_, of the French, is the same. It is a bag,
in which are placed _beds_ of smaller bombs, that are charged and
interlaid with gunpowder. The bag is put into another covering, that
is pitched, with the neck closely tied up with pack thread, in which
a fuse is fixed, as in ordinary bombs. The English say, that Colonel
Shrapnel's invention of the spherical case shot, is of a superior
kind. We purpose, therefore, to notice them in the following section.
_Sec. XXXVII. Of Spherical Case-Shot._
Ordinary case shot is a tin case or cannister, filled with iron
balls, so as to make up the weight of the shot. The balls are seldom
less than 1-1/4 oz, in weight. Little effect is to be expected from
firing case shot beyond 300 yards, from the very great divergency
of the balls. The following summary of the effects and advantages
of this species of shot, which, as invented by Col. Shrapnel, is
called the Shrapnel shell, will be sufficient for our purpose. It is
extracted from a book lately published.
1st. The whole charge takes effect on the enemy at any distance. By
the present mode of firing, the greatest part of the charge disperses
as soon as it leaves the muzzle of the gun, and cannot be directed.
2nd. Grape, or case shot, may be fired with effect equally close
and collected, to any distance within the range of the piece; and
the artillery need not advance within musket shot of the enemy, to
make use of this kind of fire with its full effect, and are not so
subject to have their guns charged either by cavalry or infantry.
3d. It requires less precision and exactness, to point a piece of
ordnance charged with spherical case shot than with round shot;
because case shot is a wide and dispersed fire, and the difficulty in
elevation consequently less.
4th. Its comparative destruction with that of round shot will be,
generally, as the number of the shot within the shells to one; that
is to say, a three pounder, twenty-two to one in its favour; a six
pounder, fifty to one, &c.; in which calculation is not enumerated
any effect from the splinters of the shell.
5th. Small balls cannot be projected to very considerable distances,
unless enclosed in heavy spherical cases, which, from their form and
weight, are not much influenced by the resistance of the air, or
diverted from their direction.
6th. The explosion of the shell makes no change in the direction of
the shot within; they consequently complete the shell's track, or
curve, which has sometimes been observed to be 400 yards.
7th. From the unevenness of the ground, such as hillocks, banks,
fallow fields, &c. all shot which graze, most commonly lodge:
whereas, by using this shell, the whole charge will be carried over
these irregularities, and reach the object with its full contents of
balls.
_Sec. XXXVIII. Of the Fire-Rain, according to Casimir Siemienowicz._
The composition, which produces fire-rain, which we purpose to
notice in this place, is taken from the "_Artis Magnæ Artilleriæ_"
of Casimir Siemienowicz. He seems, however, to have taken it from a
German author.
The fire rain is an incendiary fire-work, and calculated, like other
incendiaries, for firing the houses of a besieged place or city,
which are covered with shingles, laths, stubble, or reeds. Besides
several other compositions, designated by artificers, that of
fire-rain was so called from its supposed resemblance to a shower of
rain.
To prepare this composition, the following method is used: We take
24 parts of sulphur, and melt in a copper, or iron pot, over live
coals without flame, and then throw in 16 parts of saltpetre, and
mix it with an iron spatula, to incorporate the whole. The pot is
now removed from the fire, and when the composition is become rather
cold, stir into it 8 parts of grained powder. The composition is
then poured on a marble slab, or metallic plate, where it is allowed
to cool. It is then broken into pieces of the size of a walnut,
which, when used, is interspersed with quick match, covered with
gunpowder, and put into shells or bombs.
These bombs are made in the same manner, as those, which are formed
in fire-works for exhibition.
Wood, covered with this composition, will burn in the same manner
as the shells. The globe of fire is also similar to those for
exhibition. The mortar is elevated at an angle of 45°, in order that
the globe may go to the greatest height, and the greatest range; for
the fall of the inflamed matter, which is dispersed in all directions
by the powder, is more or less vertical, and, in that state, lights
upon houses, &c. This effect, that of setting fire to one or more
houses, depends greatly on the accuracy of their discharge from the
mortar.
The following compositions are also used for the same purpose,
observing to follow the same manner of mixing the ingredients:
1. Sulphur 3 parts.
Saltpetre 1 ----
Meal-powder 1 ----
Iron filings ½ ----
Green Vitriol ½ ----
2. Sulphur 1 part.
Saltpetre 1 ----
Grained powder 1 ----
3. Sulphur 1 part.
Galbanum 4 ----
Saltpetre 4 ----
Grained powder 1 ----
4. Sulphur 5 parts.
Saltpetre 2 ----
Rosin 1 ----
Meal-powder 1 ----
These compositions may be used in the manner already described. Two
wooden hemispheres, filled with the preparation and joined together,
is the usual mode of forming a fire bomb. The bomb or globe is then
covered with strong canvass, and finished by dipping it, or smearing
it with melted pitch. Over this, two or three covers of canvass are
sometimes sewed. When the bomb is dry, we put it in a case, in the
same manner as directed for the murdering, and incendiary bombs. The
case is charged with fine meal-powder, &c.
The modern improvements, which are many, supersede the rain-fire.
Fire stone, for instance, is a more powerful preparation. The
incendiaries made with this composition, and the ordinary carcass,
are more effectual for this purpose. That the Greek fire was an
active composition, and produced very destructive effects on towns
and shipping, there can be no doubt; notwithstanding the invention of
gunpowder has completely changed the art of war, and superseded, as
we have shown in our articles on _gunpowder_ and _Greek fire_, the
use of the incendiary composition of the Greeks.
_Sec. XXXIX. Of the Effect of Mirrors in inflaming Bodies at a
Distance._
As this subject may be of some interest to the reader, at least in
relation to an important fact, that of the _concentration_ of the
calorific rays of the sun, which has had the effect of burning bodies
at some distance, we deem the following facts not irrelevant.
The effects of burning glasses, both by refraction and reflection,
are noticed by Empedocles and Euclid, who composed a treatise on
the ancient optics and catoptrics. It has been thought, that the
Romans had a method of lighting their sacred fire by some such means.
Aristophanes, in one of his comedies, introduces a person as making
use of a globe, filled with water, to cancel a bond that was against
him, by thus melting the wax of the seal. Plutarch, in his life of
Numa, says, that the instruments used to kindle fires, were metallic
dishes, which were placed opposite to the sun, and the combustible
matter in the centre, by which, it is probable, he meant the focus,
conceiving that to be at the centre of the mirror's concavity.